Transcriber's Note The punctuation and spelling from the original text have been faithfullypreserved. Only obvious typographical errors have been corrected. _All About Coffee_ [Illustration] ALL ABOUT COFFEE [Illustration: COFFEE BRANCHES, FLOWERS, AND FRUIT SHOWING THE BERRY IN ITS VARIOUS RIPENING STAGES FROM FLOWER TO CHERRY (Inset: 1, green bean; 2, silver skin; 3, parchment; 4, fruit pulp. ) Painted from life by Blendon Campbell] _ALL ABOUTCOFFEE_ _By_ _WILLIAM H. UKERS, M. A. _ _Editor_ THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL [Illustration] NEW YORK THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL COMPANY 1922 COPYRIGHT 1922 BY THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL COMPANY NEW YORK _International Copyright Secured_ _All Rights Reserved in U. S. A. AndForeign Countries_ PRINTED IN U. S. A. _To My Wife_ _HELEN DE GRAFF UKERS_ PREFACE Seventeen years ago the author of this work made his first trip abroadto gather material for a book on coffee. Subsequently he spent a year intravel among the coffee-producing countries. After the initial surveys, correspondents were appointed to make researches in the principalEuropean libraries and museums; and this phase of the work continueduntil April, 1922. Simultaneous researches were conducted in Americanlibraries and historical museums up to the time of the return of thefinal proofs to the printer in June, 1922. Ten years ago the sorting and classification of the material was begun. The actual writing of the manuscript has extended over four years. Among the unique features of the book are the Coffee Thesaurus; theCoffee Chronology, containing 492 dates of historical importance; theComplete Reference Table of the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in theWorld; and the Coffee Bibliography, containing 1, 380 references. The most authoritative works on this subject have been Robinson's _TheEarly History of Coffee Houses in England_, published in London in 1893;and Jardin's _Le Café_, published in Paris in 1895. The author wishes toacknowledge his indebtedness to both for inspiration and guidance. Otherworks, Arabian, French, English, German, and Italian, dealing withparticular phases of the subject, have been laid under contribution; andwhere this has been done, credit is given by footnote reference. In allcases where it has been possible to do so, however, statements ofhistorical facts have been verified by independent research. Not a fewitems have required months of tracing to confirm or to disprove. There has been no serious American work on coffee since Hewitt's_Coffee: Its History, Cultivation and Uses_, published in 1872; andThurber's _Coffee from Plantation to Cup_, published in 1881. Both ofthese are now out of print, as is also Walsh's _Coffee: Its History, Classification and Description_, published in 1893. The chapters on The Chemistry of Coffee and The Pharmacology of Coffeehave been prepared under the author's direction by Charles W. Trigg, industrial fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research. The author wishes to acknowledge, with thanks, valuable assistance andnumerous courtesies by the officials of the following institutions: British Museum, and Guildhall Museum, London; Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris; Congressional Library, Washington; New York Public Library, Metropolitan Museum of Art, and New York Historical Society, New York;Boston Public Library, and Boston Museum of Fine Arts; SmithsonianInstitution, Washington; State Historical Museum, Madison, Wis. ; MaineHistorical Society, Portland; Chicago Historical Society; New JerseyHistorical Society, Newark; Harvard University Library; Essex Institute, Salem, Mass. ; Peabody Institute, Baltimore. Thanks and appreciation are due also to: Charles James Jackson, London, for permission to quote from his_Illustrated History of English Plate_; Francis Hill Bigelow, author; and The Macmillan Company, publishers, forpermission to reproduce illustrations from _Historic Silver of theColonies_; H. G. Dwight, author; and Charles Scribner's Sons, publishers, forpermission to quote from _Constantinople, Old and New_, and from thearticle on "Turkish Coffee Houses" in _Scribner's Magazine_; Walter G. Peter, Washington, D. C. , for permission to photograph andreproduce pictures of articles in the Peter collection at the UnitedStates National Museum; Mary P. Hamlin and George Arliss, authors, and George C. Tyler, producer, for permission to reproduce the Exchange coffee-house settingof the first act of _Hamilton_; Judge A. T. Clearwater, Kingston N. Y. ; R. T. Haines Halsey, and Francis P. Garvan, New York, for permission to publish pictures of historic silvercoffee pots in their several collections; The secretaries of the American Chambers of Commerce in London, Paris, and Berlin; Charles Cooper, London, for his splendid co-operation and for hisspecial contribution to chapter XXXV; Alonzo H. De Graff, London, for his invaluable aid and unflagging zealin directing the London researches; To the Coffee Trade Association, London, for assistance rendered; To G. J. Lethem, London, for his translations from the Arabic; Geoffrey Sephton, Vienna, for his nice co-operation; L. P. De Bussy of the Koloniaal Institute, Amsterdam, Holland, forassistance rendered; Burton Holmes and Blendon R. Campbell, New York, for courtesies; John Cotton Dana, Newark, N. J. , for assistance rendered; Charles H. Barnes, Medford, Mass. , for permission to publish thephotograph of Peregrine White's Mayflower mortar and pestle; Andrew L. Winton, Ph. D. , Wilton, Conn. , for permission to quote from his_The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods_ in the chapter on The Microscopy ofCoffee and to reprint Prof. J. Moeller's and Tschirch and Oesterle'sdrawings; F. Hulton Frankel, Ph. D. , Edward M. Frankel, Ph. D. , and Arno Viehoever, for their assistance in preparing the chapters on The Botany of Coffeeand The Microscopy of Coffee; A. L. Burns, New York, for his assistance in the correction and revisionof chapters XXV, XXVI, XXVII, and XXXIV, and for much historicalinformation supplied in connection with chapters XXX and XXXI; Edward Aborn, New York, for his help in the revision of chapter XXXVI; George W. Lawrence, former president, and T. S. B. Nielsen, president, ofthe New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, for their assistance in therevision of chapter XXXI; Helio Lobo, Brazilian consul general, New York; Sebastião Sampaio, commercial attaché of the Brazilian Embassy, Washington; and Th. Langgaard de Menezes, American representative of the Sociedade Promotorada Defeza do Café; Felix Coste, secretary and manager, the National Coffee RoastersAssociation; and C. B. Stroud, superintendent, the New York Coffee andSugar Exchange, for information supplied and assistance rendered in therevision of several chapters; F. T. Holmes, New York, for his help in the compilation of chronologicaland descriptive data on coffee-roasting machinery; Walter Chester, New York, for critical comments on chapter XXVIII. The author is especially indebted to the following, who in many wayshave contributed to the successful compilation of the Complete ReferenceTable in chapter XXIV, and of those chapters having to do with the earlyhistory and development of the green coffee and the wholesalecoffee-roasting trades in the United States: George S. Wright, Boston; A. E. Forbes, William Fisher, Gwynne Evans, Jerome J. Schotten, and the late Julius J. Schotten, St. Louis; James H. Taylor, William Bayne, Jr. , A. J. Dannemiller, B. A. Livierato, S. A. Schonbrunn, Herbert Wilde, A. C. Fitzpatrick, Charles Meehan, ClarenceCreighton, Abram Wakeman, A. H. Davies, Joshua Walker, Fred P. Gordon, Alex. H. Purcell, George W. Vanderhoef, Col. William P. Roome, W. LeeSimmonds, Herman Simmonds, W. H. Aborn, B. Lahey, John C. Loudon, J. R. Westfal, Abraham Reamer, R. C. Wilhelm, C. H. Stewart, and the late AugustHaeussler, New York; John D. Warfield, Ezra J. Warner, S. O. Blair, andGeorge D. McLaughlin, Chicago; W. H. Harrison, James Heekin, and CharlesLewis, Cincinnati; Albro Blodgett and A. M. Woolson, Toledo; R. V. Engelhard and Lee G. Zinsmeister, Louisville; E. A. Kahl, San Francisco;S. Jackson, New Orleans; Lewis Sherman, Milwaukee; Howard F. Boardman, Hartford; A. H. Devers, Portland, Ore. ; W. James Mahood, Pittsburgh;William B. Harris, East Orange, N. J. New York, June 17, 1922. [Illustration] FOREWORD _Some introductory remarks on the lure of coffee, its place in a rational dietary, its universal psychological appeal, its use and abuse_ Civilization in its onward march has produced only three importantnon-alcoholic beverages--the extract of the tea plant, the extract ofthe cocoa bean, and the extract of the coffee bean. Leaves and beans--these are the vegetable sources of the world'sfavorite non-alcoholic table-beverages. Of the two, the tea leaves leadin total amount consumed; the coffee beans are second; and the cocoabeans are a distant third, although advancing steadily. But ininternational commerce the coffee beans occupy a far more importantposition than either of the others, being imported into non-producingcountries to twice the extent of the tea leaves. All three enjoy aworld-wide consumption, although not to the same extent in every nation;but where either the coffee bean or the tea leaf has established itselfin a given country, the other gets comparatively little attention, andusually has great difficulty in making any advance. The cocoa bean, onthe other hand, has not risen to the position of popular favorite in anyimportant consuming country, and so has not aroused the seriousopposition of its two rivals. Coffee is universal in its appeal. All nations do it homage. It hasbecome recognized as a human necessity. It is no longer a luxury or anindulgence; it is a corollary of human energy and human efficiency. People love coffee because of its two-fold effect--the pleasurablesensation and the increased efficiency it produces. Coffee has an important place in the rational dietary of all thecivilized peoples of earth. It is a democratic beverage. Not only is itthe drink of fashionable society, but it is also a favorite beverage ofthe men and women who do the world's work, whether they toil with brainor brawn. It has been acclaimed "the most grateful lubricant known tothe human machine, " and "the most delightful taste in all nature. " No "food drink" has ever encountered so much opposition as coffee. Givento the world by the church and dignified by the medical profession, nevertheless it has had to suffer from religious superstition andmedical prejudice. During the thousand years of its development it hasexperienced fierce political opposition, stupid fiscal restrictions, unjust taxes, irksome duties; but, surviving all of these, it hastriumphantly moved on to a foremost place in the catalog of popularbeverages. But coffee is something more than a beverage. It is one of the world'sgreatest adjuvant foods. There are other auxiliary foods, but none thatexcels it for palatability and comforting effects, the psychology ofwhich is to be found in its unique flavor and aroma. Men and women drink coffee because it adds to their sense of well-being. It not only smells good and tastes good to all mankind, heathen orcivilized, but all respond to its wonderful stimulating properties. Thechief factors in coffee goodness are the caffein content and thecaffeol. Caffein supplies the principal stimulant. It increases thecapacity for muscular and mental work without harmful reaction. Thecaffeol supplies the flavor and the aroma--that indescribable Orientalfragrance that wooes us through the nostrils, forming one of theprincipal elements that make up the lure of coffee. There are severalother constituents, including certain innocuous so-called caffetannicacids, that, in combination with the caffeol, give the beverage its raregustatory appeal. The year 1919 awarded coffee one of its brightest honors. An Americangeneral said that coffee shared with bread and bacon the distinction ofbeing one of the three nutritive essentials that helped win the WorldWar for the Allies. So this symbol of human brotherhood has played a notinconspicuous part in "making the world safe for democracy. " The newage, ushered in by the Peace of Versailles and the WashingtonConference, has for its hand-maidens temperance and self-control. It isto be a world democracy of right-living and clear thinking; and amongits most precious adjuncts are coffee, tea, and cocoa--because thesebeverages must always be associated with rational living, with greatercomfort, and with better cheer. Like all good things in life, the drinking of coffee may be abused. Indeed, those having an idiosyncratic susceptibility to alkaloids shouldbe temperate in the use of tea, coffee, or cocoa. In everyhigh-tensioned country there is likely to be a small number of peoplewho, because of certain individual characteristics, can not drink coffeeat all. These belong to the abnormal minority of the human family. Somepeople can not eat strawberries; but that would not be a valid reasonfor a general condemnation of strawberries. One may be poisoned, saysThomas A. Edison, from too much food. Horace Fletcher was certain thatover-feeding causes all our ills. Over-indulgence in meat is likely tospell trouble for the strongest of us. Coffee is, perhaps, less oftenabused than wrongly accused. It all depends. A little more tolerance! Trading upon the credulity of the hypochondriac and thecaffein-sensitive, in recent years there has appeared in America andabroad a curious collection of so-called coffee substitutes. They are"neither fish nor flesh, nor good red herring. " Most of them have beenshown by official government analyses to be sadly deficient in foodvalue--their only alleged virtue. One of our contemporary attackers ofthe national beverage bewails the fact that no palatable hot drink hasbeen found to take the place of coffee. The reason is not hard to find. There can be no substitute for coffee. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley has ablysummed up the matter by saying, "A substitute should be able to performthe functions of its principal. A substitute to a war must be able tofight. A bounty-jumper is not a substitute. " It has been the aim of the author to tell the whole coffee story for thegeneral reader, yet with the technical accuracy that will make itvaluable to the trade. The book is designed to be a work of usefulreference covering all the salient points of coffee's origin, cultivation, preparation, and development, its place in the world'scommerce and in a rational dietary. Good coffee, carefully roasted and properly brewed, produces a naturalbeverage that, for tonic effect, can not be surpassed, even by itsrivals, tea and cocoa. Here is a drink that ninety-seven percent ofindividuals find harmless and wholesome, and without which life would bedrab indeed--a pure, safe, and helpful stimulant compounded in nature'sown laboratory, and one of the chief joys of life! CONTENTS A COFFEE THESAURUS Encomiums and descriptive phrases applied to the plant, the berry, and thebeverage Page XXVII THE EVOLUTION OF A CUP OF COFFEE Showing the various steps through which the bean passes from plantation tocup Page XXIX CHAPTER I DEALLING WITH THE ETYMOLOGY OF COFFEE Origin and translation of the word from the Arabian into variouslanguages--Views of many writers Page 1 CHAPTER II HISTORY OF COFFEE PROPAGATION A brief account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in the Old World, and of its introduction into the New--A romantic coffee adventure Page 5 CHAPTER III EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE DRINKING Coffee in the Near East in the early centuries--Stories of itsorigin--Discovery by physicians and adoption by the Church--Its spreadthrough Arabia, Persia, and Turkey--Persecutions andIntolerances--Early coffee manners and customs Page 11 CHAPTER IV INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO WESTERN EUROPE When the three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, cameto Europe--Coffee first mentioned by Rauwolf in 1582--Early days ofcoffee in Italy--How Pope Clement VIII baptized it and made it a trulyChristian beverage--The first European coffee house, in Venice, 1645--The famous Caffè Florian--Other celebrated Venetian coffee housesof the eighteenth century--The romantic story of Pedrocchi, the poorlemonade-vender, who built the most beautiful coffee house in the world Page 25 CHAPTER V THE BEGINNINGS OF COFFEE IN FRANCE What French travelers did for coffee--the introduction of coffee by P. De la Roque into Marseilles in 1644--The first commercial importation ofcoffee from Egypt--The first French coffee house--Failure of the attemptby physicians of Marseilles to discredit coffee--Soliman Aga introducescoffee into Paris--Cabarets à caffè--Celebrated works on coffee byFrench writers Page 31 CHAPTER VI THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO ENGLAND The first printed reference to coffee in English--Early mention ofcoffee by noted English travelers and writers--The Lacedæmonian "blackbroth" controversy--How Conopios introduced coffee drinking atOxford--The first English coffee house in Oxford--Two English botanistson coffee Page 35 CHAPTER VII THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO HOLLAND How the enterprising Dutch traders captured the first world's market forcoffee--Activities of the Netherlands East India Company--The firstcoffee house at the Hague--The first public auction at Amsterdam in1711, when Java coffee brought forty-seven cents a pound, green Page 43 CHAPTER VIII THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO GERMANY The contributions made by German travelers and writers to the literatureof the early history of coffee--The first coffee house in Hamburg openedby an English merchant--Famous coffee houses of old Berlin--The firstcoffee periodical and the first kaffee-klatsch--Frederick the Great'scoffee roasting monopoly--Coffee persecutions--"Coffee-smellers"--Thefirst coffee king Page 45 CHAPTER IX TELLING HOW COFFEE CAME TO VIENNA The romantic adventure of Franz George Kolschitzky, who carried "amessage to Garcia" through the enemy's lines and won for himself thehonor of being the first to teach the Viennese the art of making coffee, to say nothing of falling heir to the supplies of the green beans leftbehind by the Turks; also the gift of a house from a gratefulmunicipality, and a statue after death--Affectionate regard in which"Brother-heart" Kolschitzky is held as the patron saint of the Vienna_Kaffee-sieder_--Life in the early Vienna café's Page 49 CHAPTER X THE COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON One of the most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee--The firstcoffee house in London--The first coffee handbill, and the firstnewspaper advertisement for coffee--Strange coffee mixtures--Fantasticcoffee claims--Coffee prices and coffee licenses--Coffee club of theRota--Early coffee-house manners and customs--Coffee-house keepers'tokens--Opposition to the coffee house--"Penny universities"--Weirdcoffee substitutes--The proposed coffee-house newspapermonopoly--Evolution of the club--Decline and fall of the coffeehouse--Pen pictures of coffee-house life--Famous coffee houses of theseventeenth and eighteenth centuries--Some Old World pleasuregardens--Locating the notable coffee houses Page 53 CHAPTER XI HISTORY OF THE EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES The introduction of coffee into Paris by Thévenot in 1657--How SolimanAga established the custom of coffee drinking at the court of LouisXIV--Opening of the first coffee houses--How the French adaptation ofthe Oriental coffee house first appeared in the real French café ofFrançois Procope--Important part played by the coffee houses in thedevelopment of French literature and the stage--Their association withthe Revolution and the founding of the Republic--Quaint customs andpatrons--Historic Parisian café's Page 91 CHAPTER XII INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO NORTH AMERICA Captain John Smith, founder of the Colony of Virginia, is the first tobring to North America a knowledge of coffee in 1607--The coffee grinderon the Mayflower--Coffee drinking in 1668--William Penn's coffeepurchase in 1683--Coffee in colonial New England--The psychology of theBoston "tea party, " and why the United States became a nation of coffeedrinkers instead of tea drinkers, like England--The first coffee licenseto Dorothy Jones in 1670--The first coffee house in New England--Notablecoffee houses of old Boston--A skyscraper coffee-house Page 105 CHAPTER XIII HISTORY OF COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK The burghers of New Amsterdam begin to substitute coffee for "must, " orbeer, for breakfast in 1668--William Penn makes his first purchase ofcoffee in the green bean from New York merchants in 1683--The King'sArms, the first coffee house--The historic Merchants, sometimes calledthe "Birthplace of our Union"--The coffee house as a civic forum--TheExchange, Whitehall, Burns, Tontine, and other celebrated coffeehouses--The Vauxhall and Ranelagh pleasure gardens Page 115 CHAPTER XIV COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD PHILADELPHIA Ye Coffee House, Philadelphia's first coffee house, opened about1700--The two London coffee houses--The City tavern, or Merchants coffeehouse--How these, and other celebrated resorts, dominated the social, political, and business life of the Quaker City in the eighteenthcentury Page 125 CHAPTER XV THE BOTANY OF THE COFFEE PLANT Its complete classification by class, sub-class, order, family, genus, and species--How the Coffea arabica grows, flowers, and bears--Otherspecies and hybrids described--Natural caffein-free coffee--Fungoiddiseases of coffee Page 131 CHAPTER XVI THE MICROSCOPY OF THE COFFEE FRUIT How the beans may be examined under the microscope, and what isrevealed--Structure of the berry, the green, and the roasted beans--Thecoffee-leaf disease under the microscope--Value of microscopic analysisin detecting adulteration Page 149 CHAPTER XVII THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COFFEE BEAN _By Charles W. Trigg. _ Chemistry of the preparation and treatment of the green bean--Artificialaging--Renovating damaged coffees--Extracts--"Caffetannicacid"--Caffein, caffein-free coffee--Caffeol--Fats andoils--Carbohydrates--Roasting--Scientific aspects of grinding andpackaging--The coffee brew--Soluble coffee--Adulterants andsubstitutes--Official methods of analysis Page 155 CHAPTER XVIII PHARMACOLOGY OF THE COFFEE DRINK _By Charles W. Trigg_ General physiological action--Effect on children--Effect onlongevity--Behavior in the alimentary régime--Place in dietary--Actionon bacteria--Use in medicine--Physiological action of "caffetannicacid"--Of caffeol--Of caffein--Effect of caffein on mental and motorefficiency--Conclusions Page 174 CHAPTER XIX THE COMMERCIAL COFFEES OF THE WORLD The geographical distribution of the coffees grown in North America, Central America, South America, the West India Islands, Asia, Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the East Indies--A statistical study of thedistribution of the principal kinds--A commercial coffee chart of theworld's leading growths, with market names and general tradecharacteristics Page 189 CHAPTER XX CULTIVATION OF THE COFFEE PLANT The early days of coffee culture in Abyssinia and Arabia--Coffeecultivation in general--Soil, climate, rainfall, altitude, propagation, preparing the plantation, shade, wind breaks, fertilizing, pruning, catch crops, pests, and diseases--How coffee is grown around theworld--Cultivation in all the principal producing countries Page 197 CHAPTER XXI PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET Early Arabian methods of preparation--How primitive devices werereplaced by modern methods--A chronological story of the development ofscientific plantation machinery, and the part played by English andAmerican inventors--The marvelous coffee package, one of the mostingenious in all nature--How coffee is harvested--Picking--Preparationby the dry and the wet methods--Pulping--Fermentation andwashing--Drying--Hulling, or peeling, and polishing--Sizing, orgrading--Preparation methods of different countries Page 245 CHAPTER XXII THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE A statistical study of world production of coffee by countries--Percapita figures of the leading consuming countries--Coffee-consumptionfigures compared with tea-consumption figures in the United States andthe United Kingdom--Three centuries of coffee trading--Coffee drinkingin the United States, past and present--Reviewing the 1921 trade in theUnited States Page 273 CHAPTER XXIII HOW GREEN COFFEES ARE BOUGHT AND SOLD Buying coffee in the producing countries--Transporting coffee to theconsuming markets--Some record coffee cargoes shipped to the UnitedStates--Transport over seas--Java coffee "ex-sailing vessels"--Handlingcoffee at New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco--The coffee exchangesof Europe and the United States--Commission men and brokers--Trade andexchange contracts for delivery--Important rulings affecting coffeetrading--Some well-known green coffee marks Page 303 CHAPTER XXIV GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS The trade values, bean characteristics, and cup merits of the leadingcoffees of commerce, with a "Complete Reference Table of the PrincipalKinds of Coffee Grown in the World"--Appearance, aroma, and flavor incup-testing--How experts test coffee--A typical sample-roasting andcup-testing outfit Page 341 CHAPTER XXV FACTORY PREPARATION OF ROASTED COFFEE Coffee roasting as a business--Wholesale coffee-roastingmachinery--Separating, milling, and mixing or blending green coffee, androasting by coal, coke, gas, and electricity--Facts about coffeeroasting--Cost of roasting--Green-coffee shrinkage table--"Dry" and"wet" roasts--On roasting coffee efficiently--A typical coalroaster--Cooling and stoning--Finishing or glazing--Blending roastedcoffees--Blends for restaurants--Grinding and packaging--Coffeeadditions and fillers--Treated coffees, and dry extracts Page 379 CHAPTER XXVI WHOLESALE MERCHANDISING OF COFFEE How coffees are sold at wholesale--The wholesale salesman's place inmerchandising--Some coffee costs analyzed--Handy coffee-sellingchart--Terms and credits--About package coffees--Various types of coffeecontainers--Coffee package labels--Coffee package economies--Practicalgrocer helps--Coffee sampling--Premium method of sales promotion Page 407 CHAPTER XXVII RETAIL MERCHANDISING OF ROASTED COFFEE How coffees are sold at retail--The place of the grocer, the tea andcoffee dealer, the chain store, and the wagon-route distributer in thescheme of distribution--Starting in the retail coffee business--Smallroasters for retail dealers--Model coffee departments--Creating a coffeetrade--Meeting competition--Splitting nickels--Figuring costs andprofits--A credit policy for retailers--Premiums Page 415 CHAPTER XXVIII A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE ADVERTISING Early coffee advertising--The first coffee advertisement in 1587 wasfrank propaganda for the legitimate use of coffee--The first printedadvertisement in English--The first newspaper advertisement--Earlyadvertisements in colonial America--Evolution of advertising--Packagecoffee advertising--Advertising to the trade--Advertising by means ofnewspapers, magazines, billboards, electric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, and by samples--Advertising for retailers--Advertisingby government propaganda--The Joint Coffee Trade publicity campaign inthe United States--Coffee advertising efficiency Page 431 CHAPTER XXIX THE COFFEE TRADE IN THE UNITED STATES The coffee business started by Dorothy Jones of Boston--Some earlysales--Taxes imposed by Congress in war and peace--The firstcoffee-plantation-machine, coffee-roaster, coffee-grinder, andcoffee-pot patents--Early trade marks for coffee--Beginnings of thecoffee urn, the coffee container, and the soluble-coffeebusiness--Chronological record of the most important events in thehistory of the trade from the eighteenth century to the twentieth Page 467 CHAPTER XXX DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEEBUSINESS IN THE UNITED STATES A brief history of the growth of coffee trading--Notable firms andpersonalities that have played important parts in green coffee in theprincipal coffee centers--Green coffee trade organizations--Growth ofthe wholesale coffee-roasting trade, and names of those who have madehistory in it--The National Coffee Roasters Association--Statistics ofdistribution of coffee-roasting establishments in the United States Page 475 CHAPTER XXXI SOME BIG MEN AND NOTABLE ACHIEVEMENTS B. G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken, the last of the American"coffee kings"--John Arbuckle, the original package-coffee man--JabezBurns, the man who revolutionized the roasted-coffee business by hiscontributions as inventor, manufacturer, and writer--Coffee trade boomsand panics--Brazil's first valorization enterprise--War-time governmentcontrol of coffee--The story of soluble coffee Page 517 CHAPTER XXXII A HISTORY OF COFFEE IN LITERATURE The romance of coffee, and its influence on the discourse, poetry, history, drama, philosophic writing, and fiction of the seventeenth andeighteenth centuries and on the writers of today--Coffee quips andanecdotes Page 541 CHAPTER XXXIII COFFEE IN RELATION TO THE FINE ARTS How coffee and coffee drinking have been celebrated in painting, engraving, sculpture, caricature, lithography, and music--Epics, rhapsodies, and cantatas in praise of coffee--Beautiful specimens of theart of the potter and the silversmith as shown in the coffee service ofvarious periods in the world's history--Some historical relics Page 587 CHAPTER XXXIV THE EVOLUTION OF COFFEE APPARATUS Showing the development of coffee-roasting, coffee-grinding, coffee-making, and coffee-serving devices from the earliest time to thepresent day--The original coffee grinder, the first coffee roaster, andthe first coffee pot--The original French drip pot, the De Belloypercolator--Count Rumford's improvement--How the commercial coffeeroaster was developed--The evolution of filtration devices--The oldCarter "pull-out" roaster--Trade customs in New York and St. Louis inthe sixties and seventies--The story of the evolution of the Burnsroaster--How the gas roaster was developed in France, Great Britain, andthe United States Page 615 CHAPTER XXXV WORLD'S COFFEE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS How coffee is roasted, prepared, and served in all the leading civilizedcountries--The Arabian coffee ceremony--The present-day coffee houses ofTurkey--Twentieth century improvements in Europe and the United States Page 655 CHAPTER XXXVI PREPARATION OF THE UNIVERSAL BEVERAGE The evolution of grinding and brewing methods--Coffee was first a food, then a wine, a medicine, a devotional refreshment, a confection, andfinally a beverage--Brewing by boiling, infusion, percolation, andfiltration--Coffee making in Europe in the nineteenth century--Earlycoffee making in the United States--Latest developments in better coffeemaking--Various aspects of scientific coffee brewing--Advice to coffeelovers on how to buy coffee, and how to make it in perfection Page 693 A COFFEE CHRONOLOGY Giving dates and events of historical interest in legend, travel, literature, cultivation, plantation treatment, trading, and in thepreparation and use of coffee from the earliest time to the present Page 725 A COFFEE BIBLIOGRAPHY A list of references gathered from the principal general and scientificlibraries--Arranged in alphabetic order of topics Page 738 INDEXPage 769 [Illustration] ILLUSTRATIONS _Color Plates_ _Facing page_ Coffee branches, flowers, and fruit (paintedby Blendon Campbell) _Frontispiece_ v _Coffea arabica_; leaves, flowers, and fruit(painted by M. E. Eaton) 1 The coffee tree bears fruit, leaf, and blossomat the same time 16 A close-up of ripe coffee berries 32 Coffee under the Stars and Stripes 144 Coffee scenes in British India 160 Picking and sacking coffee in Brazil 176 Mild-coffee culture and preparation 192 Coffee scenes in Java 200 Coffee scenes in Sumatra 216 Coffee preparation in Central and SouthAmerica 248 Typical coffee scenes in Costa Rica 336 Principal varieties of green-coffee beans, natural size and color 352 Coal-roasting plant, New York 408 Coffee scenes in the Near and Far East 544 Primitive transportation methods, Arabia 640 Hulling coffee in Aden, Arabia 656 _Black and White Illustrations_ _Page_ Coffee tree in flower 4 De Clieu and his coffee plant 7 Legendary discovery of coffee drink 10 Title page of Dufour's book 13 Frontispiece from Dufour's book 15 Turkish coffee house, 17th century 21 Serving coffee to a guest, Arabia 23 First printed reference to coffee 24 An 18th-century Italian coffee house 26 Nobility in an early Venetian café 27 Goldoni in a Venetian coffee house 28 Florian's famous coffee house 29 Title page of La Roque's work 32 Coffee tree as pictured by La Roque 32 Coffee branch in La Roque's work 33 First printed reference in English 37 Reference in Sherley's travels 39 References in Biddulph's travels 40 Mol's coffee house at Exeter 41 Reference in Sandys' travels 42 Richter's coffee house, Leipsic 46 Coffee house, Germany, 17th century 47 Kolschitzky in his Blue Bottle coffee house 48 First coffee house in Leopoldstadt 50 Statue of Kolschitzky 51 First advertisement for coffee 55 First newspaper advertisement 57 Coffee house, time of Charles II 60 London coffee house, 17th century 61 Coffee house, Queen Anne's time 62 Coffee-house keepers' tokens (plate 1) 63 A broadside of 1663 64 Coffee-house keepers' tokens (plate 2) 65 A broadside of 1667 68 A broadside of 1670 70 A broadside of 1672 70 A broadside of 1674 71 White's and Brooke's coffee houses 78 London coffee-house politicians 78 Great Fair on the frozen Thames 79 Lion's head at Button's 80 Trio of notables at Button's 81 Vauxhall Gardens on a gala night 82 Rotunda in Ranelagh Gardens 83 Garraway's coffee house 84 Button's coffee house 84 Slaughter's coffee house 85 Tom's coffee house 85 Lloyd's coffee house 86 Dick's coffee house 87 Grecian coffee house 87 Don Saltero's coffee house 88 British coffee house 88 French coffee house in London 89 Ramponaux' Royal Drummer café 90 La Foire St. -Germain 92 Street coffee vender of Paris 92 Armenian decorations in Paris café 93 Corner of historic Café de Procope 93 Café de Procope, Paris 95 Cashier's desk in coffee house, Paris 96 Café Foy 97 Café des Mille Colonnes 99 Café de Paris 101 Interior of a typical Parisian café 103 Chess at the Café de la Régence 104 Types of colonial coffee roasters 106 Early family coffee roaster 106 Historic relics, early New England 107 Mayflower "coffee grinder" 108 Crown coffee house, Boston 108 Coffee devices, Massachusetts colony 109 Coffee devices of western pioneers 110 Coffee pots of colonial days 110 Green Dragon tavern, Boston 111 Metal coffee pots, New York colony 112 Exchange coffee house, Boston 113 President-elect Washington's official welcomeat Merchants Coffee House 114 King's Arms coffee house, New York 116 Burns coffee house 117 Merchants coffee house 119 Tontine coffee house 121 Tontine building of 1850 122 Niblo's Garden 122 Coffee relics, Dutch New York 122 New York's Vauxhall Garden of 1803 123 Tavern and grocers' signs, old New York 124 Second London coffee house, Philadelphia 127 Selling slaves, old London coffee house 128 City tavern, Philadelphia 129 Coffee-house scene in "Hamilton" 130 Coffee tree, flowers and fruit 132 Germination of the coffee plant 133 Brazil coffee plantation in flower 134 _Coffea arabica_, Porto Rico 135 _Coffea arabica_, flower and fruit, Costa Rica 135 Young _Coffea arabica_, Kona, Hawaii 136 Survivors of first Liberian trees in Java 136 _Coffea arabica_ in flower, Java 137 Liberian coffee tree, Lamoa, P. I. 138 _Coffea congensis_, 2-1/2 years old 138 Flowering of 5-year-old _Coffea excelsa_ 139 Branches of _Coffea excelsa_ 140 _Coffea stenophylla_ 140 Near view of _Coffea arabica_ berries 141 Wild caffein-free coffee tree 142 Coffee bean characteristics 142 _Coffea arabica_ berries 143 _Robusta_ coffee in flower 144 One-year-old _robusta_ estate 145 _Coffea Quillou_ flowers 146 _Quillou_ coffee tree in blossom 147 _Coffea Ugandæ_ 148 _Coffea arabica_ under the microscope 149 Cross-section of coffee bean 150 Cross-section of hull and bean 150 Epicarp and pericarp under microscope 151 Endocarp and endosperm under microscope 152 Spermoderm under microscope 152 Tissues of embryo under microscope 152 Coffee-leaf disease under microscope 153 Green and roasted coffee under microscope 153 Green and roasted Bogota under microscope 154 Cross-section of endosperm 156 Portion of the investing membrane 157 Structure of the green bean 157 Ground coffee under microscope 167 Coffee tree in bearing, Lamoa, P. I. 196 Early coffee implements 198 Cross-section of mountain slope, Yemen 198 First steps in coffee-growing 199 Coffee nursery, Guatemala 200 Coffee under shade, Porto Rico 201 Boekit Gompong estate, Sumatra 202 Estate in Antioquia, Colombia 203 Weeding and harrowing, São Paulo 204 Fazenda Dumont, São Paulo 205 Fazenda Guatapara, São Paulo 206 Picking coffee, São Paulo 207 Intensive cultivation, São Paulo 207 Private railroad, São Paulo 208 Coffee culture in São Paulo 209 Heavily laden coffee tree, Bogota 210 Picking coffee, Bogota 211 Altamira Hacienda, Venezuela 212 Carmen Hacienda, Venezuela 213 Heavy fruiting, _Coffea robusta_, Java 214 Road through coffee estate, Java 215 Native picking coffee, Sumatra 216 Administrator's bungalow, Java 216 Administrator's bungalow, Sumatra 217 Coffee culture in Guatemala 218 Indians picking coffee, Guatemala 219 Bungalow, coffee estate, Guatemala 220 Thirty-year-old coffee trees, Mexico 221 Mexican coffee picker 222 Receiving coffee, Mexico 223 Heavily laden coffee tree, Porto Rico 224 Coffee cultivation, Costa Rica 225 Picking Costa Rica coffee 226 Mountain coffee estate, Costa Rica 226 Mysore coffee estate 227 Coffee growing under shade, India 228 Coffee estate at Harar 229 Wild coffee near Adis Abeba 231 Mocha coffee growing on terraces 232 Picking Blue Mountain berries, Jamaica 233 Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe 234 Coffee in blossom, Panama 235 _Robusta_ coffee, Cochin-China 237 Bourbon trees, French Indo-China 238 Picking coffee in Queensland 239 Coffee in bloom, Kona, Hawaii 240 Coffee at Hamakua, Hawaii 241 Coffee trees, South Kona, Hawaii 242 Plantation near Sagada, P. I. 243 Coffee preparation, São Paulo 244 Walker's original disk pulper 246 Early English coffee peeler 246 Group of English cylinder pulpers 247 Copper covers for pulper cylinders 248 Granada unpulped coffee separator 249 Hand-power double-disk pulper 249 Tandem coffee pulper 250 Horizontal coffee washer 251 Vertical coffee washer 251 Cobán pulper, Venezuela 252 Niagara power coffee huller 252 British and American coffee driers 253 American Guardiola drier 254 Smout peeler and polisher 254 Smout peeler and polisher, exposed 255 O'Krassa's coffee drier 255 Six well-known hullers and separators 256 El Monarca coffee classifier 257 Hydro-electric installation, Guatemala 258 Preparing Brazil coffee for market 259 Working coffee on the drying flats 260 Fermenting and washing tanks, São Paulo 260 Drying grounds, Fazenda Schmidt 261 Preparing Colombian coffee for market 262 Old-fashioned ox-power huller 263 Street-car coffee transport, Orizaba 264 Coffee on drying floors, Porto Rico 264 Sun-drying coffee 265 Drying patio, Costa Rica 266 Early Guardiola steam drier 266 Indian women cleaning Mocha coffee 267 Cleaning-and-grading machinery, Aden 268 Drying coffee at Harar 269 Preparing Java coffee for market 270 Coffee transport in Java 271 Meeting of Amsterdam coffee brokers, 1820 291 Bill of public sale of coffee, 1790 292 Last sample before export, Santos 304 Stamping bags for export 304 Preparing Brazil coffee for export 305 Grading coffee at Santos 306 The test by the cups, Santos 306 New York importers' warehouse, Santos 307 Pack-mule transport in Venezuela 308 Coffee-carrying cart, Guatemala 308 Pack-oxen fording stream, Colombia 308 Coffee transport, Mexico and South America 309 Donkey coffee-transport at Harar 310 Coffee camels at Harar 310 Selling coffee by tapping hands, Aden 310 Packing and transporting coffee, Aden 311 Coffee camel train at Hodeida 312 Methods of loading coffee, Santos 313 Coffee freighter, Cauca River, Colombia 314 Coffee steamers on the Magdalena 314 Loading heavy cargo on Santa Cecilia 315 Unloading Java coffee from sailing vessel 317 Receiving piers for coffee, New York 318 Unloading coffee, covered pier, New York 319 Receiving and storing coffee, New York 320 Tester at work, Bush Terminal, New York 321 Loading lighters, Bush Docks, Brooklyn 321 New Terminal system on Staten Island 322 Motor tractor, Bush piers 322 Unloading with modern conveyor 323 Coffee handling, New Orleans piers 324 Coffee in steel-covered sheds, New Orleans 325 Unloading and storing coffee, San Francisco 326 Modern device for handling green coffee 327 Handling green coffee at European ports 328 New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange 329 Coffee section, Coffee and Sugar Exchange 330 Blackboards, Coffee Exchange 331 "Coffee afloat" blackboard 332 Well known green-coffee marks 339 Bourbon-Santos beans, roasted 343 Flat and Bourbon-Santos beans, roasted 343 Rio beans, roasted 343 Mexican beans, roasted 347 Guatemala beans, roasted 347 Bogota (Colombia) beans, roasted 348 Maracaibo beans, roasted 349 Mocha beans, roasted 351 Washed Java beans, roasted 353 Sample-roasting and cup-testing outfit 357 Modern gas coffee-roasting plant 380 Sixteen-cylinder coal roasting plant 382 Green-coffee separating and milling machines 384 English gas coffee-roasting plant 385 German gas coffee-roasting plant 386 French gas coffee-roasting plant 387 Jumbo coffee roaster, Arbuckle plant 388 Roasting plant of Reid, Murdoch & Co. 389 Complete gas coffee-plant installation 390 Burns Jubilee gas roaster 391 Burns coal roaster 392 Open perforated cylinder with flexible back head 392 Trying the roast 394 Monitor gas roaster 394 A group of roasting-room accessories 394 Dumping the roast 395 A four-bag coffee finisher 396 Burns sample-coffee roaster 396 Lambert coal coffee-roasting outfit 397 Coles No. 22 grinding mill 398 Monitor coffee-granulating machine 398 Challenge pulverizer 398 Burns No. 12 grinding mill 399 Monitor steel-cut grinder, separator, etc 399 Johnson carton-filling, weighing, and sealing machine 400 Ideal steel-cut mill 400 Smyser package-making and filling machine 401 Automatic coffee-packing machine 402 Complete coffee-cartoning outfit 403 Automatic coffee-weighing machines 404 Units in manufacture of soluble coffee 405 Types of coffee containers 411 Fresh-roasted-coffee idea in retailing 414 Premium tea and coffee dealer's display 416 Chain-store interior 417 Familiar A & P store front 418 Specialist idea in coffee merchandising 419 Monitor gas roaster, cooler, and stoner 420 Royal gas coffee roaster for retailers 420 Burns half-bag roaster, cooler, and stoner 421 Lambert Jr. Roasting outfit for retailers 421 Faulder and Simplex gas roasters 422 Coffee roasters used in Paris shops 423 Small German roasters 424 Popular French retail roaster 424 Uno cabinet gas roaster and cooler 424 Educational window exhibit 425 Better-class American grocery, interior 426 Prize-winning window display 427 Americanized English grocer's shop 429 Famous package coffees 430 First coffee advertisement in U. S. 433 Coffee advertisement of 1790 434 First colored handbill for package coffee 435 Reverse side of colored handbill 435 St. Louis handbill of 1854 436 Advertising-card copy, 1873 437 Handbill copy of the seventies 437 Box-end sticker, 1833 438 Chase & Sanborn advertisement, 1888 438 A Goldberg cartoon, 1910 439 Copy used by Chase & Sanborn, 1900 439 An effective cut-out 442 How coffee is advertised to the trade 443 Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee 447 Magazine and newspaper copy, 1919 449 Copy that stressed helpfulness of coffee, 1919-20 450 Joint Committee's house organ 451 Introductory medical-journal copy 451 Telling the doctors the truth, 1920 452 Joint Committee's attractive booklets 453 More medical journal copy, 1920 454 Magazine and newspaper copy, 1921 455 Educating the doctor, 1922 456 Magazine and newspaper copy, 1922 457 Specimen of early Yuban copy 459 Historical association in advertising 459 Package coffee advertising in 1922 460 The social distinction argument 461 Drawing upon history for atmosphere 461 An impressive electric sign, Chicago 462 How coffee is advertised outdoors 463 Attractive car cards, spring of 1922 464 Effective iced-coffee copy 465 European advertising novelty, New York 465 Coenties Slip, in days of sailing vessels 466 First U. S. Coffee-grinder patent 469 Carter's Pull-out roaster patent 469 First registered trade mark for coffee 470 Original Arbuckle coffee packages 471 Merchants coffee house tablet 473 Departed dominant figures in New York green coffee trade 476 "Their association with New York green coffee tradedates back nearly fifty years" 477 Green coffee trade-builders who have passed on 478 "Their race is run, their course is done" 479 112 Front Street, New York, 1879 480 At 87 Wall Street, New York, years ago 480 Wall and Front Streets, New York, 1922 481 Front Street, New York, 1922 483 In the New Orleans coffee district 486 Green coffee district, New Orleans 487 California Street, San Francisco 488 San Francisco's coffee district 489 Pioneer coffee roasters, New York City 493 Oldtime New York coffee roasters 495 Pioneer coffee roasters of the North and East, U. S. 500 Pioneer coffee roasters of the South and West, U. S. 504 Ground coffee price list of 1862 507 Organization convention, N. C. R. A. , 1911 510 Former presidents, N. C. R. A. 512 Earliest coffee manuscript 540 Song from "The Coffee House" 555 Dr. Johnson's seat, the Cheshire Cheese 567 Original coffee room, old Cock Tavern 568 Morning gossip in the coffee room 569 "His Warmest Welcome at an Inn" 571 Alexander Pope at Button's, 1730 577 Dutch coffee house, 1650 (by Van Ostade) 586 White's coffee house, 1733 (by Hogarth) 588 Tom King's, 1738 (by Hogarth) 589 Petit Déjeuner (by Boucher) 590 Coffee service in the home of Madame de Pompadour(by Van Loo) 590 Madame Du Barry (by Decreuse) 591 Coffee house at Cairo (by Gérôme) 592 Kaffeebesuch (by Philippi) 593 Coffee comes to the aid of the Muse (by Ruffio) 593 Mad dog in a coffee house (by Rowlandson) 594 Napoleon and the Curé (by Charlet) 595 Coffee, a chanson (music by Colet) 596 Statue of Kolschitzky 597 Betty's Aria, Bach's coffee cantata 598 Café Pedrocchi, Padua 599 Coffee grinder set with jewels 600 Italian wrought-iron coffee roaster 600 Seventeenth-century tea and coffee pots 601 Lantern coffee pot, 1692 602 Folkingham pot, 1715-16 602 Wastell pot, 1720-21 603 Dish of coffee-boy design, 1692 603 Chinese porcelain coffee pot 604 Silver coffee pots, early 18th century 604 Silver coffee pots, 18th century 605 Pottery and porcelain pots 606 Silver coffee pots, late 18th century 607 Porcelain pots, Metropolitan Museum 608 Vienna coffee pot, 1830 609 Spanish coffee pot, 18th century 609 Silver coffee pots in American collections 610 Coffee pot by Win. Shaw and Wm. Priest 611 Pot of Sheffield plate, 18th century 611 Pot by Ephraim Brasher 611 French silver coffee pot 612 Green Dragon tavern coffee urn 612 Coffee pots by American silversmiths 613 Twentieth-century American coffee service 613 Turkish coffee set, Peter collection 614 Oldest coffee grinder 616 Grain mill used by Greeks and Romans 616 First coffee roaster 616 First cylinder roaster, 1650 616 Historical relics, U. S. National Museum 617 Turkish coffee mill 618 Early French wall and table grinders 618 Bronze and brass mortars, 17th century 619 Early American coffee roasters 619 Roaster with three-sided hood 620 Roasting, making, and serving devices, 17th century 620 English and French coffee grinders 621 Eighteenth-century roaster 621 Original French drip pot 621 Belgian, Russian, and French pewter pots 622 17th and 18th century pewter pots 623 Count Rumford's percolator 623 Drawings of early French coffee makers 624 Early French filtration devices 624 Early American coffee-maker patents 625 French coffee makers, 19th century 625 First English commercial roaster patent 626 Early French coffee-roasting machines 627 Battery of Carter pull-out machines 628 Early English and American roasters 630 Early Foreign and American coffee-making devices 632 Dakin roasting machine of 1848 633 Globe stove roaster of 1860 634 Hyde's combined roaster and stove 634 Original Burns roaster, 1864 635 Burns granulating mill, 1872-74 636 Napier's vacuum machine 637 German gas and coal roasting machines 638 Other German coffee roasters 639 Original Enterprise mill 640 Max Thurmer's quick gas roaster 640 An English gas coffee-roasting plant 641 French globular roaster 642 Sirocco machine (French) 642 English roasting and grinding equipment 643 Magic gas machine (French) 644 Burns Jubilee gas machine 644 Double gas roasting outfit (French) 645 Lambert's Victory gas machine 646 One of the first electric mills 647 English electric-fuel roaster 648 Ben Franklin electric coffee roaster 648 Enterprise hand store mill 649 Latest types electric store mills 650 Italian rapid coffee-making machines 651 Working of Italian rapid machines 652 La Victoria Arduino Mignonne 652 N. C. R. A. Home coffee mill 653 Manthey-Zorn rapid infuser and dispenser 653 Tricolette, single-cup filter device 654 Moorish coffee house in Algiers 656 Coffee house in Cairo 656 Coffee service in Cairo barber shop 657 Coffee-laden camels, Arabia 658 Arabian coffee house 658 Mahommedan brewing coffee for guest 659 Native café, Harar 661 Early coffee, tea, and chocolate service 661 Nubian slave girl with coffee service 662 Persian coffee service, 1737 663 In a Turkish coffee house 664 Roasting coffee outside a Turkish café 664 Turkish caffinet, early 19th century 665 Coffee-making in Turkey 666 Street coffee vender in the Levant 666 A coffee house in Syria 667 Cafetan--garb of oriental café-keeper 668 Street coffee service in Constantinople 668 Riverside café in Damascus 669 Coffee _al fresco_ in Jerusalem 671 Café Schrangl, Vienna 672 Favorite English way of making coffee 673 A café of Ye Mecca Company, London 673 Groom's coffee house, London 674 Café Monico, Piccadilly Circus, London 674 Gatti's, The Strand, London 675 Tea lounge, Hotel Savoy, London 675 Two popular places for coffee in London 676 Temple Bar restaurant, London 677 Tea balcony, Hotel Cecil, London 677 One of Slater's chain-shops, London 677 St. James's restaurant, Picadilly, London 678 An A. B. C. Shop, London 678 Halt of caravaners at a serai, Bulgaria 678 Café de la Paix, Paris 679 Sidewalk annex, Café de la Paix 680 Café de la Régence, Paris 681 Café de la Régence in 1922 682 One of the Biard cafés, Paris 683 Restaurant Procope, 1922 683 Morning coffee at a Boulevard café 684 Café Bauer, Unter den Linden, Berlin 684 Café Bauer, exterior 685 Kranzler's Unter den Linden, Berlin 685 Swedish coffee boilers 687 Sidewalk café, Lisbon 687 Coffee rooms replacing hotel bars, U. S. 688 Britannia coffee pot--a Lincoln relic 690 Coffee service, Hotel Astor, New York 691 Early coffee-making in Persia 694 Napier vacuum coffee maker 700 Napier-List steam coffee machine 700 Finley Acker's filter-paper coffee pot 700 Kin-Hee pot in operation 701 Tricolator in operation 701 King percolator 701 Three American coffee-making machines in operation 702 How the Tru-Bru pot operates 702 Coffee-making devices used in U. S. 703 English hotel coffee-making machines 706 Well-known makes of large coffee urns 707 Popular German drip pot 708 Section of roasted bean, magnified 719 Cross-section of roasted bean, magnified 720 Coarse grind under the microscope 720 Medium grind under the microscope 721 Fine-meal grind under the microscope 721 _Portraits_ Ach, F. J. 447, 512 Akers, Fred 495 Ames, Allan P. 447 Arbuckle, John 523 Arnold, Benjamin Greene 476, 517 Arnold, F. B. 476 Bayne, William 479 Bayne, William, Jr. 447 Beard, Eli 493 Beard, Samuel 493 Bennett, William H. 479 Bickford, C. E. 478 Boardman, Thomas J. 500 Boardman, William 500 Brand, Carl W. 512 Brandenstein, M. J. 504 Burns, Jabez 527 Canby, Edward 500 Casanas, Ben C. 512 Cauchois. F. A. 493 Chase, Caleb 500 Cheek, J. O. 504, 515 Closset, Joseph 504 Coste, Felix 447 Crossman, Geo. W. 479 Devers, A. H. 504 Dwinell, James F. 500 Eppens, Fred 495 Eppens, Julius A. 495, 497 Eppens, W. H. 493, 495 Evans, David G. 504 Fischer, Benedickt 493 Flint, J. G. 500 Folger, J. A. , Jr. 504 Folger, J. A. , Sr. 504 Forbes, A. E. 504 Forbes, Jas. H. 504 Geiger, Frank J. 500 Gillies, Jas. W. 493 Gillies, Wright 493 Grossman, William 500 Harrison, D. Y. 500 Harrison, W. H. 500 Haulenbeek, Peter 493 Hayward, Martin 500 Heekin, James 500 Jones, W. T. 504 Kimball, O. G. 478 Kinsella, W. J. 504 Kirkland, Alexander 495 Kolschitzky, Franz George 50 McLaughlin, W. F. 500 Mahood, Samuel 500 Mayo, Henry 495 Meehan, P. C. 477 Menezes, Th. Langgaard de 446 Meyer, Robert 511 Peck, Edwin H. 477 Phyfe, Jas. W. 478 Pierce, O. W. , Sr. 500 Pupke, John F. 495 Purcell, Joseph 476 Reid, Fred 495 Reid, Thomas 493, 495 Roome, Col. William P. 499 Russell, James C. 478 Sanborn, James S. 500 Schilling, A. 504 Schotten, Julius J. 504, 512 Schotten, William 504 Seelye, Frank R. 512 Sielcken, Hermann 476, 519 Simmonds, H. 477 Sinnot, J. B. 504 Smith, L. B. 493 Smith, M. E. 504 Sprague, Albert A. 500 Stephens, Henry A. 500 Stoffregen, Charles 504 Stoffregen, C. H. 447 Taylor, James H. 477 Thomson, A. M. 500 Van Loan, Thomas 498 Weir, Ross W. 447, 512 Westfeldt, George 479 Widlar, Francis 500 Wilde, Samuel 493 Withington, Elijah 493 Woolson, Alvin M. 500 Wright, George C. 500 Wright, George S. 447 Young, Samuel 500 Zinsmeister, J. 504 _Maps, Charts, and Diagrams_ Map of London coffee-house district, 1748 76 Formula for Caffein 160 Commercial coffee chart 191 Eiffel and Woolworth towers in coffee 272 World's coffee cup and largest ship 275 Coffee exports, 1850-1920 277 Coffee exports, 1916-1920 277 Brazil coffee exports, 1850-1920 278 World's coffee consumption, 1850 286 Coffee imports, 1916-1920 286 World trend of consumption of tea and coffee, 1860-1920 288 Coffee map of World (folded insert) _facing_ 288 Pre-war annual average production of coffee by continents 294 Pre-war annual average production of coffee by countries 294 Pre-war average annual imports of coffee into U. S. By continents 295 Pre-war average annual imports of coffee into U. S. By countries 295 Pre-war coffee-imports chart 297 Pre-war consumption and price chart 297 Coffee map, Brazil 342 Coffee map, São Paulo, Minãs, and Rio 344 Mild-coffee map, 1 346 Coffee map, Africa and Arabia 352 Mild-coffee map, 2 354 Complete reference table (21 pp. ) 358 Plan of milling-machine connections 381 Plan of green-coffee-mixer connections 383 Layout for coffee and tea department 418 Chart, advertising of coffee and coffee substitutes, 1911-20 440 Charts, per capita consumption of coffee, and coffee and substituteadvertising 441 Chart, plan of advertising campaign 448 Chart, private-brand advertising, 1921 458 A COFFEE THESAURUS _Encomiums and descriptive phrases applied to the plant, the berry, andthe beverage_ _The Plant_ The precious plantThis friendly plantMocha's happy treeThe gift of HeavenThe plant with the jessamine-like flowersThe most exquisite perfume of Araby the blestGiven to the human race by the gift of the Gods _The Berry_ The magic beanThe divine fruitFragrant berriesRich, royal berryVoluptuous berryThe precious berryThe healthful beanThe Heavenly berryThe marvelous berryThis all-healing berryYemen's fragrant berryThe little aromatic berryLittle brown Arabian berryThought-inspiring bean of ArabiaThe smoking, ardent beans Aleppo sendsThat wild fruit which gives so beloved a drink _The Beverage_ NepentheFestive cupJuice divineNectar divineRuddy mochaA man's drinkLovable liquorDelicious mochaThe magic drinkThis rich cordialIts stream divineThe family drinkThe festive drinkCoffee is our goldNectar of all menThe golden mochaThis sweet nectarCelestial ambrosiaThe friendly drinkThe cheerful drinkThe essential drinkThe sweet draughtThe divine draughtThe grateful liquorThe universal drinkThe American drinkThe amber beverageThe convivial drinkThe universal thrillKing of all perfumesThe cup of happinessThe soothing draughtAmbrosia of the GodsThe intellectual drinkThe aromatic draughtThe salutary beverageThe good-fellow drinkThe drink of democracyThe drink ever gloriousWakeful and civil drinkThe beverage of sobrietyA psychological necessityThe fighting man's drinkLoved and favored drinkThe symbol of hospitalityThis rare Arabian cordialInspirer of men of lettersThe revolutionary beverageTriumphant stream of sableGrave and wholesome liquorThe drink of the intellectualsA restorative of sparkling witIts color is the seal of its purityThe sober and wholesome drinkLovelier than a thousand kissesThis honest and cheering beverageA wine which no sorrow can resistThe symbol of human brotherhoodAt once a pleasure and a medicineThe beverage of the friends of GodThe fire which consumes our griefsGentle panacea of domestic troublesThe autocrat of the breakfast tableThe beverage of the children of GodKing of the American breakfast tableSoothes you softly out of dull sobrietyThe cup that cheers but not inebriates[1]Coffee, which makes the politician wiseIts aroma is the pleasantest in all natureThe sovereign drink of pleasure and health[2]The indispensable beverage of strong nationsThe stream in which we wash away our sorrowsThe enchanting perfume that a zephyr has broughtFavored liquid which fills all my soul with delightThe delicious libation we pour on the altar of friendshipThis invigorating drink which drives sad care from the heart EVOLUTION OF A CUP OF COFFEE _Showing the various steps through which the bean passes from plantationto cup_ 1 Planting the seed in nursery2 Transplanting into rows3 Cultivating and pruning4 Picking the cherries5 Pulping6 Fermenting7 Washing8 Drying in the parchment9 Hulling10 Polishing11 Grading12 Transporting to the seaport13 Buying and selling for export14 Transhipment overseas15 Buying and selling at wholesale16 Shipment to the point of manufacture17 Separating18 Milling19 Mixing or blending20 Roasting21 Cooling and stoning22 Buying and selling at retail23 Grinding24 Making the beverage [Illustration: COFFEE ARABICA; LEAVES, FLOWERS AND FRUIT Painted from nature by M. E. Eaton--Detail sketches show anther, pistil, and section of corolla] CHAPTER I DEALING WITH THE ETYMOLOGY OF COFFEE _Origin and translation of the word from the Arabian into various languages--Views of many writers_ The history of the word coffee involves several phonetic difficulties. The European languages got the name of the beverage about 1600 from theoriginal Arabic [Arabic] _qahwah_, not directly, but through itsTurkish form, _kahveh_. This was the name, not of the plant, but thebeverage made from its infusion, being originally one of the namesemployed for wine in Arabic. Sir James Murray, in the _New English Dictionary_, says that some haveconjectured that the word is a foreign, perhaps African, word disguised, and have thought it connected with the name Kaffa, a town in Shoa, southwest Abyssinia, reputed native place of the coffee plant, but thatof this there is no evidence, and the name _qahwah_ is not given to theberry or plant, which is called [Arabic] _bunn_, the native name inShoa being _bun_. Contributing to a symposium on the etymology of the word coffee in_Notes and Queries_, 1909, James Platt, Jr. , said: The Turkish form might have been written _kahvé_, as its final _h_ was never sounded at any time. Sir James Murray draws attention to the existence of two European types, one like the French _café_, Italian _caffè_, the other like the English _coffee_, Dutch _koffie_. He explains the vowel _o_ in the second series as apparently representing _au_, from Turkish _ahv_. This seems unsupported by evidence, and the _v_ is already represented by the _ff_, so on Sir James's assumption _coffee_ must stand for _kahv-ve_, which is unlikely. The change from _a_ to _o_, in my opinion, is better accounted for as an imperfect appreciation. The exact sound of a in Arabic and other Oriental languages is that of the English short U, as in "cuff. " This sound, so easy to us, is a great stumbling-block to other nations. I judge that Dutch _koffie_ and kindred forms are imperfect attempts at the notation of a vowel which the writers could not grasp. It is clear that the French type is more correct. The Germans have corrected their _koffee_, which they may have got from the Dutch, into _kaffee_. The Scandinavian languages have adopted the French form. Many must wonder how the _hv_ of the original so persistently becomes _ff_ in the European equivalents. Sir James Murray makes no attempt to solve this problem. Virendranath Chattopádhyáya, who also contributed to the _Notes andQueries_ symposium, argued that the _hw_ of the Arabic _qahwah_ becomessometimes _ff_ and sometimes only _f_ or _v_ in European translationsbecause some languages, such as English, have strong syllabic accents(stresses), while others, as French, have none. Again, he points outthat the surd aspirate _h_ is heard in some languages, but is hardlyaudible in others. Most Europeans tend to leave it out altogether. Col. W. F. Prideaux, another contributor, argued that the Europeanlanguages got one form of the word coffee directly from the Arabic_qahwah_, and quoted from Hobson-Jobson in support of this: _Chaoua_ in 1598, _Cahoa_ in 1610, _Cahue_ in 1615; while Sir Thomas Herbert (1638) expressly states that "they drink (in Persia) ... Above all the rest, _Coho_ or _Copha_: by Turk and Arab called _Caphe_ and _Cahua_. " Here the Persian, Turkish, and Arabic pronunciations are clearly differentiated. Col. Prideaux then calls, as a witness to the Anglo-Arabicpronunciation, one whose evidence was not available when the _NewEnglish Dictionary_ and Hobson-Jobson articles were written. This isJohn Jourdain, a Dorsetshire seaman, whose _Diary_ was printed by theHakluyt Society in 1905. On May 28, 1609, he records that "in theafternoone wee departed out of Hatch (Al-Hauta, the capital of the Lahejdistrict near Aden), and travelled untill three in the morninge, andthen wee rested in the plaine fields untill three the next daie, neereunto a cohoo howse in the desert. " On June 5 the party, traveling fromHippa (Ibb), "laye in the mountaynes, our camells being wearie, and ourselves little better. This mountain is called Nasmarde (NakilSumara), where all the cohoo grows. " Farther on was "a littlevillage, where there is sold cohoo and fruite. The seeds of this cohoois a greate marchandize, for it is carried to grand Cairo and all otherplaces of Turkey, and to the Indias. " Prideaux, however, mentions thatanother sailor, William Revett, in his journal (1609) says, referring toMocha, that "Shaomer Shadli (Shaikh 'Ali bin 'Omar esh-Shadil) wasthe fyrst inventour for drynking of coffe, and therefor had inesteemation. " This rather looks to Prideaux as if on the coast ofArabia, and in the mercantile towns, the Persian pronunciation was invogue; whilst in the interior, where Jourdain traveled, the Englishmanreproduced the Arabic. Mr. Chattopádhyáya, discussing Col. Prideaux's views as expressed above, said: Col. Prideaux may doubt "if the worthy mariner, in entering the word in his log, was influenced by the abstruse principles of phonetics enunciated" by me, but he will admit that the change from _kahvah_ to _coffee_ is a phonetic change, and must be due to the operation of some phonetic principle. The average man, when he endeavours to write a foreign word in his own tongue, is handicapped considerably by his inherited and acquired phonetic capacity. And, in fact, if we take the quotations made in "Hobson-Jobson, " and classify the various forms of the word _coffee_ according to the nationality of the writer, we obtain very interesting results. Let us take Englishmen and Dutchmen first. In Danvers's _Letters_ (1611) we have both "_coho_ pots" and "_coffao_ pots"; Sir T. Roe (1615) and Terry (1616) have _cohu_; Sir T. Herbert (1638) has _coho_ and _copha_; Evelyn (1637), _coffee_; Fryer (1673) _coho_; Ovington (1690), _coffee_; and Valentijn (1726), _coffi_. And from the two examples given by Col. Prideaux, we see that Jourdain (1609) has _cohoo_, and Revett (1609) has _coffe_. To the above should be added the following by English writers, given inFoster's _English Factories in India_ (1618-21, 1622-23, 1624-29): cowha(1619), cowhe, couha (1621), coffa (1628). Let us now see what foreigners (chiefly French and Italian) write. Theearliest European mention is by Rauwolf, who knew it in Aleppo in 1573. He has the form _chaube_. Prospero Alpini (1580) has _caova_; Paludanus(1598) _chaoua_; Pyrard de Laval (1610) _cahoa_; P. Della Valle (1615)_cahue_; Jac. Bontius (1631) _caveah_; and the _Journal d'AntoineGalland_ (1673) _cave_. That is, Englishmen use forms of a certaindistinct type, _viz. _, cohu, coho, coffao, coffe, copha, coffee, whichdiffer from the more correct transliteration of foreigners. In 1610 the Portuguese Jew, Pedro Teixeira (in the Hakluyt Society'sedition of his _Travels_) used the word _kavàh_. The inferences from these transitional forms seem to be: 1. The wordfound its way into the languages of Europe both from the Turkish andfrom the Arabic. 2. The English forms (which have strong stress on thefirst syllable) have _o_ instead of _a_, and _f_ instead of _h_. 3. The foreign forms are unstressed and have no _h_. The original _v_ or_w_ (or labialized _u_) is retained or changed into _f_. It may be stated, accordingly, that the chief reason for the existenceof two distinct types of spelling is the omission of _h_ in unstressedlanguages, and the conversion of _h_ into _f_ under strong stress instressed languages. Such conversion often takes place in Turkish; forexample, _silah dar_ in Persian (which is a highly stressed language)becomes _zilif dar_ in Turkish. In the languages of India, on the otherhand, in spite of the fact that the aspirate is usually very clearlysounded, the word _qahvah_ is pronounced _kaiva_ by the lesseducated classes, owing to the syllables being equally stressed. Now for the French viewpoint. Jardin[3] opines that, as regards theetymology of the word coffee, scholars are not agreed and perhaps neverwill be. Dufour[4] says the word is derived from _caouhe_, a name givenby the Turks to the beverage prepared from the seed. Chevalierd'Arvieux, French consul at Alet, Savary, and Trevoux, in hisdictionary, think that coffee comes from the Arabic, but from the word_cahoueh_ or _quaweh_, meaning to give vigor or strength, because, saysd'Arvieux, its most general effect is to fortify and strengthen. Tavernier combats this opinion. Moseley attributes the origin of theword coffee to Kaffa. Sylvestre de Sacy, in his _Chréstomathie Arabe_, published in 1806, thinks that the word _kahwa_, synonymous with_makli_, roasted in a stove, might very well be the etymology of theword coffee. D'Alembert in his encyclopedic dictionary, writes the word_caffé_. Jardin concludes that whatever there may be in these variousetymologies, it remains a fact that the word coffee comes from anArabian word, whether it be _kahua_, _kahoueh_, _kaffa_ or _kahwa_, andthat the peoples who have adopted the drink have all modified theArabian word to suit their pronunciation. This is shown by giving theword as written in various modern languages: French, _café_; Breton, _kafe_; German, _kaffee_ (coffee tree, _kaffeebaum_); Dutch, _koffie_ (coffee tree, _koffieboonen_); Danish, _kaffe_; Finnish, _kahvi_; Hungarian, _kavé_; Bohemian, _kava_; Polish, _kawa_; Roumanian, _cafea_; Croatian, _kafa_; Servian, _kava_; Russian, _kophe_; Swedish, _kaffe_; Spanish, _café_; Basque, _kaffia_; Italian, _caffè_; Portuguese, _café_; Latin (scientific), _coffea_; Turkish, _kahué_; Greek, _kaféo_; Arabic, _qahwah_ (coffee berry, _bun_);Persian, _qéhvé_ (coffee berry, _bun_[5]); Annamite, _ca-phé_;Cambodian, _kafé_; Dukni[6], _bunbund_[7]; Teluyan[8], _kapri-vittulu_;Tamil[9], _kapi-kottai_ or _kopi_; Canareze[10], _kapi-bija_; Chinese, _kia-fey_, _teoutsé_; Japanese, _kéhi_; Malayan, _kawa_, _koppi_;Abyssinian, _bonn_[11]; Foulak, _legal café_[12]; Sousou, _houricaff_[13]; Marquesan, _kapi_; Chinook[14], _kaufee_; Volapuk, _kaf_;Esperanto, _kafva_. [Illustration: THE FAIRY BEAUTY OF A COFFEE TREE IN FLOWER] CHAPTER II HISTORY OF COFFEE PROPAGATION _A brief account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in the Old World and its introduction into the New--A romantic coffee adventure_ The history of the propagation of the coffee plant is closely interwovenwith that of the early history of coffee drinking, but for the purposesof this chapter we shall consider only the story of the inception andgrowth of the cultivation of the coffee tree, or shrub, bearing theseeds, or berries, from which the drink, coffee, is made. Careful research discloses that most authorities agree that the coffeeplant is indigenous to Abyssinia, and probably Arabia, whence itscultivation spread throughout the tropics. The first reliable mention ofthe properties and uses of the plant is by an Arabian physician towardthe close of the ninth century A. D. , and it is reasonable to supposethat before that time the plant was found growing wild in Abyssinia andperhaps in Arabia. If it be true, as Ludolphus writes, [15] that theAbyssinians came out of Arabia into Ethiopia in the early ages, it ispossible that they may have brought the coffee tree with them; but theArabians must still be given the credit for discovering and promotingthe use of the beverage, and also for promoting the propagation of theplant, even if they found it in Abyssinia and brought it to Yemen. Some authorities believe that the first cultivation of coffee in Yemendates back to 575 A. D. , when the Persian invasion put an end to theEthiopian rule of the negus Caleb, who conquered the country in 525. Certainly the discovery of the beverage resulted in the cultivation ofthe plant in Abyssinia and in Arabia; but its progress was slow untilthe 15th and 16th centuries, when it appears as intensively carried onin the Yemen district of Arabia. The Arabians were jealous of their newfound and lucrative industry, and for a time successfully prevented itsspread to other countries by not permitting any of the precious berriesto leave the country unless they had first been steeped in boiling wateror parched, so as to destroy their powers of germination. It may be thatmany of the early failures successfully to introduce the cultivation ofthe coffee plant into other lands was also due to the fact, discoveredlater, that the seeds soon lose their germinating power. However, it was not possible to watch every avenue of transport, withthousands of pilgrims journeying to and from Mecca every year; and sothere would appear to be some reason to credit the Indian traditionconcerning the introduction of coffee cultivation into southern India byBaba Budan, a Moslem pilgrim, as early as 1600, although a betterauthority gives the date as 1695. Indian tradition relates that BabaBudan planted his seeds near the hut he built for himself at Chickmaglurin the mountains of Mysore, where, only a few years since, the writerfound the descendants of these first plants growing under the shade ofthe centuries-old original jungle trees. The greater part of the plantscultivated by the natives of Kurg and Mysore appear to have come fromthe Baba Budan importation. It was not until 1840 that the English beganthe cultivation of coffee in India. The plantations extend now from theextreme north of Mysore to Tuticorin. _Early Cultivation by the Dutch_ In the latter part of the 16th century, German, Italian, and Dutchbotanists and travelers brought back from the Levant considerableinformation regarding the new plant and the beverage. In 1614enterprising Dutch traders began to examine into the possibilities ofcoffee cultivation and coffee trading. In 1616 a coffee plant wassuccessfully transported from Mocha to Holland. In 1658 the Dutchstarted the cultivation of coffee in Ceylon, although the Arabs are saidto have brought the plant to the island prior to 1505. In 1670 anattempt was made to cultivate coffee on European soil at Dijon, France, but the result was a failure. In 1696, at the instigation of Nicolaas Witsen, then burgomaster ofAmsterdam, Adrian Van Ommen, commander at Malabar, India, caused to beshipped from Kananur, Malabar, to Java, the first coffee plantsintroduced into that island. They were grown from seed of the _Coffeaarabica_ brought to Malabar from Arabia. They were planted byGovernor-General Willem Van Outshoorn on the Kedawoeng estate nearBatavia, but were subsequently lost by earthquake and flood. In 1699Henricus Zwaardecroon imported some slips, or cuttings, of coffee treesfrom Malabar into Java. These were more successful, and became theprogenitors of all the coffees of the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch werethen taking the lead in the propagation of the coffee plant. In 1706 the first samples of Java coffee, and a coffee plant grown inJava, were received at the Amsterdam botanical gardens. Many plants wereafterward propagated from the seeds produced in the Amsterdam gardens, and these were distributed to some of the best known botanical gardensand private conservatories in Europe. While the Dutch were extending the cultivation of the plant to Sumatra, the Celebes, Timor, Bali, and other islands of the Netherlands Indies, the French were seeking to introduce coffee cultivation into theircolonies. Several attempts were made to transfer young plants from theAmsterdam botanical gardens to the botanical gardens at Paris; but allwere failures. In 1714, however, as a result of negotiations entered into between theFrench government and the municipality of Amsterdam, a young andvigorous plant about five feet tall was sent to Louis XIV at the chateauof Marly by the burgomaster of Amsterdam. The day following, it wastransferred to the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, where it was receivedwith appropriate ceremonies by Antoine de Jussieu, professor of botanyin charge. This tree was destined to be the progenitor of most of thecoffees of the French colonies, as well as of those of South America, Central America, and Mexico. _The Romance of Captain Gabriel de Clieu_ Two unsuccessful attempts were made to transport to the Antilles plantsgrown from the seed of the tree presented to Louis XIV; but the honor ofeventual success was won by a young Norman gentleman, Gabriel Mathieu deClieu, a naval officer, serving at the time as captain of infantry atMartinique. The story of de Clieu's achievement is the most romanticchapter in the history of the propagation of the coffee plant. His personal affairs calling him to France, de Clieu conceived the ideaof utilizing the return voyage to introduce coffee cultivation intoMartinique. His first difficulty lay in obtaining several of the plantsthen being cultivated in Paris, a difficulty at last overcome throughthe instrumentality of M. De Chirac, royal physician, or, according to aletter written by de Clieu himself, through the kindly offices of a ladyof quality to whom de Chirac could give no refusal. The plants selectedwere kept at Rochefort by M. Bégon, commissary of the department, untilthe departure of de Clieu for Martinique. Concerning the exact date ofde Clieu's arrival at Martinique with the coffee plant, or plants, thereis much conflict of opinion. Some authorities give the date as 1720, others 1723. Jardin[16] suggests that the discrepancy in dates may arisefrom de Clieu, with praiseworthy perseverance, having made the voyagetwice. The first time, according to Jardin, the plants perished; but thesecond time de Clieu had planted the seeds when leaving France and thesesurvived, "due, they say, to his having given of his scanty ration ofwater to moisten them. " No reference to a preceding voyage, however, ismade by de Clieu in his own account, given in a letter written to the_Année Littéraire_[17] in 1774. There is also a difference of opinion asto whether de Clieu arrived with one or three plants. He himself says"one" in the letter referred to. According to the most trustworthy data, de Clieu embarked at Nantes, 1723. [18] He had installed his precious plant in a box covered with aglass frame in order to absorb the rays of the sun and thus better toretain the stored-up heat for cloudy days. Among the passengers one man, envious of the young officer, did all in his power to wrest from him theglory of success. Fortunately his dastardly attempt failed of itsintended effect. "It is useless, " writes de Clieu in his letter to the _AnnéeLittéraire_, "to recount in detail the infinite care that I was obligedto bestow upon this delicate plant during a long voyage, and thedifficulties I had in saving it from the hands of a man who, baselyjealous of the joy I was about to taste through being of service to mycountry, and being unable to get this coffee plant away from me, toreoff a branch. " [Illustration: CAPTAIN DE CLIEU SHARES HIS DRINKING WATER WITH THECOFFEE PLANT HE IS CARRYING TO MARTINIQUE] The vessel carrying de Clieu was a merchantman, and many were the trialsthat beset passengers and crew. Narrowly escaping capture by a corsairof Tunis, menaced by a violent tempest that threatened to annihilatethem, they finally encountered a calm that proved more appalling thaneither. The supply of drinking water was well nigh exhausted, and whatwas left was rationed for the remainder of the voyage. "Water was lacking to such an extent, " says de Clieu, "that for morethan a month I was obliged to share the scanty ration of it assigned tome with this my coffee plant upon which my happiest hopes were foundedand which was the source of my delight. It needed such succor the morein that it was extremely backward, being no larger than the slip of apink. " Many stories have been written and verses sung recording andglorifying this generous sacrifice that has given luster to the name ofde Clieu. Arrived in Martinique, de Clieu planted his precious slip on his estatein Prêcheur, one of the cantons of the island; where, says Raynal, "itmultiplied with extraordinary rapidity and success. " From the seedlingsof this plant came most of the coffee trees of the Antilles. The firstharvest was gathered in 1726. De Clieu himself describes his arrival as follows: Arriving at home, my first care was to set out my plant with great attention in the part of my garden most favorable to its growth. Although keeping it in view, I feared many times that it would be taken from me; and I was at last obliged to surround it with thorn bushes and to establish a guard about it until it arrived at maturity ... This precious plant which had become still more dear to me for the dangers it had run and the cares it had cost me. Thus the little stranger thrived in a distant land, guarded day andnight by faithful slaves. So tiny a plant to produce in the end all therich estates of the West India islands and the regions bordering on theGulf of Mexico! What luxuries, what future comforts and delights, resulted from this one small talent confided to the care of a man ofrare vision and fine intellectual sympathy, fired by the spirit of reallove for his fellows! There is no instance in the history of the Frenchpeople of a good deed done by stealth being of greater service tohumanity. De Clieu thus describes the events that followed fast upon theintroduction of coffee into Martinique, with particular reference tothe earthquake of 1727: Success exceeded my hopes. I gathered about two pounds of seed which I distributed among all those whom I thought most capable of giving the plants the care necessary to their prosperity. The first harvest was very abundant; with the second it was possible to extend the cultivation prodigiously, but what favored multiplication, most singularly, was the fact that two years afterward all the cocoa trees of the country, which were the resource and occupation of the people, were uprooted and totally destroyed by horrible tempests accompanied by an inundation which submerged all the land where these trees were planted, land which was at once made into coffee plantations by the natives. These did marvelously and enabled us to send plants to Santo Domingo, Guadeloupe, and other adjacent islands, where since that time they have been cultivated with the greatest success. By 1777 there were 18, 791, 680 coffee trees in Martinique. De Clieu was born in Angléqueville-sur-Saane, Seine-Inférieure(Normandy), in 1686 or 1688. [19] In 1705 he was a ship's ensign; in 1718he became a chevalier of St. Louis; in 1720 he was made a captain ofinfantry; in 1726, a major of infantry; in 1733 he was a ship'slieutenant; in 1737 he became governor of Guadeloupe; in 1746 he was aship's captain; in 1750 he was made honorary commander of the order ofSt. Louis; in 1752 he retired with a pension of 6000 francs; in 1753 here-entered the naval service; in 1760 he again retired with a pension of2000 francs. In 1746 de Clieu, having returned to France, was presented to Louis XVby the minister of marine, Rouillé de Jour, as "a distinguished officerto whom the colonies, as well as France itself, and commerce generally, are indebted for the cultivation of coffee. " Reports to the king in 1752 and 1759 recall his having carried the firstcoffee plant to Martinique, and that he had ever been distinguished forhis zeal and disinterestedness. In the _Mercure de France_, December, 1774, was the following death notice: Gabriel d'Erchigny de Clieu, former Ship's Captain and Honorary Commander of the Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis, died in Paris on the 30th of November in the 88th year of his age. A notice of his death appeared also in the _Gazette de France_ forDecember 5, 1774, a rare honor in both cases; and it has been said thatat this time his praise was again on every lip. One French historian, Sidney Daney, [20] records that de Clieu died inpoverty at St. Pierre at the age of 97; but this must be an error, although it does not anywhere appear that at his death he was possessedof much, if any, means. Daney says: This generous man received as his sole recompense for a noble deed the satisfaction of seeing this plant for whose preservation he had shown such devotion, prosper throughout the Antilles. The illustrious de Clieu is among those to whom Martinique owes a brilliant reparation. Daney tells also that in 1804 there was a movement in Martinique toerect a monument upon the spot where de Clieu planted his first coffeeplant, but that the undertaking came to naught. Pardon, in his _La Martinique_ says: Honor to this brave man! He has deserved it from the people of two hemispheres. His name is worthy of a place beside that of Parmentier who carried to France the potato of Canada. These two men have rendered immense service to humanity, and their memory should never be forgotten--yet alas! Are they even remembered? Tussac, in his _Flora de las Antillas_, writing of de Clieu, says, "Though no monument be erected to this beneficent traveler, yet his nameshould remain engraved in the heart of every colonist. " In 1774 the _Année Littéraire_ published a long poem in de Clieu'shonor. In the feuilleton of the _Gazette de France_, April 12, 1816, weread that M. Donns, a wealthy Hollander, and a coffee connoisseur, sought to honor de Clieu by having painted upon a porcelain service allthe details of his voyage and its happy results. "I have seen the cups, "says the writer, who gives many details and the Latin inscription. That singer of navigation, Esménard, has pictured de Clieu's devotion inthe following lines: Forget not how de Clieu with his light vessel's sail, Brought distant Moka's gift--that timid plant and frail. The waves fell suddenly, young zephyrs breathed no more, Beneath fierce Cancer's fires behold the fountain store, Exhausted, fails; while now inexorable needMakes her unpitying law--with measured dole obeyed. Now each soul fears to prove Tantalus torment first. De Clieu alone defies: While still that fatal thirst, Fierce, stifling, day by day his noble strength devours, And still a heaven of brass inflames the burning hours. With that refreshing draught his life he will not cheer;But drop by drop revives the plant he holds more dear. Already as in dreams, he sees great branches grow, One look at his dear plant assuages all his woe. The only memorial to de Clieu in Martinique is the botanical garden atFort de France, which was opened in 1918 and dedicated to de Clieu, "whose memory has been too long left in oblivion. [21]" In 1715 coffee cultivation was first introduced into Haiti and SantoDomingo. Later came hardier plants from Martinique. In 1715-17 theFrench Company of the Indies introduced the cultivation of the plantinto the Isle of Bourbon (now Réunion) by a ship captain namedDufougeret-Grenier from St. Malo. It did so well that nine years laterthe island began to export coffee. The Dutch brought the cultivation of coffee to Surinam in 1718. Thefirst coffee plantation in Brazil was started at Pará in 1723 withplants brought from French Guiana, but it was not a success. The Englishbrought the plant to Jamaica in 1730. In 1740 Spanish missionariesintroduced coffee cultivation into the Philippines from Java. In 1748Don José Antonio Gelabert introduced coffee into Cuba, bringing the seedfrom Santo Domingo. In 1750 the Dutch extended the cultivation of theplant to the Celebes. Coffee was introduced into Guatemala about1750-60. The intensive cultivation in Brazil dates from the effortsbegun in the Portuguese colonies in Pará and Amazonas in 1752. PortoRico began the cultivation of coffee about 1755. In 1760 João AlbertoCastello Branco brought to Rio de Janeiro a coffee tree from Goa, Portuguese India. The news spread that the soil and climate of Brazilwere particularly adapted to the cultivation of coffee. Molke, a Belgianmonk, presented some seeds to the Capuchin monastery at Rio in 1774. Later, the bishop of Rio, Joachim Bruno, became a patron of the plantand encouraged its propagation in Rio, Minãs, Espirito Santo, and SãoPaulo. The Spanish voyager, Don Francisco Xavier Navarro, is creditedwith the introduction of coffee into Costa Rica from Cuba in 1779. InVenezuela the industry was started near Caracas by a priest, JoséAntonio Mohedano, with seed brought from Martinique in 1784. Coffee cultivation in Mexico began in 1790, the seed being brought fromthe West Indies. In 1817 Don Juan Antonio Gomez instituted intensivecultivation in the State of Vera Cruz. In 1825 the cultivation of theplant was begun in the Hawaiian Islands with seeds from Rio de Janeiro. As previously noted, the English began to cultivate coffee in India in1840. In 1852 coffee cultivation was begun in Salvador with plantsbrought from Cuba. In 1878 the English began the propagation of coffeein British Central Africa, but it was not until 1901 that coffeecultivation was introduced into British East Africa from Réunion. In1887 the French introduced the plant into Tonkin, Indo-China. Coffeegrowing in Queensland, introduced in 1896, has been successful in asmall way. In recent years several attempts have been made to propagate the coffeeplant in the southern United States, but without success. It isbelieved, however, that the topographic and climatic conditions insouthern California are favorable for its cultivation. [Illustration] [Illustration: OMAR AND THE MARVELOUS COFFEE BIRD] [Illustration: KALDI AND HIS DANCING GOATS] [Illustration: THE LEGENDARY DISCOVERY OF THE COFFEE DRINK From drawings by a modern French artist] CHAPTER III EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE DRINKING _Coffee in the Near East in the early centuries--Stories of its origin--Discovery by physicians and adoption by the Church--Its spread through Arabia, Persia and Turkey--Persecutions and intolerances--Early coffee manners and customs_ The coffee drink had its rise in the classical period of Arabianmedicine, which dates from Rhazes (Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya ElRazi) who followed the doctrines of Galen and sat at the feet ofHippocrates. Rhazes (850-922) was the first to treat medicine in anencyclopedic manner, and, according to some authorities, the firstwriter to mention coffee. He assumed the poetical name of Razi becausehe was a native of the city of Raj in Persian Irak. He was a greatphilosopher and astronomer, and at one time was superintendent of thehospital at Bagdad. He wrote many learned books on medicine and surgery, but his principal work is _Al-Haiwi_, or _The Continent_, a collectionof everything relating to the cure of disease from Galen to his owntime. Philippe Sylvestre Dufour (1622-87)[22], a French coffee merchant, philosopher, and writer, in an accurate and finished treatise on coffee, tells us (see the early edition of the work translated from the Latin)that the first writer to mention the properties of the coffee bean underthe name of _bunchum_ was this same Rhazes, "in the ninth century afterthe birth of our Saviour"; from which (if true) it would appear thatcoffee has been known for upwards of 1000 years. Robinson[23], however, is of the opinion that _bunchum_ meant something else and had nothing todo with coffee. Dufour, himself, in a later edition of his _TraitezNouveaux et Curieux du Café_ (the Hague, 1693) is inclined to admit that_bunchum_ may have been a root and not coffee, after all; however, he iscareful to add that there is no doubt that the Arabs knew coffee as farback as the year 800. Other, more modern authorities, place it as earlyas the sixth century. _Wiji Kawih_ is mentioned in a Kavi (Javan) inscription A. D. 856; and itis thought that the "bean broth" in David Tapperi's list of Javanesebeverages (1667-82) may have been coffee[24]. While the true origin of coffee drinking may be forever hidden among themysteries of the purple East, shrouded as it is in legend and fable, scholars have marshaled sufficient facts to prove that the beverage wasknown in Ethiopia "from time immemorial, " and there is much to addverisimilitude to Dufour's narrative. This first coffee merchant-prince, skilled in languages and polite learning, considered that his characteras a merchant was not inconsistent with that of an author; and he evenwent so far as to say there were some things (for instance, coffee) onwhich a merchant could be better informed than a philosopher. Granting that by _bunchum_ Rhazes meant coffee, the plant and the drinkmust have been known to his immediate followers; and this, indeed, seemsto be indicated by similar references in the writings of Avicenna (IbnSina), the Mohammedan physician and philosopher, who lived from 980 to1037 A. D. Rhazes, in the quaint language of Dufour, assures us that "_bunchum_(coffee) is hot and dry and very good for the stomach. " Avicennaexplains the medicinal properties and uses of the coffee bean (_bon_ or_bunn_), which he, also, calls _bunchum_, after this fashion: As to the choice thereof, that of a lemon color, light, and of a good smell, is the best; the white and the heavy is naught. It is hot and dry in the first degree, and, according to others, cold in the first degree. It fortifies the members, it cleans the skin, and dries up the humidities that are under it, and gives an excellent smell to all the body. The early Arabians called the bean and the tree that bore it, _bunn_;the drink, _bunchum_. A. Galland[25] (1646-1715), the French Orientalistwho first analyzed and translated from the Arabic the Abd-al-Kâdirmanuscript[26], the oldest document extant telling of the origin ofcoffee, observes that Avicenna speaks of the _bunn_, or coffee; as doalso Prospero Alpini and Veslingius (Vesling). Bengiazlah, another greatphysician, contemporary with Avicenna, likewise mentions coffee; bywhich, says Galland, one may see that we are indebted to physicians forthe discovery of coffee, as well as of sugar, tea, and chocolate. Rauwolf[27] (d. 1596), German physician and botanist, and the firstEuropean to mention coffee, who became acquainted with the beverage inAleppo in 1573, telling how the drink was prepared by the Turks, says: In this same water they take a fruit called _Bunnu_, which in its bigness, shape, and color is almost like unto a bayberry, with two thin shells surrounded, which, as they informed me, are brought from the _Indies_; but as these in themselves are, and have within them, two yellowish grains in two distinct cells, and besides, being they agree in their virtue, figure, looks, and name with the _Bunchum_ of Avicenna and _Bunco_, of _Rasis ad Almans_ exactly: therefore I take them to be the same. In Dr. Edward Pocoke's translation (Oxford, 1659) of _The Nature of theDrink Kauhi, or Coffee, and the Berry of which it is Made, Described byan Arabian Phisitian_, we read: _Bun_ is a plant in _Yaman_ [Yemen], which is planted in _Adar_, and groweth up and is gathered in _Ab_. It is about a cubit high, on a stalk about the thickness of one's thumb. It flowers white, leaving a berry like a small nut, but that sometimes it is broad like a bean; and when it is peeled, parteth in two. The best of it is that which is weighty and yellow; the worst, that which is black. It is hot in the first degree, dry in the second: it is usually reported to be cold and dry, but it is not so; for it is bitter, and whatsoever is bitter is hot. It may be that the scorce is hot, and the Bun it selfe either of equall temperature, or cold in the first degree. That which makes for its coldnesse is its stipticknesse. In summer it is by experience found to conduce to the drying of rheumes, and flegmatick coughes and distillations, and the opening of obstructions, and the provocation of urin. It is now known by the name of _Kohwah_. When it is dried and thoroughly boyled, it allayes the ebullition of the blood, is good against the small poxe and measles, the bloudy pimples; yet causeth vertiginous headheach, and maketh lean much, occasioneth waking, and the Emrods, and asswageth lust, and sometimes breeds melancholly. He that would drink it for livelinesse sake, and to discusse slothfulnesse, and the other properties that we have mentioned, let him use much sweat meates with it, and oyle of pistaccioes, and butter. Some drink it with milk, but it is an error, and such as may bring in danger of the leprosy. Dufour concludes that the coffee beans of commerce are the same as the_bunchum_ (_bunn_) described by Avicenna and the _bunca_ (_bunchum_) ofRhazes. In this he agrees, almost word for word, with Rauwolf, indicating no change in opinion among the learned in a hundred years. Christopher Campen thinks Hippocrates, father of medicine, knew andadministered coffee. Robinson, commenting upon the early adoption of coffee into materiamedica, charges that it was a mistake on the part of the Arabphysicians, and that it originated the prejudice that caused coffee tobe regarded as a powerful drug instead of as a simple and refreshingbeverage. _Homer, the Bible, and Coffee_ In early Grecian and Roman writings no mention is made of either thecoffee plant or the beverage made from the berries. Pierre (Pietro)Delia Valle[28] (1586-1652), however, maintains that the _nepenthe_, which Homer says Helen brought with her out of Egypt, and which sheemployed as surcease for sorrow, was nothing else but coffee mixed withwine. [29] This is disputed by M. Petit, a well known physician of Paris, who died in 1687. Several later British authors, among them, Sandys, the poet; Burton; and Sir Henry Blount, have suggested the probabilityof coffee being the "black broth" of the Lacedæmonians. George Paschius, in his Latin treatise of the _New Discoveries Madesince the Time of the Ancients_, printed at Leipsic in 1700, says hebelieves that coffee was meant by the five measures of parched cornincluded among the presents Abigail made to David to appease his wrath, as recorded in the _Bible_, 1 Samuel, xxv, 18. The _Vulgate_ translatesthe Hebrew words _sein kali_ into _sata polentea_, which signify wheat, roasted, or dried by fire. [Illustration: TITLE PAGE OF DUFOUR'S BOOK, EDITION OF 1693] Pierre Étienne Louis Dumant, the Swiss Protestant minister and author, is of the opinion that coffee (and not lentils, as others have supposed)was the red pottage for which Esau sold his birthright; also that theparched grain that Boaz ordered to be given Ruth was undoubtedly roastedcoffee berries. Dufour mentions as a possible objection against coffee that "the use andeating of beans were heretofore forbidden by Pythagoras, " but intimatesthat the coffee bean of Arabia is something different. Scheuzer, [30] in his _Physique Sacrée_, says "the Turks and the Arabsmake with the coffee bean a beverage which bears the same name, and manypersons use as a substitute the flour of roasted barley. " From this welearn that the coffee substitute is almost as old as coffee itself. _Some Early Legends_ After medicine, the church. There are several Mohammedan traditions thathave persisted through the centuries, claiming for "the faithful" thehonor and glory of the first use of coffee as a beverage. One of theserelates how, about 1258 A. D. , Sheik Omar, a disciple of Sheik Abou'lhasan Schadheli, patron saint and legendary founder of Mocha, by chancediscovered the coffee drink at Ousab in Arabia, whither he had beenexiled for a certain moral remissness. Facing starvation, he and his followers were forced to feed upon theberries growing around them. And then, in the words of the faithful Arabchronicle in the Bibliothéque Nationale at Paris, "having nothing to eatexcept coffee, they took of it and boiled it in a saucepan and drank ofthe decoction. " Former patients in Mocha who sought out the gooddoctor-priest in his Ousab retreat, for physic with which to cure theirills, were given some of this decoction, with beneficial effect. As aresult of the stories of its magical properties, carried back to thecity, Sheik Omar was invited to return in triumph to Mocha where thegovernor caused to be built a monastery for him and his companions. Another version of this Oriental legend gives it as follows: The dervish Hadji Omar was driven by his enemies out of Mocha into the desert, where they expected he would die of starvation. This undoubtedly would have occurred if he had not plucked up courage to taste some strange berries which he found growing on a shrub. While they seemed to be edible, they were very bitter; and he tried to improve the taste by roasting them. He found, however, that they had become very hard, so he attempted to soften them with water. The berries seemed to remain as hard as before, but the liquid turned brown, and Omar drank it on the chance that it contained some of the nourishment from the berries. He was amazed at how it refreshed him, enlivened his sluggishness, and raised his drooping spirits. Later, when he returned to Mocha, his salvation was considered a miracle. The beverage to which it was due sprang into high favor, and Omar himself was made a saint. A popular and much-quoted version of Omar's discovery of coffee, alsobased upon the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript, is the following: In the year of the Hegira 656, the mollah Schadheli went on a pilgrimage to Mecca. Arriving at the mountain of the Emeralds (Ousab), he turned to his disciple Omar and said: "I shall die in this place. When my soul has gone forth, a veiled person will appear to you. Do not fail to execute the command which he will give you. " The venerable Schadheli being dead, Omar saw in the middle of the night a gigantic specter covered by a white veil. "Who are you?" he asked. The phantom drew back his veil, and Omar saw with surprise Schadheli himself, grown ten cubits since his death. The mollah dug in the ground, and water miraculously appeared. The spirit of his teacher bade Omar fill a bowl with the water and to proceed on his way and not to stop till he reached the spot where the water would stop moving. "It is there, " he added, "that a great destiny awaits you. " Omar started his journey. Arriving at Mocha in Yemen, he noticed that the water was immovable. It was here that he must stop. The beautiful village of Mocha was then ravaged by the plague. Omar began to pray for the sick and, as the saintly man was close to Mahomet, many found themselves cured by his prayers. The plague meanwhile progressing, the daughter of the King of Mocha fell ill and her father had her carried to the home of the dervish who cured her. But as this young princess was of rare beauty, after having cured her, the good dervish tried to carry her off. The king did not fancy this new kind of reward. Omar was driven from the city and exiled on the mountain of Ousab, with herbs for food and a cave for a home. "Oh, Schadheli, my dear master, " cried the unfortunate dervish one day; "if the things which happened to me at Mocha were destined, was it worth the trouble to give me a bowl to come here?" To these just complaints, there was heard immediately a song of incomparable harmony, and a bird of marvelous plumage came to rest in a tree. Omar sprang forward quickly toward the little bird which sang so well, but then he saw on the branches of the tree only flowers and fruit. Omar laid hands on the fruit, and found it delicious. Then he filled his great pockets with it and went back to his cave. As he was preparing to boil a few herbs for his dinner, the idea came to him of substituting for this sad soup, some of his harvested fruit. From it he obtained a savory and perfumed drink; it was coffee. The Italian _Journal of the Savants_ for the year 1760 says that twomonks, Scialdi and Ayduis, were the first to discover the properties ofcoffee, and for this reason became the object of special prayers. "Wasnot this Scialdi identical with the Sheik Schadheli?" asks Jardin. [31] The most popular legend ascribes the discovery of the drink to anArabian herdsman in upper Egypt, or Abyssinia, who complained to theabbot of a neighboring monastery that the goats confided to his carebecame unusually frolicsome after eating the berries of certain shrubsfound near their feeding grounds. The abbot, having observed the fact, determined to try the virtues of the berries on himself. He, too, responded with a new exhilaration. Accordingly, he directed that some beboiled, and the decoction drunk by his monks, who thereafter found nodifficulty in keeping awake during the religious services of the night. The abbé Massieu in his poem, _Carmen Caffaeum_, thus celebrates theevent: The monks each in turn, as the evening draws near, Drink 'round the great cauldron--a circle of cheer!And the dawn in amaze, revisiting that shore, On idle beds of ease surprised them nevermore! According to the legend, the news of the "wakeful monastery" spreadrapidly, and the magical berry soon "came to be in request throughoutthe whole kingdom; and in progress of time other nations and provincesof the East fell into the use of it. " The French have preserved the following picturesque version of thislegend: A young goatherd named Kaldi noticed one day that his goats, whose deportment up to that time had been irreproachable, were abandoning themselves to the most extravagant prancings. The venerable buck, ordinarily so dignified and solemn, bounded about like a young kid. Kaldi attributed this foolish gaiety to certain fruits of which the goats had been eating with delight. The story goes that the poor fellow had a heavy heart; and in the hope of cheering himself up a little, he thought he would pick and eat of the fruit. The experiment succeeded marvelously. He forgot his troubles and became the happiest herder in happy Arabia. When the goats danced, he gaily made himself one of the party, and entered into their fun with admirable spirit. One day, a monk chanced to pass by and stopped in surprise to find a ball going on. A score of goats were executing lively pirouettes like a ladies' chain, while the buck solemnly _balancé-ed_, and the herder went through the figures of an eccentric pastoral dance. The astonished monk inquired the cause of this saltatorial madness; and Kaldi told him of his precious discovery. Now, this poor monk had a great sorrow; he always went to sleep in the middle of his prayers; and he reasoned that Mohammed without doubt was revealing this marvelous fruit to him to overcome his sleepiness. [Illustration: ARAB DRINKING COFFEE; CHINAMAN, TEA; AND INDIAN, CHOCOLATE Frontispiece from Dufour's work] Piety does not exclude gastronomic instincts. Those of our good monk were more than ordinary; because he thought of drying and boiling the fruit of the herder. This ingenious concoction gave us coffee. Immediately all the monks of the realm made use of the drink, because it encouraged them to pray and, perhaps, also because it was not disagreeable. In those early days it appears that the drink was prepared in two ways;one in which the decoction was made from the hull and the pulpsurrounding the bean, and the other from the bean itself. The roastingprocess came later and is an improvement generally credited to thePersians. There is evidence that the early Mohammedan churchmen wereseeking a substitute for the wine forbidden to them by the Koran, whenthey discovered coffee. The word for coffee in Arabic, _qahwah_, is thesame as one of those used for wine; and later on, when coffee drinkinggrew so popular as to threaten the very life of the church itself, thissimilarity was seized upon by the church-leaders to support theircontention that the prohibition against wine applied also to coffee. La Roque, [32] writing in 1715, says that the Arabian word _cahouah_signified at first only wine; but later was turned into a generic termapplied to all kinds of drink. "So there were really three sorts ofcoffee; namely, wine, including all intoxicating liquors; the drink madewith the shells, or cods, of the coffee bean; and that made from thebean itself. " Originally, then, the coffee drink may have been a kind of wine madefrom the coffee fruit. In the coffee countries even today the nativesare very fond, and eat freely, of the ripe coffee cherries, voiding theseeds. The pulp surrounding the coffee seeds (beans) is pleasant totaste, has a sweetish, aromatic flavor, and quickly ferments whenallowed to stand. Still another tradition (was the wish father to the thought?) tells howthe coffee drink was revealed to Mohammed himself by the Angel Gabriel. Coffee's partisans found satisfaction in a passage in the _Koran_ which, they said, foretold its adoption by the followers of the Prophet: They shall be given to drink an excellent wine, sealed; its seal is that of the musk. The most diligent research does not carry a knowledge of coffee backbeyond the time of Rhazes, two hundred years after Mohammed; so there islittle more than speculation or conjecture to support the theory that itwas known to the ancients, in Bible times or in the days of The PraisedOne. Our knowledge of tea, on the other hand, antedates the Christianera. We know also that tea was intensively cultivated and taxed underthe Tang dynasty in China, A. D. 793, and that Arab traders knew of it inthe following century. _The First Reliable Coffee Date_ About 1454 Sheik Gemaleddin Abou Muhammad Bensaid, mufti of Aden, surnamed Aldhabani, from Dhabhan, a small town where he was born, becameacquainted with the virtues of coffee on a journey into Abyssinia. [33]Upon his return to Aden, his health became impaired; and remembering thecoffee he had seen his countrymen drinking in Abyssinia, he sent forsome in the hope of finding relief. He not only recovered from hisillness; but, because of its sleep-dispelling qualities, he sanctionedthe use of the drink among the dervishes "that they might spend thenight in prayers or other religious exercises with more attention andpresence of mind. [34]" It is altogether probable that the coffee drink was known in Aden beforethe time of Sheik Gemaleddin; but the endorsement of the very learnedimam, whom science and religion had already made famous, was sufficientto start a vogue for the beverage that spread throughout Yemen, andthence to the far corners of the world. We read in the Arabianmanuscript at the Bibliothéque Nationale that lawyers, students, as wellas travelers who journeyed at night, artisans, and others, who worked atnight, to escape the heat of the day, took to drinking coffee; and evenleft off another drink, then becoming popular, made from the leaves of aplant called _khat_ or _cat_ (_catha edulis_). Sheik Gemaleddin was assisted in his work of spreading the gospel ofthis the first propaganda for coffee by one Muhammed Alhadrami, aphysician of great reputation, born in Hadramaut, Arabia Felix. A recently unearthed and little known version of coffee's origin showshow features of both the Omar tradition and the Gemaleddin story may becombined by a professional Occidental tale-writer[35]: Toward the middle of the fifteenth century, a poor Arab was traveling in Abyssinia. Finding himself weak and weary, he stopped near a grove. For fuel wherewith to cook his rice, he cut down a tree that happened to be covered with dried berries. His meal being cooked and eaten, the traveler discovered that these half-burnt berries were fragrant. He collected a number of them and, on crushing them with a stone, found that the aroma was increased to a great extent. While wondering at this, he accidentally let the substance fall into an earthen vessel that contained his scanty supply of water. A miracle! The almost putrid water was purified. He brought it to his lips; it was fresh and agreeable; and after a short rest the traveler so far recovered his strength and energy as to be able to resume his journey. The lucky Arab gathered as many berries as he could, and having arrived at Aden, informed the mufti of his discovery. That worthy was an inveterate opium-smoker, who had been suffering for years from the influence of the poisonous drug. He tried an infusion of the roasted berries, and was so delighted at the recovery of his former vigor that in gratitude to the tree he called it _cahuha_ which in Arabic signifies "force". Galland, in his analysis of the Arabian manuscript, already referred to, that has furnished us with the most trustworthy account of the origin ofcoffee, criticizes Antoine Faustus Nairon, Maronite professor ofOriental languages at Rome, who was the author of the first printedtreatise on coffee only, [36] for accepting the legends relating to Omarand the Abyssinian goatherd. He says they are unworthy of belief asfacts of history, although he is careful to add that there is _some_truth in the story of the discovery of coffee by the Abyssinian goatsand the abbot who prescribed the use of the berries for his monks, "theEastern Christians being willing to have the honor of the invention ofcoffee, for the abbot, or prior, of the convent and his companions areonly the mufti Gemaleddin and Muhammid Alhadrami, and the monks are thedervishes. " Amid all these details, Jardin reaches the conclusion that it is tochance we must attribute the knowledge of the properties of coffee, andthat the coffee tree was transported from its native land to Yemen, asfar as Mecca, and possibly into Persia, before being carried into Egypt. Coffee, being thus favorably introduced into Aden, it has continuedthere ever since, without interruption. By degrees the cultivation ofthe plant and the use of the beverage passed into many neighboringplaces. Toward the close of the fifteenth century (1470-1500) it reachedMecca and Medina, where it was introduced, as at Aden, by the dervishes, and for the same religious purpose. About 1510 it reached Grand Cairo inEgypt, where the dervishes from Yemen, living in a district bythemselves, drank coffee on the nights they intended to spend inreligious devotion. They kept it in a large red earthen vessel--each inturn receiving it, respectfully, from their superior, in a small bowl, which he dipped into the jar--in the meantime chanting their prayers, the burden of which was always: "There is no God but one God, the trueKing, whose power is not to be disputed. " [Illustration: A BOUQUET OF RIPE FRUIT] [Illustration: FLOWERS, FRUIT, AND LEAVES] [Illustration: THE COFFEE TREE BEARS FRUIT, LEAF, AND BLOSSOM AT THESAME TIME] After the dervishes, the bowl was passed to lay members of thecongregation. In this way coffee came to be so associated with the actof worship that "they never performed a religious ceremony in public andnever observed any solemn festival without taking coffee. " Meanwhile, the inhabitants of Mecca became so fond of the beverage that, disregarding its religious associations, they made of it a secular drinkto be sipped publicly in _kaveh kanes_, the first coffee houses. Herethe idle congregated to drink coffee, to play chess and other games, todiscuss the news of the day, and to amuse themselves with singing, dancing, and music, contrary to the manners of the rigid Mahommedans, who were very properly scandalized by such performances. In Medina andin Cairo, too, coffee became as common a drink as in Mecca and Aden. _The First Coffee Persecution_ At length the pious Mahommedans began to disapprove of the use of coffeeamong the people. For one thing, it made common one of the bestpsychology-adjuncts of their religion; also, the joy of life, that ithelped to liberate among those who frequented the coffee houses, precipitated social, political, and religious arguments; and thesefrequently developed into disturbances. Dissensions arose even among thechurchmen themselves. They divided into camps for and against coffee. The law of the Prophet on the subject of wine was variously construed asapplying to coffee. About this time (1511) Kair Bey was governor of Mecca for the sultan ofEgypt. He appears to have been a strict disciplinarian, but lamentablyignorant of the actual conditions obtaining among his people. As he wasleaving the mosque one evening after prayers, he was offended by seeingin a corner a company of coffee drinkers who were preparing to pass thenight in prayer. His first thought was that they were drinking wine; andgreat was his astonishment when he learned what the liquor really wasand how common was its use throughout the city. Further investigationconvinced him that indulgence in this exhilarating drink must inclinemen and women to extravagances prohibited by law, and so he determinedto suppress it. First he drove the coffee drinkers out of the mosque. The next day, he called a council of officers of justice, lawyers, physicians, priests, and leading citizens, to whom he declared what hehad seen the evening before at the mosque; and, "being resolved to put astop to the coffee-house abuses, he sought their advice upon thesubject. " The chief count in the indictment was that "in these placesmen and women met and played tambourines, violins, and other musicalinstruments. There were also people who played chess, mankala, and othersimilar games, for money; and there were many other things done contraryto our sacred law--may God keep it from all corruption until the daywhen we shall all appear before him![37]" The lawyers agreed that the coffee houses needed reforming; but as tothe drink itself, inquiry should be made as to whether it was in any wayharmful to mind or body; for if not, it might not be sufficient to closethe places that sold it. It was suggested that the opinion of thephysicians be sought. Two brothers, Persian physicians named Hakimani, and reputed the best inMecca, were summoned, although we are told they knew more about logicthan they did about physic. One of them came into the council fullyprejudiced, as he had already written a book against coffee, and filledwith concern for his profession, being fearful lest the common use ofthe new drink would make serious inroads on the practise of medicine. His brother joined with him in assuring the assembly that the plant_bunn_, from which coffee was made, was "cold and dry" and sounwholesome. When another physician present reminded them thatBengiazlah, the ancient and respected contemporary of Avicenna, taughtthat it was "hot and dry, " they made arbitrary answer that Bengiazlahhad in mind another plant of the same name, and that anyhow, it was notmaterial; for, if the coffee drink disposed people to things forbiddenby religion, the safest course for Mahommedans was to look upon it asunlawful. The friends of coffee were covered with confusion. Only the mufti spokeout in the meeting in its favor. Others, carried away by prejudice ormisguided zeal, affirmed that coffee clouded their senses. One man aroseand said it intoxicated like wine; which made every one laugh, since hecould hardly have been a judge of this if he had not drunk wine, whichis forbidden by the Mohammedan religion. Upon being asked whether he hadever drunk any, he was so imprudent as to admit that he had, therebycondemning himself out of his own mouth to the bastinado. The mufti of Aden, being both an officer of the court and a divine, undertook, with some heat, a defense of coffee; but he was clearly in anunpopular minority. He was rewarded with the reproaches and affronts ofthe religious zealots. So the governor had his way, and coffee was solemnly condemned as thingforbidden by the law; and a presentment was drawn up, signed by amajority of those present, and dispatched post-haste by the governor tohis royal master, the sultan, at Cairo. At the same time, the governorpublished an edict forbidding the sale of coffee in public or private. The officers of justice caused all the coffee houses in Mecca to beshut, and ordered all the coffee found there, or in the merchants'warehouses, to be burned. Naturally enough, being an unpopular edict, there were many evasions, and much coffee drinking took place behind closed doors. Some of thefriends of coffee were outspoken in their opposition to the order, beingconvinced that the assembly had rendered a judgment not in accordancewith the facts, and above all, contrary to the opinion of the mufti who, in every Arab community, is looked up to as the interpreter, orexpounder, of the law. One man, caught in the act of disobedience, besides being severely punished, was also led through the most publicstreets of the city seated on an ass. However, the triumph of the enemies of coffee was short-lived; for notonly did the sultan of Cairo disapprove the "indiscreet zeal" of thegovernor of Mecca, and order the edict revoked; but he read him a severelesson on the subject. How dared he condemn a thing approved at Cairo, the capital of his kingdom, where there were physicians whose opinionscarried more weight than those of Mecca, and who had found nothingagainst the law in the use of coffee? The best things might be abused, added the sultan, even the sacred waters of Zamzam, but this was noreason for an absolute prohibition. The fountain, or well, of Zamzam, according to the Mohammedan teaching, is the same which God caused tospring up in the desert to comfort Hagar and Ishmael when Abrahambanished them. It is in the enclosure of the temple at Mecca; and theMohammedans drink of it with much show of devotion, ascribing greatvirtues to it. It is not recorded whether the misguided governor was shocked at thisseeming profanity; but it is known that he hastened to obey the ordersof his lord and master. The prohibition was recalled, and thereafter heemployed his authority only to preserve order in the coffee houses. Thefriends of coffee, and the lovers of poetic justice, found satisfactionin the governor's subsequent fate. He was exposed as "an extortioner anda public robber, " and "tortured to death, " his brother killing himselfto avoid the same fate. The two Persian physicians who had played somean a part in the first coffee persecution, likewise came to an unhappyend. Being discredited in Mecca they fled to Cairo, where, in anunguarded moment, having cursed the person of Selim I, emperor of theTurks, who had conquered Egypt, they were executed by his order. Coffee, being thus re-established at Mecca, met with no opposition until1524, when, because of renewed disorders, the kadi of the town closedthe coffee houses, but did not seek to interfere with coffee drinking athome and in private. His successor, however, re-licensed them; and, continuing on their good behavior since then, they have not beendisturbed. In 1542 a ripple was caused by an order issued by Soliman the Great, forbidding the use of coffee; but no one took it seriously, especiallyas it soon became known that the order had been obtained "by surprise"and at the desire of only one of the court ladies "a little too nice inthis point. " One of the most interesting facts in the history of the coffee drink isthat wherever it has been introduced it has spelled revolution. It hasbeen the world's most radical drink in that its function has always beento make people think. And when the people began to think, they becamedangerous to tyrants and to foes of liberty of thought and action. Sometimes the people became intoxicated with their new found ideas; and, mistaking liberty for license, they ran amok, and called down upon theirheads persecutions and many petty intolerances. So history repeateditself in Cairo, twenty-three years after the first Mecca persecution. _Coffee's Second Religious Persecution_ Selim I, after conquering Egypt, had brought coffee to Constantinople in1517. The drink continued its progress through Syria, and was receivedin Damascus (about 1530), and in Aleppo (about 1532), withoutopposition. Several coffee houses of Damascus attained wide fame, amongthem the Café of the Roses, and the Café of the Gate of Salvation. Its increasing popularity and, perhaps, the realization that thecontinued spread of the beverage might lessen the demand for hisservices, caused a physician of Cairo to propound (about 1523) to hisfellows this question: What is your opinion concerning the liquor called coffee which is drank in company, as being reckoned in the number of those we have free leave to make use of, notwithstanding it is the cause of no small disorders, that it flies up into the head and is very pernicious to health? Is it permitted or forbidden? At the end he was careful to add, as his own opinion (and withoutprejudice?), that coffee was unlawful. To the credit of the physiciansof Cairo as a class, it should be recorded that they looked withunsympathetic eyes upon this attempt on the part of one of their numberto stir up trouble for a valuable adjunct to their materia medica, andso the effort died a-borning. If the physicians were disposed to do nothing to stop coffee's progress, not so the preachers. As places of resort, the coffee houses exercisedan appeal that proved stronger to the popular mind than that of thetemples of worship. This to men of sound religious training wasintolerable. The feeling against coffee smouldered for a time; but in1534 it broke out afresh. In that year a fiery preacher in one ofCairo's mosques so played upon the emotions of his congregation with apreachment against coffee, claiming that it was against the law and thatthose who drank it were not true Mohammedans, that upon leaving thebuilding a large number of his hearers, enraged, threw themselves intothe first coffee house they found in their way, burned the coffee potsand dishes, and maltreated all the persons they found there. Public opinion was immediately aroused; and the city was divided intotwo parties; one maintaining that coffee was against the law ofMohammed, and the other taking the contrary view. And then arose aSolomon in the person of the chief justice, who summoned into hispresence the learned physicians for consultation. Again the medicalprofession stood by its guns. The medical men pointed out to the chiefjustice that the question had already been decided by their predecessorson the side of coffee, and that the time had come to put some check "onthe furious zeal of the bigots" and the "indiscretions of ignorantpreachers. " Whereupon, the wise judge caused coffee to be served to thewhole company and drank some himself. By this act he "re-united thecontending parties, and brought coffee into greater esteem than ever. " _Coffee in Constantinople_ The story of the introduction of coffee into Constantinople shows thatit experienced much the same vicissitudes that marked its advent atMecca and Cairo. There were the same disturbances, the same unreasoningreligious superstition, the same political hatreds, the same stupidinterference by the civil authorities; and yet, in spite of it all, coffee attained new honors and new fame. The Oriental coffee housereached its supreme development in Constantinople. Although coffee had been known in Constantinople since 1517, it was notuntil 1554 that the inhabitants became acquainted with that greatinstitution of early eastern democracy--the coffee house. In that year, under the reign of Soliman the Great, son of Selim I, one Schemsi ofDamascus and one Hekem of Aleppo opened the first two coffee houses inthe quarter called Taktacalah. They were wonderful institutions forthose days, remarkable alike for their furnishings and their comforts, as well as for the opportunity they afforded for social intercourse andfree discussion. Schemsi and Hekem received their guests on "very neatcouches or sofas, " and the admission was the price of a dish ofcoffee--about one cent. Turks, high and low, took up the idea with avidity. Coffee housesincreased in number. The demand outstripped the supply. In the seraglioitself special officers (_kahvedjibachi_) were commissioned to preparethe coffee drink for the sultan. Coffee was in favor with all classes. The Turks gave to the coffee houses the name _kahveh kanes_(_diversoria_, Cotovicus called them); and as they grew in popularity, they became more and more luxurious. There were lounges, richlycarpeted; and in addition to coffee, many other means of entertainment. To these "schools of the wise" came the "young men ready to enter uponoffices of judicature; kadis from the provinces, seeking re-instatementor new appointments; muderys, or professors; officers of the seraglio;bashaws; and the principal lords of the port, " not to mention merchantsand travelers from all parts of the then known world. _Coffee House Persecutions_ About 1570, just when coffee seemed settled for all time in the socialscheme, the imams and dervishes raised a loud wail against it, sayingthe mosques were almost empty, while the coffee houses were always full. Then the preachers joined in the clamor, affirming it to be a greatersin to go to a coffee house than to enter a tavern. The authoritiesbegan an examination; and the same old debate was on. This time, however, appeared a mufti who was unfriendly to coffee. The religiousfanatics argued that Mohammed had not even known of coffee, and so couldnot have used the drink, and, therefore, it must be an abomination forhis followers to do so. Further, coffee was burned and ground tocharcoal before making a drink of it; and the _Koran_ distinctly forbadethe use of charcoal, including it among the unsanitary foods. The muftidecided the question in favor of the zealots, and coffee was forbiddenby law. The prohibition proved to be more honored in the breach than in theobservance. Coffee drinking continued in secret, instead of in the open. And when, about 1580, Amurath III, at the further solicitation of thechurchmen, declared in an edict that coffee should be classed with wine, and so prohibited in accordance with the law of the Prophet, the peopleonly smiled, and persisted in their secret disobedience. Already theywere beginning to think for themselves on religious as well as politicalmatters. The civil officers, finding it useless to try to suppress thecustom, winked at violations of the law; and, for a consideration, permitted the sale of coffee privately, so that many Ottoman"speak-easies" sprung up--places where coffee might be had behind shutdoors; shops where it was sold in back-rooms. This was enough to re-establish the coffee houses by degrees. Then camea mufti less scrupulous or more knowing than his predecessor, whodeclared that coffee was not to be looked upon as coal, and that thedrink made from it was not forbidden by the law. There was a generalrenewal of coffee drinking; religious devotees, preachers, lawyers, andthe mufti himself indulging in it, their example being followed by thewhole court and the city. After this, the coffee houses provided a handsome source of revenue toeach succeeding grand vizier; and there was no further interference withthe beverage until the reign of Amurath IV, when Grand Vizier Kuprili, during the war with Candia, decided that for political reasons, thecoffee houses should be closed. His argument was much the same as thatadvanced more than a hundred years later by Charles II of England, namely, that they were hotbeds of sedition. Kuprili was a militarydictator, with nothing of Charles's vacillating nature; and although, like Charles, he later rescinded his edict, he enforced it, while it waseffective, in no uncertain fashion. Kuprili was no petty tyrant. For afirst violation of the order, cudgeling was the punishment; for a secondoffense, the victim was sewn in a leather bag and thrown into theBosporus. Strangely enough, while he suppressed the coffee houses, hepermitted the taverns, that sold wine forbidden by the _Koran_, toremain open. Perhaps he found the latter produced a less dangerous kindof mental stimulation than that produced by coffee. Coffee, says Virey, was too intellectual a drink for the fierce and senseless administrationof the pashas. Even in those days it was not possible to make people good by law. Paraphrasing the copy-book, suppressed desires will arise, though allthe world o'erwhelm them, to men's eyes. An unjust law was no moreenforceable in those centuries than it is in the twentieth century. Menare humans first, although they may become brutish when bereft ofreason. But coffee does not steal away their reason; rather, it sharpenstheir reasoning faculties. As Galland has truly said: "Coffee joins men, born for society, in a more perfect union; protestations are moresincere in being made at a time when the mind is not clouded with fumesand vapors, and therefore not easily forgotten, which too frequentlyhappens when made over a bottle. " [Illustration: CHARACTERISTIC SCENE IN A TURKISH COFFEE HOUSE OF THESEVENTEENTH CENTURY] Despite the severe penalties staring them in the face, violations of thelaw were plentiful among the people of Constantinople. Venders of thebeverage appeared in the market-places with "large copper vessels withfire under them; and those who had a mind to drink were invited to stepinto any neighboring shop where every one was welcome on such anaccount. " Later, Kuprili, having assured himself that the coffee houses were nolonger a menace to his policies, permitted the free use of the beveragethat he had previously forbidden. _Coffee and Coffee Houses in Persia_ Some writers claim for Persia the discovery of the coffee drink; butthere is no evidence to support the claim. There are, however, sufficient facts to justify a belief that here, as in Ethiopia, coffeehas been known from time immemorial--which is a very convenient phrase. At an early date the coffee house became an established institution inthe chief towns. The Persians appear to have used far more intelligencethan the Turks in handling the political phase of the coffee-housequestion, and so it never became necessary to order them suppressed inPersia. The wife of Shah Abbas, observing that great numbers of people were wontto gather and to talk politics in the leading coffee house of Ispahan, appointed a mollah--an ecclesiastical teacher and expounder of thelaw--to sit there daily to entertain the frequenters of the place withnicely turned points of history, law, and poetry. Being a man of wisdomand great tact, he avoided controversial questions of state; and sopolitics were kept in the background. He proved a welcome visitor, andwas made much of by the guests. This example was generally followed, andas a result disturbances were rare in the coffee houses of Ispahan. Adam Olearius[38] (1599-1671), who was secretary to the German Embassythat traveled in Turkey in 1633-36, tells of the great diversions madein Persian coffee houses "by their poets and historians, who are seatedin a high chair from whence they make speeches and tell satiricalstories, playing in the meantime with a little stick and using the samegestures as our jugglers and legerdemain men do in England. " At court conferences conspicuous among the shah's retinue were always tobe seen the "kahvedjibachi, " or "coffee-pourers. " _Early Coffee Manners and Customs_ Karstens Niebuhr[39] (1733-1815), the Hanoverian traveler, furnishes thefollowing description of the early Arabian, Syrian, and Egyptian coffeehouses: They are commonly large halls, having their floors spread with mats, and illuminated at night by a multitude of lamps. Being the only theaters for the exercise of profane eloquence, poor scholars attend here to amuse the people. Select portions are read, _e. G. _ the adventures of Rustan Sal, a Persian hero. Some aspire to the praise of invention, and compose tales and fables. They walk up and down as they recite, or assuming oratorial consequence, harangue upon subjects chosen by themselves. In one coffee house at Damascus an orator was regularly hired to tell his stories at a fixed hour; in other cases he was more directly dependant upon the taste of his hearers, as at the conclusion of his discourse, whether it had consisted of literary topics or of loose and idle tales, he looked to the audience for a voluntary contribution. At Aleppo, again, there was a man with a soul above the common, who, being a person of distinction, and one that studied merely for his own pleasure, had yet gone the round of all the coffee houses in the city to pronounce moral harangues. In some coffee houses there were singers and dancers, as before, andmany came to listen to the marvelous tales, of the _Thousand and OneNights_. In Oriental countries it was once the custom to offer a cup of "badcoffee, " i. E. , coffee containing poison, to those functionaries or otherpersons who had proven themselves embarrassing to the authorities. While coffee drinking started as a private religious function, it wasnot long after its introduction by the coffee houses that it becamesecularized still more in the homes of the people, although forcenturies it retained a certain religious significance. Galland saysthat in Constantinople, at the time of his visit to the city, there wasno house, rich or poor, Turk or Jew, Greek or Armenian, where it was notdrunk at least twice a day, and many drank it oftener, for it became acustom in every house to offer it to all visitors; and it was consideredan incivility to refuse it. Twenty dishes a day, per person, was not anuncommon average. Galland observes that "as much money must be spent in the privatefamilies of Constantinople for coffee as for wine at Paris, " and relatesthat it is as common for beggars to ask for money to buy coffee, as itis in Europe to ask for money to buy wine or beer. At this time to refuse or to neglect to give coffee to their wives was alegitimate cause for divorce among the Turks. The men made promise whenmarrying never to let their wives be without coffee. "That, " saysFulbert de Monteith, "is perhaps more prudent than to swear fidelity. " Another Arabic manuscript by Bichivili in the Bibliothéque Nationale atParis furnishes us with this pen picture of the coffee ceremony aspractised in Constantinople in the sixteenth century: In all the great men's houses, there are servants whose business it is only to take care of the coffee; and the head officer among them, or he who has the inspection over all the rest, has an apartment allowed him near the hall which is destined for the reception of visitors. The Turks call this officer _Kavveghi_, that is, Overseer or Steward of the Coffee. In the harem or ladies' apartment in the seraglio, there are a great many such officers, each having forty or fifty _Baltagis_ under them, who, after they have served a certain time in these coffee-houses, are sure to be well provided for, either by an advantageous post, or a sufficient quantity of land. In the houses of persons of quality likewise, there are pages, called _Itchoglans_, who receive the coffee from the stewards, and present it to the company with surprising dexterity and address, as soon as the master of the family makes a sign for that purpose, which is all the language they ever speak to them.... The coffee is served on salvers without feet, made commonly of painted or varnished wood, and sometimes of silver. They hold from 15 to 20 china dishes each; and such as can afford it have these dishes half set in silver ... The dish may be easily held with the thumb below and two fingers on the upper edge. [Illustration: SERVING COFFEE TO A GUEST. --AFTER A DRAWING IN AN EARLYEDITION OF "ARABIAN NIGHTS"] In his _Relation of a Journey to Constantinople in 1657_, NicholasRolamb, the Swedish traveler and envoy to the Ottoman Porte, gives usthis early glimpse of coffee in the home life of the Turks:[40] This [coffee] is a kind of pea that grows in _Egypt_, which the _Turks_ pound and boil in water, and take it for pleasure instead of brandy, sipping it through the lips boiling hot, persuading themselves that it consumes catarrhs, and prevents the rising of vapours out of the stomach into the head. The drinking of this coffee and smoking tobacco (for tho' the use of tobacco is forbidden on pain of death, yet it is used in _Constantinople_ more than any where by men as well as women, tho' secretly) makes up all the pastime among the _Turks_, and is the only thing they treat one another with; for which reason all people of distinction have a particular room next their own, built on purpose for it, where there stands a jar of coffee continually boiling. It is curious to note that among several misconceptions that were heldby some of the peoples of the Levant was one that coffee was a promoterof impotence, although a Persian version of the Angel Gabriel legendsays that Gabriel invented it to restore the Prophet's failingmetabolism. Often in Turkish and Arabian literature, however, we meetwith the suggestion that coffee drinking makes for sterility andbarrenness, a notion that modern medicine has exploded; for now we knowthat coffee stimulates the racial instinct, for which tobacco is asedative. [Illustration: THE FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO COFFEE, AS IT APPEARS INRAUWOLF'S WORK, 1582] CHAPTER IV INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO WESTERN EUROPE _When the three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, came to Europe--Coffee first mentioned by Rauwolf in 1582--Early days of coffee in Italy--How Pope Clement VIII baptized it and made it a truly Christian beverage--The first European coffee house, in Venice, 1645--The famous Caffè Florian--Other celebrated Venetian coffee houses of the eighteenth century--The romantic story of Pedrocchi, the poor lemonade-vender, who built the most beautiful coffee house in the world_ Of the world's three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, cocoa was the first to be introduced into Europe, in 1528, by theSpanish. It was nearly a century later, in 1610, that the Dutch broughttea to Europe. Venetian traders introduced coffee into Europe in 1615. Europe's first knowledge of coffee was brought by travelers returningfrom the Far East and the Levant. Leonhard Rauwolf started on his famousjourney into the Eastern countries from Marseilles in September, 1573, having left his home in Augsburg, the 18th of the preceding May. Hereached Aleppo in November, 1573; and returned to Augsburg, February 12, 1576. He was the first European to mention coffee; and to him alsobelongs the honor of being the first to refer to the beverage in print. Rauwolf was not only a doctor of medicine and a botanist of greatrenown, but also official physician to the town of Augsburg. When hespoke, it was as one having authority. The first printed reference tocoffee appears as _chaube_ in chapter viii of _Rauwolf's Travels_, whichdeals with the manners and customs of the city of Aleppo. The exactpassage is reproduced herewith as it appears in the original Germanedition of Rauwolf published at Frankfort and Lauingen in 1582-83. Thetranslation is as follows: If you have a mind to eat something or to drink other liquors, there is commonly an open shop near it, where you sit down upon the ground or carpets and drink together. Among the rest they have a very good drink, by them called _Chaube_ [coffee] that is almost as black as ink, and very good in illness, chiefly that of the stomach; of this they drink in the morning early in open places before everybody, without any fear or regard, out of _China_ cups, as hot as they can; they put it often to their lips but drink but little at a time, and let it go round as they sit. In this same water they take a fruit called _Bunnu_ which in its bigness, shape and color is almost like unto a bayberry, with two thin shells surrounded, which, as they informed me, are brought from the _Indies_; but as these in themselves are, and have within them, two yellowish grains in two distinct cells, and besides, being they agree in their virtue, figure, looks, and name with the _Bunchum_ of _Avicenna_, and _Bunca_, of _Rasis ad Almans_ exactly; therefore I take them to be the same, until I am better informed by the learned. This liquor is very common among them, wherefore there are a great many of them that sell it, and others that sell the berries, everywhere in their _Batzars_. _The Early Days of Coffee in Italy_ It is not easy to determine just when the use of coffee spread fromConstantinople to the western parts of Europe; but it is more thanlikely that the Venetians, because of their close proximity to, andtheir great trade with, the Levant, were the first acquainted with it. Prospero Alpini (Alpinus; 1553-1617), a learned physician and botanistof Padua, journeyed to Egypt in 1580, and brought back news of coffee. He was the first to print a description of the coffee plant and drink inhis treatise _The Plants of Egypt_, written in Latin, and published inVenice, 1592. He says: I have seen this tree at Cairo, it being the same tree that produces the fruit, so common in Egypt, to which they give the name _bon_ or _ban_. The Arabians and the Egyptians make a sort of decoction of it, which they drink instead of wine; and it is sold in all their public houses, as wine is with us. They call this drink _caova_. The fruit of which they make it comes from "Arabia the Happy, " and the tree that I saw looks like a spindle tree, but the leaves are thicker, tougher, and greener. The tree is never without leaves. Alpini makes note of the medicinal qualities attributed to the drink bydwellers in the Orient, and many of these were soon incorporated intoEurope's materia medica. Johann Vesling (Veslingius; 1598-1649), a German botanist and traveler, settled in Venice, where he became known as a learned Italian physician. He edited (1640) a new edition of Alpini's work; but earlier (1638)published some comments on Alpini's findings, in the course of which hedistinguished certain qualities found in a drink made from the husks(skins) of the coffee berries from those found in the liquor made fromthe beans themselves, which he calls the stones of the coffee fruit. Hesays: Not only in Egypt is coffee in much request, but in almost all the other provinces of the Turkish Empire. Whence it comes to pass that it is dear even in the Levant and scarce among the Europeans, who by that means are deprived of a very wholesome liquor. From this we may conclude that coffee was not wholly unknown in Europeat that time. Vesling adds that when he visited Cairo, he found theretwo or three thousand coffee houses, and that "some did begin to putsugar in their coffee to correct the bitterness of it, and others madesugar-plums of the berries. " _Coffee Baptized by the Pope_ Shortly after coffee reached Rome, according to a much quoted legend, itwas again threatened with religious fanaticism, which almost caused itsexcommunication from Christendom. It is related that certain priestsappealed to Pope Clement VIII (1535-1605) to have its use forbiddenamong Christians, denouncing it as an invention of Satan. They claimedthat the Evil One, having forbidden his followers, the infidel Moslems, the use of wine--no doubt because it was sanctified by Christ and usedin the Holy Communion--had given them as a substitute this hellish blackbrew of his which they called coffee. For Christians to drink it was torisk falling into a trap set by Satan for their souls. [Illustration: AN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN COFFEE HOUSE After Goldoni, by Zatta] It is further related that the pope, made curious, desired to inspectthis Devil's drink, and had some brought to him. The aroma of it was sopleasant and inviting that the pope was tempted to try a cupful. Afterdrinking it, he exclaimed, "Why, this Satan's drink is so delicious thatit would be a pity to let the infidels have exclusive use of it. Weshall fool Satan by baptizing it, and making it a truly Christianbeverage. " Thus, whatever harmfulness its opponents try to attribute to coffee, thefact remains (if we are to credit the story) that it has been baptizedand proclaimed unharmful, and a "truly Christian beverage, " by hisholiness the pope. The Venetians had further knowledge of coffee in 1585, whenGianfrancesco Morosini, city magistrate at Constantinople, reported tothe Senate that the Turks "drink a black water as hot as they can sufferit, which is the infusion of a bean called _cavee_, which is said topossess the virtue of stimulating mankind. " Dr. A. Couguet, in an Italian review, asserts that Europe's first cup ofcoffee was sipped in Venice, toward the close of the sixteenth century. He is of the opinion that the first berries were imported by Mocengio, who was called the _pevere_, because he made a huge fortune trading inspices and other specialties of the Orient. In 1615 Pierre (Pietro) Delia Valle (1586-1652), the well known Italiantraveler and author of _Travels in India and Persia_, wrote a letterfrom Constantinople to his friend Mario Schipano at Venice: The Turks have a drink of black color, which during the summer is very cooling, whereas in the winter it heats and warms the body, remaining always the same beverage and not changing its substance. They swallow it hot as it comes from the fire and they drink it in long draughts, not at dinner time, but as a kind of dainty and sipped slowly while talking with one's friends. One cannot find any meetings among them where they drink it not.... With this drink, which they call _cahue_, they divert themselves in their conversations.... It is made with the grain or fruit of a certain tree called _cahue_.... When I return I will bring some with me and I will impart the knowledge to the Italians. [Illustration: NOBILITY IN AN EARLY VENETIAN CAFFÈ From the Grevembroch collection in the Museo Civico] Della Valle's countrymen, however, were in a fair way to become wellacquainted with the beverage, for already (1615) it had been introducedinto Venice. At first it was used largely for medicinal purposes; andhigh prices were charged for it. Vesling says of its use in Europe as amedicine, "the first step it made from the cabinets of the curious, asan exotic seed, being into the apothecaries' shops as a drug. " The first coffee house in Italy is said to have been opened in 1645, butconvincing confirmation is lacking. In the beginning, the beverage wassold with other drinks by lemonade-venders. The Italian word_aquacedratajo_ means one who sells lemonade and similar refreshments;also one who sells coffee, chocolate, liquor, etc. Jardin says thebeverage was in general use throughout Italy in 1645. It is certain, however, that a coffee shop was opened in Venice in 1683 under the_Procuratie Nuove_. The famous Caffè Florian was opened in Venice byFloriono Francesconi in 1720. The first authoritative treatise devoted to coffee only appeared in1671. It was written in Latin by Antoine Faustus Nairon (1635-1707), Maronite professor of the Chaldean and Syrian languages in the Collegeof Rome. During the latter part of the seventeenth century and the first half ofthe eighteenth, the coffee house made great progress in Italy. It isinteresting to note that this first European adaptation of the Orientalcoffee house was known as a _caffè_. The double _f_ is retained by theItalians to this day, and by some writers is thought to have been takenfrom _coffea_, without the double _f_ being lost, as in the case of theFrench and some other Continental forms. To Italy, then, belongs the honor of having given to the Western worldthe real coffee house, although the French and Austrians greatlyimproved upon it. It was not long after its beginning that nearly everyshop on the Piazza di San Marco in Venice was a _caffè_[41]. Near thePiazza was the Caffè della Ponte dell' Angelo, where in 1792 died thedog Tabacchio, celebrated by Vincenzo Formaleoni in a satirical eulogythat is a parody of the oration of Ubaldo Bregolini upon the death ofAngelo Emo. In the Caffè della Spaderia, kept by Marco Ancilloto, some radicalsproposed to open a reading-room to encourage the spread of liberalideas. The inquisitors sent a foot-soldier to notify the proprietor thathe should inform the first person entering the room that he was topresent himself before their tribunal. The idea was thereupon abandoned. [Illustration: GOLDONI IN A VENETIAN CAFFÈ From a painting by P. Longhi] Among other celebrated coffee houses was the one called Menegazzo, fromthe name of the rotund proprietor, Menico. This place was muchfrequented by men of letters; and heated discussions were common therebetween Angelo Maria Barbaro, Lorenzo da Ponte, and others of theirtime. The coffee house gradually became the common resort of all classes. Inthe mornings came the merchants, lawyers, physicians, brokers, workers, and wandering venders; in the afternoons, and until the late hours ofthe nights, the leisure classes, including the ladies. For the most part, the rooms of the first Italian _caffè_ were low, simple, unadorned, without windows, and only poorly illuminated bytremulous and uncertain lights. Within them, however, joyous throngspassed to and fro, clad in varicolored garments, men and women chattingin groups here and there, and always above the buzz there were to beheard such choice bits of scandal as made worthwhile a visit to thecoffee house. Smaller rooms were devoted to gaming. In the "little square" described by Goldoni[42] in his comedy _TheCoffee House_, where the combined barber-shop and gambling house waslocated, Don Marzio, that marvelous type of slanderous old romancer, isshown as one typical of the period, for Goldoni was a satirist. Theother characters of the play were also drawn from the types then to beseen every day in the coffee houses on the Piazza. In the square of St. Mark's, in the eighteenth century, under the_Procuratie Vecchie_, were the _caffè_ Re di Francia, Abbondanza, Pitt, l'eroe, Regina d'Ungheria, Orfeo, Redentore, Coraggio-Speranza, ArcoCeleste, and Quadri. The last-named was opened in 1775 by Giorgio Quadriof Corfu, who served genuine Turkish coffee for the first time inVenice. Under the _Procuratie Nuove_ were to be found the _caffè_ AngeloCustode, Duca di Toscana, Buon genio-Doge, Imperatore Imperatrice dellaRussia, Tamerlano, Fontane di Diana, Dame Venete, Aurora Piante d'oro, Arabo-Piastrelle, Pace, Venezia trionfante, and Florian. Probably no coffee house in Europe has acquired so world-wide acelebrity as that kept by Florian, the friend of Canova the sculptor, and the trusted agent and acquaintance of hundreds of persons in and outof the city, who found him a mine of social information and a convenientcity directory. Persons leaving Venice left their cards and itinerarieswith him; and new-comers inquired at Florian's for tidings of those whomthey wished to see. "He long concentrated in himself a knowledge morevaried and multifarious than that possessed by any individual before orsince, " says Hazlitt[43], who has given us this delightful pen pictureof _caffè_ life in Venice in the eighteenth century: Venetian coffee was said to surpass all others, and the article placed before his visitors by Florian was the best in Venice. Of some of the establishments as they then existed, Molmenti has supplied us with illustrations, in one of which Goldoni the dramatist is represented as a visitor, and a female mendicant is soliciting alms. So cordial was the esteem of the great sculptor Canova for him, that when Florian was overtaken by gout, he made a model of his leg, that the poor fellow might be spared the anguish of fitting himself with boots. The friendship had begun when Canova was entering on his career, and he never forgot the substantial services which had been rendered to him in the hour of need. In later days, the Caffè Florian was under the superintendence of a female chef, and the waitresses used, in the case of certain visitors, to fasten a flower in the button-hole, perhaps allusively to the name. In the Piazza itself girls would do the same thing. A good deal of hospitality is, and has ever been, dispensed at Venice in the cafés and restaurants, which do service for the domestic hearth. There were many other establishments devoted, more especially in the latest period of Venetian independence, to the requirements of those who desired such resorts for purposes of conversation and gossip. These houses were frequented by various classes of patrons--the patrician, the politician, the soldier, the artist, the old and the young--all had their special haunts where the company and the tariff were in accordance with the guests. The upper circles of male society--all above the actually poor--gravitated hither to a man. For the Venetian of all ranks the coffee house was almost the last place visited on departure from the city, and the first visited on his return. His domicile was the residence of his wife and the repository of his possessions; but only on exceptional occasions was it the scene of domestic hospitality, and rare were the instances when the husband and wife might be seen abroad together, and when the former would invite the lady to enter a café or a confectioner's shop to partake of an ice. [Illustration: FLORIAN'S FAMOUS CAFFÈ IN THE PIAZZA DI SAN MARCO, VENICE, NINETEENTH CENTURY] The Caffè Florian has undergone many changes, but it still survives asone of the favorite _caffè_ in the Piazza San Marco. By 1775 coffee-house history had begun to repeat itself in Venice. Charges of immorality, vice, and corruption, were preferred against the_caffè_; and the Council of Ten in 1775, and again in 1776, directed theInquisitors of State to eradicate these "social cankers. " However, theysurvived all attempts of the reformers to suppress them. The Caffè Pedrocchi in Padua was another of the early Italian coffeehouses that became famous. Antonio Pedrocchi (1776-1852) was alemonade-vender who, in the hope of attracting the gay youth, thestudents of his time, bought an old house with the idea of convertingthe ground floor into a series of attractive rooms. He put all his readymoney and all he could borrow into the venture, only to find there wereno cellars, indispensable for making ices and beverages on the premises, and that the walls and floors were so old that they crumbled whenrepairs were started. He was in despair; but, nothing daunted, he decided to have a cellardug. What was his surprise to find the house was built over the vaultof an old church, and that the vault contained considerable treasure. The lucky proprietor found himself free to continue his trade oflemonade-vender and coffee-seller, or to live a life of ease. Being awise man, he adhered to his original plan; and soon his luxurious roomsbecame the favorite rendezvous for the smart set of his day. In thisperiod lemonade and coffee frequently went together. The Caffè Pedrocchiis considered one of the finest pieces of architecture erected in Italyin the nineteenth century. It was begun in 1816, opened in 1831, andcompleted in 1842. Coffee houses were early established in other Italian cities, particularly in Rome, Florence, and Genoa. In 1764, _Il Caffè_, a purely philosophical and literary periodical, made its appearance in Milan, being founded by Count Pietro Verri(1728-97). Its chief editor was Cesare Beccaria. Its object was tocounteract the influence and superficiality of the Arcadians. Itacquired its title from the fact that Count Verri and his friends werewont to meet at a coffee house in Milan kept by a Greek named Demetrio. It lived only two years. Other periodicals of the same name appeared at later periods. [Illustration] CHAPTER V THE BEGINNINGS OF COFFEE IN FRANCE _What French travelers did for coffee--The introduction of coffee by P. De la Roque into Marseilles in 1644--The first commercial importation of coffee from Egypt--The first French coffee house--Failure of the attempt by physicians of Marseilles to discredit coffee--Soliman Aga introduces coffee into Paris--Cabarets à caffè--Celebrated works on coffee by French writers_ We are indebted to three great French travelers for much valuableknowledge about coffee; and these gallant gentlemen first fired theimagination of the French people in regard to the beverage that wasdestined to play so important a part in the French revolution. They areTavernier (1605-89), Thévenot (1633-67), and Bernier (1625-88). Then there is Jean La Roque (1661-1745), who made a famous "Voyage toArabia the Happy" (_Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse_) in 1708-13 and towhose father, P. De la Roque, is due the honor of having brought thefirst coffee into France in 1644. Also, there is Antoine Galland(1646-1715), the French Orientalist, first translator of the _ArabianNights_ and antiquary to the king, who, in 1699, published an analysisand translation from the Arabic of the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript (1587), giving the first authentic account of the origin of coffee. Probably the earliest reference to coffee in France is to be found inthe simple statement that Onorio Belli (Bellus), the Italian botanistand author, in 1596 sent to Charles de l'Écluse (1526-1609), a Frenchphysician, botanist and traveler, "seeds used by the Egyptians to make aliquid they call _cave_. [44]" P. De la Roque accompanied M. De la Haye, the French ambassador, toConstantinople; and afterward traveled into the Levant. Upon his returnto Marseilles in 1644, he brought with him not only some coffee, but"all the little implements used about it in Turkey, which were thenlooked upon as great curiosities in France. " There were included in thecoffee service some findjans, or china dishes, and small pieces ofmuslin embroidered with gold, silver, and silk, which the Turks used asnapkins. Jean La Roque gives credit to Jean de Thévenot for introducing coffeeprivately into Paris in 1657, and for teaching the French how to usecoffee. De Thévenot writes in this entertaining fashion concerning the use ofthe drink in Turkey in the middle of the seventeenth century: They have another drink in ordinary use. They call it _cahve_ and take it all hours of the day. This drink is made from a berry roasted in a pan or other utensil over the fire. They pound it into a very fine powder. When they wish to drink it, they take a boiler made expressly for the purpose, which they call an _ibrik_; and having filled it with water, they let it boil. When it boils, they add to about three cups of water a heaping spoonful of the powder; and when it boils, they remove it quickly from the fire, or sometimes they stir it, otherwise it would boil over, as it rises very quickly. When it has boiled up thus ten or twelve times, they pour it into porcelain cups, which they place upon a platter of painted wood and bring it to you thus boiling. One must drink it hot, but in several instalments, otherwise it is not good. One takes it in little swallows[45] for fear of burning one's self--in such fashion that in a _cavekane_ (so they call the places where it is sold ready prepared), one hears a pleasant little musical sucking sound.... There are some who mix with it a small quantity of cloves and cardamom seeds; others add sugar. [Illustration: TITLE PAGE OF LA ROQUE'S WORK, 1716] It was really out of curiosity that the people of France took to coffee, says Jardin; "they wanted to know this Oriental beverage, so muchvaunted, although its blackness at first sight was far from attractive. " About the year 1660 several merchants of Marseilles, who had lived for atime in the Levant and felt they were not able to do without coffee, brought some coffee beans home with them; and later, a group ofapothecaries and other merchants brought in the first commercialimportation of coffee in bales from Egypt. The Lyons merchants soonfollowed suit, and the use of coffee became general in those parts. In1671 certain private persons opened a coffee house in Marseilles, nearthe Exchange, which at once became popular with merchants and travelers. Others started up, and all were crowded. The people did not, however, drink any the less at home. "In fine, " says La Roque, "the use of thebeverage increased so amazingly that, as was inevitable, the physiciansbecame alarmed, thinking it would not agree with the inhabitants of acountry hot and extremely dry. " [Illustration: THE COFFEE TREE AS PICTURED BY LA ROQUE IN HIS "VOYAGE DEL'ARABIE HEUREUSE"] The age-old controversy was on. Some sided with the physicians, othersopposed them, as at Mecca, Cairo, and Constantinople; only here theargument turned mainly on the medicinal question, the Church this timehaving no part in the dispute. "The lovers of coffee used the physiciansvery ill when they met together, and the physicians on their sidethreatened the coffee drinkers with all sorts of diseases. " [Illustration: A CLOSE-UP OF RIPE COFFEE BERRIES] Matters came to a head in 1679, when an ingenious attempt by thephysicians of Marseilles to discredit coffee took the form of having ayoung student, about to be admitted to the College of Physicians, dispute before the magistrate in the town hall, a question proposed bytwo physicians of the Faculty of Aix, as to whether coffee was or wasnot prejudicial to the inhabitants of Marseilles. The thesis recited that coffee had won the approval of all nations, hadalmost wholly put down the use of wine, although it was not to becompared even with the lees of that excellent beverage; that it was avile and worthless foreign novelty; that its claim to be a remedyagainst distempers was ridiculous, because it was not a bean but thefruit of a tree discovered by goats and camels; that it was hot and notcold, as alleged; that it burned up the blood, and so induced palsies, impotence, and leanness; "from all of which we must necessarily concludethat coffee is hurtful to the greater part of the inhabitants ofMarseilles. " Thus did the good doctors of the Faculty of Aix set forth theirprejudices, and this was their final decision upon coffee. Many thoughtthey overreached themselves in their misguided zeal. They were handledsomewhat roughly in the disputation, which disclosed many falsereasonings, to say nothing of blunders as to matters of fact. The worldhad already advanced too far to have another decision against coffeecount for much, and this latest effort to stop its onward march was ofeven less force than the diatribes of the Mohammedan priests. The coffeehouses continued to be as much frequented as before, and the peopledrank no less coffee in their homes. Indeed, the indictment proved aboomerang, for consumption received such an impetus that the merchantsof Lyons and Marseilles, for the first time in history, began to importgreen coffee from the Levant by the ship-load in order to meet theincreased demand. Meanwhile, in 1669, Soliman Aga, the Turkish ambassador from Mohammed IVto the court of Louis XIV, had arrived in Paris. He brought with him aconsiderable quantity of coffee, and introduced the coffee drink, madein Turkish style, to the French capital. [Illustration: A COFFEE BRANCH WITH FLOWERS AND FRUIT AS ILLUSTRATED INLA ROQUE'S "VOYAGE DE L'ARABIE HEUREUSE"] The ambassador remained in Paris only from July, 1669, to May, 1670, butlong enough firmly to establish the custom he had introduced. Two yearslater, Pascal, an Armenian, opened his coffee-drinking booth at the fairof St. -Germain, and this event marked the beginning of the Parisiancoffee houses. The story is told in detail in chapter XI. The custom of drinking coffee having become general in the capital, aswell as in Marseilles and Lyons, the example was followed in all theprovinces. Every city soon had its coffee houses, and the beverage waslargely consumed in private homes. La Roque writes: "None, from themeanest citizen to the persons of the highest quality, failed to use itevery morning or at least soon after dinner, it being the customlikewise to offer it in all visits. " "The persons of highest quality" encouraged the fashion of having_cabaréts à caffé_; and soon it was said that there could be seen inFrance all that the East could furnish of magnificence in coffee houses, "the china jars and other Indian furniture being richer and morevaluable than the gold and silver with which they were lavishlyadorned. " In 1671 there appeared in Lyons a book entitled _The Most ExcellentVirtues of the Mulberry, Called Coffee_, showing the need for anauthoritative work on the subject--a need that was ably filled that sameyear and in Lyons by the publication of Philippe Sylvestre Dufour'sadmirable treatise, _Concerning the Use of Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate_. Again at Lyons, Dufour published (1684) his more complete work on _TheManner of Making Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate_. This was followed (1715)by the publication in Paris of Jean La Roque's _Voyage de l'ArabieHeureuse_, containing the story of the author's journey to the court ofthe king of Yemen in 1711, a description of the coffee tree and itsfruit, and a critical and historical treatise on its first use andintroduction to France. La Roque's description of his visit to the king's gardens is interestingbecause it shows the Arabs still held to the belief that coffee grewonly in Arabia. Here it is: There was nothing remarkable in the King's Gardens, except the great pains taken to furnish it with all the kinds of trees that are common in the country; amongst which there were the coffee trees, the finest that could be had. When the deputies represented to the King how much that was contrary to the custom of the Princes of Europe (who endeavor to stock their gardens chiefly with the rarest and most uncommon plants that can be found) the King returned them this answer: That he valued himself as much upon his good taste and generosity as any Prince in Europe; the coffee tree, he told them, was indeed common in his country, but it was not the less dear to him upon that account; the perpetual verdure of it pleased him extremely; and also the thoughts of its producing a fruit which was nowhere else to be met with; and when he made a present of that that came from his own Gardens, it was a great satisfaction to him to be able to say that he had planted the trees that produced it with his own hands. The first merchant licensed to sell coffee in France was one DamameFrançois, a bourgeois of Paris, who secured the privilege through anedict of 1692. He was given the sole right for ten years to sell coffeesand teas in all the provinces and towns of the kingdom, and in allterritories under the sovereignty of the king, and received alsoauthority to maintain a warehouse. To Santo Domingo (1738) and other French colonies the café was soontransported from the homeland, and thrived under special license fromthe king. In 1858 there appeared in France a leaflet-periodical, entitled _TheCafé, Literary, Artistic, and Commercial_. Ch. Woinez, the editor, saidin announcing it: "The Salon stood for privilege, the Café stands forequality. " Its publication was of short duration. [Illustration] CHAPTER VI THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO ENGLAND _The first printed reference to coffee in English--Early mention of coffee by noted English travelers and writers--The Lacedæmonian "black broth" controversy--How Conopios introduced coffee drinking at Oxford--The first English coffee house in Oxford--Two English botanists on coffee_ English travelers and writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centurieswere quite as enterprising as their Continental contemporaries intelling about the coffee bean and the coffee drink. The first printedreference to coffee in English, however, appears as _chaoua_ in a noteby a Dutchman, Paludanus, in _Linschoten's Travels_, the title of anEnglish translation from the Latin of a work first published in Hollandin 1595 or 1596, the English edition appearing in London in 1598. Areproduction made from a photograph of the original work, with thequaint black-letter German text and the Paludanus notation in roman, isshown herewith. Hans Hugo (or John Huygen) Van Linschooten (1563-1611) was one of themost intrepid of Dutch travelers. In his description of Japanese mannersand customs we find one of the earliest tea references. He says: Their manner of eating and drinking is: everie man hath a table alone, without table-clothes or napkins, and eateth with two pieces of wood like the men of Chino: they drinke wine of Rice, wherewith they drink themselves drunke, and after their meat they use a certain drinke, which is a pot with hote water, which they drinke as hote as ever they may indure, whether it be Winter or Summer. Just here Bernard Ten Broeke Paludanus (1550-1633), Dutch savant andauthor, professor of philosophy at the University of Leyden, himself atraveler over the four quarters of the globe, inserts his notecontaining the coffee reference. He says: The Turks holde almost the same manner of drinking of their _Chaona_[46], which they make of certaine fruit, which is like unto the Bakelaer[47], and by the Egyptians called _Bon_ or _Ban_[48]: they take of this fruite one pound and a half, and roast them a little in the fire and then sieth them in twenty pounds of water, till the half be consumed away: this drinke they take every morning fasting in their chambers, out of an earthen pot, being verie hote, as we doe here drinke _aquacomposita_[49] in the morning: and they say that it strengtheneth and maketh them warme, breaketh wind, and openeth any stopping. Van Linschooten then completes his tea reference by saying: The manner of dressing their meat is altogether contrarie unto other nations: the aforesaid warme water is made with the powder of a certaine hearbe called _Chaa_, which is much esteemed, and is well accounted among them. The _chaa_ is, of course, tea, dialect _t'eh_. In 1599, "Sir" Antony (or Anthony) Sherley (1565-1630), a picturesquegentleman-adventurer, the first Englishman to mention coffee drinking inthe Orient, sailed from Venice on a kind of self-appointed, informalPersian mission, to invite the shah to ally himself with the Christianprinces against the Turks, and incidentally, to promote English tradeinterests in the East. The English government knew nothing of thearrangement, disavowed him, and forbade his return to England. However, the expedition got to Persia; and the account of the voyage thither waswritten by William Parry, one of the Sherley party, and was published inLondon in 1601. It is interesting because it contains the first printedreference to coffee in English employing the more modern form of theword. The original reference was photographed for this work in the WorthLibrary of the British Museum, and is reproduced herewith on page 39. The passage is part of an account of the manners and customs of theTurks (who, Parry says, are "damned infidells") in Aleppo. It reads: They sit at their meat (which is served to them upon the ground) as Tailers sit upon their stalls, crosse-legd; for the most part, passing the day in banqueting and carowsing, untill they surfet, drinking a certaine liquor, which they do call _Coffe_, which is made of seede much like mustard seede, which will soone intoxicate the braine like our Metheglin. [50] Another early English reference to coffee, wherein the word is spelled"coffa", is in Captain John Smith's book of _Travels and Adventure_, published in 1603. He says of the Turks: "Their best drink is _coffa_ ofa graine they call _coava_. " This is the same Captain John Smith who in 1607 became the founder ofthe Colony of Virginia and brought with him to America probably theearliest knowledge of the beverage given to the new Western world. Samuel Purchas (1527-1626), an early English collector of travels, in_Purchas His Pilgrimes_, under the head of "Observations of WilliamFinch, merchant, at Socotra" (Sokotra--an island in the Indian Ocean) in1607, says of the Arab inhabitants: Their best entertainment is a china dish of _Coho_, a blacke bitterish drinke, made of a berry like a bayberry, brought from Mecca, supped off hot, good for the head and stomache. [51] Still other early and favorite English references to coffee are those tobe found in the _Travels_ of William Biddulph. This work was publishedin 1609. It is entitled _The Travels of Certayne Englishmen in Africa, Asia, etc.... Begunne in 1600 and by some of them finished--this yeere1608_. These references are also reproduced herewith from theblack-letter originals in the British Museum (see page 40). Biddulph's description of the drink, and of the coffee-house customs ofthe Turks, was the first detailed account to be written by anEnglishman. It also appears in _Purchas His Pilgrimes_ (1625). But, toquote: Their most common drinke is _Coffa_, which is a blacke kinde of drinke, made of a kind of Pulse like Pease, called _Coaua_; which being grownd in the Mill, and boiled in water, they drinke it as hot as they can suffer it; which they finde to agree very well with them against their crudities, and feeding on hearbs and rawe meates. Other compounded drinkes they have, called _Sherbet_, made of Water and Sugar, or Hony, with Snow therein to make it coole; for although the Countrey bee hot, yet they keepe Snow all the yeere long to coole their drinke. It is accounted a great curtesie amongst them to give unto their frends when they come to visit them, a Fin-ion or Scudella of _Coffa_, which is more holesome than toothsome, for it causeth good concoction, and driveth away drowsinesse. Some of them will also drinke Bersh or Opium, which maketh them forget themselves, and talk idely of Castles in the Ayre, as though they saw Visions, and heard Revelations. Their _Coffa_ houses are more common than Ale-houses in England; but they use not so much to sit in the houses, as on benches on both sides the streets, neere unto a Coffa house, every man with his Fin-ionful; which being smoking hot, they use to put it to their Noses & Eares, and then sup it off by leasure, being full of idle and Ale-house talke whiles they are amongst themselves drinking it; if there be any news, it is talked of there. Among other early English references to coffee we find an interestingone by Sir George Sandys (1577-1644), the poet, who gave a start toclassical scholarship in America by translating Ovid's _Metamorphoses_during his pioneer days in Virginia. In 1610 he spent a year in Turkey, Egypt, and Palestine, and records of the Turks:[52] Although they be destitute of Taverns, yet have they their Coffa-houses, which something resemble them. There sit they chatting most of the day; and sippe of a drinke called Coffa (of the berry that it is made of) in little _China_ dishes as hot as they can suffer it: blacke as soote, and tasting not much unlike it (why not that blacke broth which was in use amongst the _Lacedemonians_?) which helpeth, as they say, digestion, and procureth alacrity: many of the Coffa-men keeping beautifull boyes, who serve as stales to procure them customers. Edward Terry (1590-1660), an English traveler, writes, under date of1616, that many of the best people in India who are strict in theirreligion and drink no wine at all, "use a liquor more wholesome thanpleasant, they call coffee; made by a black Seed boyld in water, whichturnes it almost into the same colour, but doth very little alter thetaste of the water [!], notwithstanding it is very good to helpDigestion, to quicken the Spirits and to cleanse the Blood. " [Illustration#: FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO COFFEE IN ENGLISH, 1598 It appears as _Chaona_ (_chaoua_) in the second line of the roman textnotation by Paludanus] In 1623, Francis Bacon (1561-1626), in his _Historia Vitae et Mortis_says: "The Turkes use a kind of herb which they call _caphe_"; and, in1624, in his _Sylva Sylvarum_[53] (published in 1627, after his death), he writes: They have in Turkey a drink called _coffa_ made of a berry of the same name, as black as soot, and of a strong scent, but not aromatical; which they take, beaten into powder, in water, as hot as they can drink it: and they take it, and sit at it in their coffa-houses, which are like our taverns. This drink comforteth the brain and heart, and helpeth digestion. Certainly this berry coffa, the root and leaf betel, the leaf tobacco, and the tear of poppy (opium) of which the Turks are great takers (supposing it expelleth all fear), do all condense the spirits, and make them strong and aleger. But it seemeth they were taken after several manners; for coffa and opium are taken down, tobacco but in smoke, and betel is but champed in the mouth with a little lime. Robert Burton (1577-1640), English philosopher and humorist, in his_Anatomy of Melancholy_[54] writes in 1632: The Turkes have a drinke called coffa (for they use no wine), so named of a berry as blacke as soot and as bitter (like that blacke drinke which was in use amongst the Lacedemonians and perhaps the same), which they sip still of, and sup as warme as they can suffer; they spend much time in those coffa-houses, which are somewhat like our Ale-houses or Taverns, and there they sit, chatting and drinking, to drive away the time, and to be merry together, because they find, by experience, that kinde of drinke so used, helpeth digestion and procureth alacrity. Later English scholars, however, found sufficient evidence in the worksof Arabian authors to assure their readers that coffee sometimes breedsmelancholy, causes headache, and "maketh lean much. " One of these, Dr. Pocoke, (1659: see chapter III) stated that, "he that would drink it forlivelinesse sake, and to discusse slothfulnesse ... Let him use muchsweet meates with it, and oyle of pistaccioes, and butter. Some drink itwith milk, but it is an error, and such as may bring in danger of theleprosy. " Another writer observed that any ill effects caused by coffee, unlike those of tea, etc. , ceased when its use was discontinued. In thisconnection it is interesting to note that in 1785 Dr. Benjamin Mosely, physician to the Chelsea Hospital, member of the College of Physicians, etc. , probably having in mind the popular idea that the Arabic originalof the word coffee meant force, or vigor, once expressed the hope thatthe coffee drink might return to popular favor in England as "a cheapsubstitute for those enervating teas and beverages which produce thepernicious habit of dram-drinking. " About 1628, Sir Thomas Herbert (1606-1681), English traveler and writer, records among his observations on the Persians that: "They drink above all the rest _Coho_ or _Copha_: by Turk and Arab called _Caphe_ and _Cahua_: a drink imitating that in the Stigian lake, black, thick, and bitter: destrain'd from _Bunchy_, _Bunnu_, or Bay berries; wholesome, they say, if hot, for it expels melancholy ... But not so much regarded for those good properties, as from a Romance that it was invented and brew'd by Gabriel ... To restore the decayed radical Moysture of kind hearted Mahomet. "[55] In 1634, Sir Henry Blount (1602-82), sometimes referred to as "thefather of the English coffee house, " made a journey on a Venetian galleyinto the Levant. He was invited to drink _cauphe_ in the presence ofAmurath IV; and later, in Egypt, he tells of being served the beverageagain "in a porcelaine dish". This is how he describes the drink inTurkey:[56] They have another drink not good at meat, called _Cauphe_, made of a _Berry_ as big as a small _Bean_, dried in a Furnace, and beat to Pouder, of a Soot-colour, in taste a little bitterish, that they seeth and drink as hot as may be endured: It is good all hours of the day, but especially morning and evening, when to that purpose, they entertain themselves two or three hours in _Cauphe-houses_, which in all Turkey abound more than _Inns_ and _Ale-houses_ with us; it is thought to be the old black broth used so much by the _Lacedemonians_, and dryeth ill Humours in the stomach, comforteth the Brain, never causeth Drunkenness or any other Surfeit, and is a harmless entertainment of good Fellowship; for there upon Scaffolds half a yard high, and covered with Mats, they sit Cross-leg'd after the _Turkish_ manner, many times two or three hundred together, talking, and likely with some poor musick passing up and down. [Illustration: FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO "COFFEE" IN ENGLISH, IN ITSMODERN FORM, 1601 Photographed from the black-letter original of W. Parry's book in theWorth Library of the British Museum] This reference to the Lacedæmonian black broth, first by Sandys, thenby Burton, again by Blount, and concurred in by James Howell(1595-1666), the first historiographer royal, gave rise to considerablecontroversy among Englishmen of letters in later years. It is, ofcourse, a gratuitous speculation. The black broth of the Lacedæmonianswas "pork, cooked in blood and seasoned with salt and vinegar. [57]" [Illustration: REFERENCES TO COFFEE AS FOUND IN BIDDULPH'S TRAVELS 1609 From the black-letter original in the British Museum] William Harvey (1578-1657), the famous English physician who discoveredthe circulation of the blood, and his brother are reputed to have usedcoffee before coffee houses came into vogue in London--this must havebeen previous to 1652. "I remember", says Aubrey[58], "he was wont todrinke coffee; which his brother Eliab did, before coffee houses werethe fashion in London. " Houghton, in 1701, speaks of "the famousinventor of the circulation of the blood, Dr. Harvey, who some say didfrequently use it. " Although it seems likely that coffee must have been introduced intoEngland sometime during the first quarter of the seventeenth century, with so many writers and travelers describing it, and with so muchtrading going on between the merchants of the British Isles and theOrient, yet the first reliable record we have of its advent is to befound in the _Diary and Correspondence of John Evelyn, F. R. S. _[59], under "Notes of 1637", where he says: There came in my time to the college (Baliol, Oxford) one Nathaniel Conopios, out of Greece, from Cyrill, the Patriarch of Constantinople, who, returning many years after was made (as I understand) Bishop of Smyrna. He was the first I ever saw drink coffee; which custom came not into England till thirty years thereafter. Evelyn should have said thirteen years after; for then it was that thefirst coffee house was opened (1650). Conopios was a native of Crete, trained in the Greek church. He became_primore_ to Cyrill, Patriarch of Constantinople. When Cyrill wasstrangled by the vizier, Conopios fled to England to avoid a likebarbarity. He came with credentials to Archbishop Laud, who allowed himmaintenance in Balliol College. It was observed that while he continued in Balliol College he made the drink for his own use called Coffey, and usually drank it every morning, being the first, as the antients of that House have informed me, that was ever drank in Oxon. [60] [Illustration: MOL'S COFFEE HOUSE, EXETER, ENGLAND, NOW WORTH'S ARTROOMS] In 1640 John Parkinson (1567-1650), English botanist and herbalist, published his _Theatrum Botanicum_[61], containing the first botanicaldescription of the coffee plant in English, referred to as "_Arbor Boncum sua Buna. _ The Turkes Berry Drinke". His work being somewhat rare, it may be of historical interest to quotethe quaint description here: Alpinus, in his Booke of Egiptian plants, giveth us a description of this tree, which as hee saith, hee saw in the garden of a certain Captaine of the _Ianissaries_, which was brought out of _Arabia felix_ and there planted as a rarity, never seene growing in those places before. The tree, saith _Alpinus_, is somewhat like unto the _Evonymus_ Pricketimber tree, whose leaves were thicker, harder, and greener, and always abiding greene on the tree; the fruite is called _Buna_ and is somewhat bigger then an Hazell Nut and longer, round also, and pointed at the end, furrowed also on both sides, yet on one side more conspicuous than the other, that it might be parted in two, in each side whereof lyeth a small long white kernell, flat on that side they joyne together, covered with a yellowish skinne, of an acid taste, and somewhat bitter withall and contained in a thinne shell, of a darkish ash-color; with these berries generally in _Arabia_ and _Egipt_, and in other places of the _Turkes_ Dominions, they make a decoction or drinke, which is in the stead of Wine to them, and generally sold in all their tappe houses, called by the name of _Caova_; _Paludanus_ saith _Chaova_, and _Rauwolfius_ _Chaube_. This drinke hath many good physical properties therein; for it strengthened a week stomacke, helpeth digestion, and the tumors and obstructions of the liver and spleene, being drunke fasting for some time together. In 1650, a certain Jew from Lebanon, in some accounts Jacob or Jacobs byname, in others Jobson[62], opened "at the Angel in the parish of St. Peter in the East", Oxford, the earliest English coffee house and "thereit [coffee] was by some who delighted in noveltie, drank". Chocolate wasalso sold at this first coffee house. Authorities differ, but the confusion as to the name of the coffee-housekeeper may have arisen from the fact that there were two--Jacobs, whobegan in 1650; and another, Cirques Jobson, a Jewish Jacobite, whofollowed him in 1654. The drink at once attained great favor among the students. Soon it wasin such demand that about 1655 a society of young students encouragedone Arthur Tillyard, "apothecary and Royalist, " to sell "coffeypublickly in his house against All Soules College. " It appears that aclub composed of admirers of the young Charles met at Tillyard's andcontinued until after the Restoration. This Oxford Coffee Club was thestart of the Royal Society. Jacobs removed to Old Southhampton Buildings, London, where he was in1671. Meanwhile, the first coffee house in London had been opened by PasquaRosée in 1652; and, as the remainder of the story of coffee's rise andfall in England centers around the coffee houses of old London, we shallreserve it for a separate chapter. [Illustration: EARLY ENGLISH REFERENCE TO COFFEE BY SIR GEORGE SANDYS From the seventh edition of _Sandys' Travels_, London, 1673] Of course, the coffee-house idea, and the use of coffee in the home, quickly spread to other cities in Great Britain; but all the coffeehouses were patterned after the London model. Mol's coffee house atExeter, Devonshire, which is pictured on page 41, was one of the firstcoffee houses established in England, and may be regarded as typical ofthose that sprang up in the provinces. It had previously been a notedclub house; and the old hall, beautifully paneled with oak, stilldisplays the arms of noted members. Here Sir Walter Raleigh andcongenial friends regaled themselves with smoking tobacco. This was oneof the first places where tobacco was smoked in England. It is now anart gallery. When the Bishop of Berytus (Beirut) was on his way to Cochin China in1666, he reported that the Turks used coffee to correct theindisposition caused in the stomach by the bad water. "This drink, " hesays, "imitates the effect of wine ... Has not an agreeable taste butrather bitter, yet it is much used by these people for the good effectsthey find therein. " In 1686, John Ray (1628-1704), one of the most celebrated of Englishnaturalists, published his _Universal History of Plants_, notable amongother things for being the first work of its kind to extol the virtuesof coffee in a scientific treatise. R. Bradley, professor of botany at Cambridge, published (1714) _A ShortHistorical Account of Coffee_, all trace of which appears to be lost. Dr. James Douglas published in London (1727) his _Arbor Yemensis fructumCofe ferens; or, a description and History of the Coffee Tree_, in whichhe laid under heavy contribution the Arabian and French writers that hadpreceded him. [Illustration] CHAPTER VII THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO HOLLAND _How the enterprising Dutch traders captured the first world's market for coffee--Activities of the Netherlands East India Company--The first coffee house at the Hague--The first public auction at Amsterdam in 1711, when Java coffee brought forty-seven cents a pound, green_ The Dutch had early knowledge of coffee because of their dealings withthe Orient and with the Venetians, and of their nearness to Germany, where Rauwolf first wrote about it in 1582. They were familiar withAlpini's writings on the subject in 1592. Paludanus, in his coffee noteon _Linschoten's Travels_, furnished further enlightenment in 1598. The Dutch were always great merchants and shrewd traders. Being of apractical turn of mind, they conceived an ambition to grow coffee intheir colonial possessions, so as to make their home marketsheadquarters for a world's trade in the product. In considering moderncoffee-trading, the Netherlands East India Company may be said to be thepioneer, as it established in Java one of the first experimental gardensfor coffee cultivation. The Netherlands East India Company was formed in 1602. As early as 1614, Dutch traders visited Aden to examine into the possibilities of coffeeand coffee-trading. In 1616 Pieter Van dan Broeck brought the firstcoffee from Mocha to Holland. In 1640 a Dutch merchant, named Wurffbain, offered for sale in Amsterdam the first commercial shipment of coffeefrom Mocha. As indicating the enterprise of the Dutch, note that thiswas four years before the beverage was introduced into France, and onlythree years after Conopios had privately instituted the breakfast coffeecup at Oxford. About 1650, Varnar, the Dutch minister resident at the Ottoman Porte, published a treatise on coffee. When the Dutch at last drove the Portuguese out of Ceylon in 1658, theybegan the cultivation of coffee there, although the plant had beenintroduced into the island by the Arabs prior to the Portuguese invasionin 1505. However, it was not until 1690 that the more systematiccultivation of the coffee plant by the Dutch was undertaken in Ceylon. Regular imports of coffee from Mocha to Amsterdam began in 1663. Later, supplies began to arrive from the Malabar coast. Pasqua Rosée, who introduced the coffee house into London in 1652, issaid to have made coffee popular as a beverage in Holland by selling itthere publicly in 1664. The first coffee house was opened in the KortenVoorhout, the Hague, under the protection of the writer Van Essen;others soon followed in Amsterdam and Haarlem. At the instigation of Nicolaas Witsen, burgomaster of Amsterdam andgovernor of the East India Company, Adrian Van Ommen, commander ofMalabar, sent the first Arabian coffee seedlings to Java in 1696, recorded in the chapter on the history of coffee propagation. These weredestroyed by flood, but were followed in 1699 by a second shipment, fromwhich developed the coffee trade of the Netherlands East Indies, thatmade Java coffee a household word in every civilized country. A trial shipment of the coffee grown near Batavia was received atAmsterdam in 1706, also a plant for the botanical gardens. This plantsubsequently became the progenitor of most of the coffees of the WestIndies and America. The first Java coffee for the trade was received at Amsterdam 1711. Theshipment consisted of 894 pounds from the Jakatra plantations and fromthe interior of the island. At the first public auction, this coffeebrought twenty-three and two-thirds _stuivers_ (about forty-seven cents)per Amsterdam pound. The Netherlands East India Company contracted with the regents ofNetherlands India for the compulsory delivery of coffee; and the nativeswere enjoined to cultivate coffee, the production thus becoming a forcedindustry worked by government. A "general system of cultivation" wasintroduced into Java in 1832 by the government, which decreed theemployment of forced labor for different products. Coffee-growing wasthe only forced industry that existed before this system of cultivation, and it was the only government cultivation that survived the abolitionof the system in 1905-08. The last direct government interest in coffeewas closed out in 1918. From 1870 to 1874, the government plantationsyielded an average of 844, 854 piculs[63] a year; from 1875 to 1878, theaverage was 866, 674 piculs. Between 1879 and 1883, it rose to 987, 682piculs. From 1884 to 1888, the average annual yield was only 629, 942piculs. Holland readily adopted the coffee house; and among the earliest coffeepictures preserved to us is one depicting a scene in a Dutch coffeehouse of the seventeenth century, the work of Adriaen Van Ostade(1610-1675), shown on page 586. History records no intolerance of coffee in Holland. The Dutch attitudewas ever that of the constructionist. Dutch inventors and artisans gaveus many new designs in coffee mortars, coffee roasters, and coffeeserving-pots. [Illustration] CHAPTER VIII THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO GERMANY _The contributions made by German travelers and writers to the literature of the early history of coffee--The first coffee house in Hamburg opened by an English merchant--Famous coffee houses of old Berlin--The first coffee periodical, and the first kaffee-klatsch--Frederick the Great's coffee-roasting monopoly--Coffee persecutions--"Coffee-smellers"--The first coffee king_ As we have already seen, Leonhard Rauwolf, in 1573, made his memorabletrip to Aleppo and, in 1582, won for Germany the honor of being thefirst European country to make printed mention of the coffee drink. Adam Olearius (or Oelschlager), a German Orientalist (1599-1671), traveled in Persia as secretary to a German embassy in 1633-36. Upon hisreturn he published an account of his journeys. In it, under date of1637, he says of the Persians: They drink with their tobacco a certain black water, which they call _cahwa_, made of a fruit brought out of Egypt, and which is in colour like ordinary wheat, and in taste like Turkish wheat, and is of the bigness of a little bean.... The Persians think it allays the natural heat. In 1637, Joh. Albrecht von Mandelsloh, in his _Oriental Trip_, mentions"the black water of the Persians called _Kahwe_", saying "it must bedrunk hot. " Coffee drinking was introduced into Germany about 1670. The drinkappeared at the court of the great elector of Brandenburg in 1675. Northern Germany got its first taste of the beverage from London, anEnglish merchant opening the first coffee house in Hamburg in 1679-80. Regensburg followed in 1689; Leipsic, in 1694; Nuremberg, in 1696;Stuttgart, in 1712; Augsburg, in 1713; and Berlin, in 1721. In that year(1721) King Frederick William I granted a foreigner the privilege ofconducting a coffee house in Berlin free of all rental charges. It wasknown as the English coffee house, as was also the first coffee house inHamburg. And for many years, English merchants supplied the coffeesconsumed in northern Germany; while Italy supplied southern Germany. Other well known coffee houses of old Berlin were, the Royal, in Behren_Strasse_; that of the Widow Doebbert, in the Stechbahn; the City ofRome, in Unter-den-Linden; Arnoldi, in Kronen _Strasse_; Miercke, inTauben _Strasse_, and Schmidt, in Post _Strasse_. Later, Philipp Falck opened a Jewish coffee house in Spandauer_Strasse_. In the time of Frederick the Great (1712-1786) there were atleast a dozen coffee houses in the metropolitan district of Berlin. Inthe suburbs were many tents where coffee was served. The first coffee periodical, _The New and Curious Coffee House_, wasissued in Leipsic in 1707 by Theophilo Georgi. The full title was _TheNew and Curious Coffee House, formerly in Italy but now opened inGermany. First water debauchery. "City of the Well. " Brunnenstadt byLorentz Schoepffwasser_ [draw-water] 1707. The second issue gave thename of Georgi as the real publisher. It was intended to be in thenature of an organ for the first real German kaffee-klatsch. It was achronicle of the comings and goings of the savants who frequented the"Tusculum" of a well-to-do gentleman in the outskirts of the city. Atthe beginning the master of the house declared: I know that the gentlemen here speak French, Italian and other languages. I know also that in many coffee and tea meetings it is considered requisite that French be spoken. May I ask, however, that he who calls upon me should use no other language but German. We are all Germans, we are in Germany; shall we not conduct ourselves like true Germans? In 1721 Leonhard Ferdinand Meisner published at Nuremberg the firstcomprehensive German treatise on coffee, tea, and chocolate. During the second half of the eighteenth century coffee entered thehomes, and began to supplant flour-soup and warm beer at breakfasttables. Meanwhile coffee met with some opposition in Prussia and Hanover. Frederick the Great became annoyed when he saw how much money was paidto foreign coffee merchants for supplies of the green bean, and tried torestrict its use by making coffee a drink of the "quality". Soon all theGerman courts had their own coffee roasters, coffee pots, and coffeecups. Many beautiful specimens of the finest porcelain cups and saucers madein Meissen, and used at court fêtes of this period, survive in thecollections at the Potsdam and Berlin museums. The wealthy classesfollowed suit; but when the poor grumbled because they could not affordthe luxury, and demanded their coffee, they were told in effect: "Youhad better leave it alone. Anyhow, it's bad for you because it causessterility. " Many doctors lent themselves to a campaign against coffee, one of their favorite arguments being that women using the beverage mustforego child-bearing. Bach's _Coffee Cantata_[64] (1732) was a notableprotest in music against such libels. On September 13, 1777, Frederick issued a coffee and beer manifesto, acurious document, which recited: It is disgusting to notice the increase in the quantity of coffee used by my subjects, and the amount of money that goes out of the country in consequence. Everybody is using coffee. If possible, this must be prevented. My people must drink beer. His Majesty was brought up on beer, and so were his ancestors, and his officers. Many battles have been fought and won by soldiers nourished on beer; and the King does not believe that coffee-drinking soldiers can be depended upon to endure hardship or to beat his enemies in case of the occurrence of another war. [Illustration: RICHTER'S COFFEE HOUSE IN LEIPSIC--SEVENTEENTH CENTURY] For a time beer was restored to its honored place; and coffee continuedto be a luxury afforded only by the rich. Soon a revulsion of feelingset in; and it was found that even Prussian military rule could notenforce coffee prohibition. Whereupon, in 1781, finding that all hisefforts to reserve the beverage for the exclusive court circles, thenobility, and the officers of his army, were vain, the king created aroyal monopoly in coffee, and forbade its roasting except in royalroasting establishments. At the same time, he made exceptions in thecases of the nobility, the clergy, and government officials; butrejected all applications for coffee-roasting licenses from the commonpeople. His object, plainly, was to confine the use of the drink to theelect. To these representatives of the cream of Prussian society, theking issued special licenses permitting them to do their own roasting. Of course, they purchased their supplies from the government; and as theprice was enormously increased, the sales yielded Frederick a handsomeincome. Incidentally, the possession of a coffee-roasting license becamea kind of badge of membership in the upper class. The poorer classeswere forced to get their coffee by stealth; and, failing this, they fellback upon numerous barley, wheat, corn, chicory, and dried-figsubstitutes, that soon appeared in great numbers. This singular coffee ordinance was known as the "_Déclaration du Roiconcernant la vente du café brûlé_", and was published January 21, 1781. [Illustration: COFFEE HOUSE IN GERMANY--MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTHCENTURY] After placing the coffee _regie_ (revenue) in the hands of a Frenchman, Count de Lannay, so many deputies were required to make collections thatthe administration of the law became a veritable persecution. Dischargedwounded soldiers were mostly employed, and their principal duty was tospy upon the people day and night, following the smell of roastingcoffee whenever detected, in order to seek out those who might be foundwithout roasting permits. The spies were given one-fourth of the finecollected. These deputies made themselves so great a nuisance, andbecame so cordially disliked, that they were called "coffee-smellers" bythe indignant people. Taking a leaf out of Frederick's book, the elector of Cologne, Maximilian Frederick, bishop of Münster, (Duchy of Westphalia) onFebruary 17, 1784, issued a manifesto which said: To our great displeasure we have learned that in our Duchy of Westphalia the misuse of the coffee beverage has become so extended that to counteract the evil we command that four weeks after the publication of this decree no one shall sell coffee roasted or not roasted under a fine of one hundred dollars, or two years in prison, for each offense. Every coffee-roasting and coffee-serving place shall be closed, and dealers and hotel-keepers are to get rid of their coffee supplies in four weeks. It is only permitted to obtain from the outside coffee for one's own consumption in lots of fifty pounds. House fathers and mothers shall not allow their work people, especially their washing and ironing women, to prepare coffee, or to allow it in any manner under a penalty of one hundred dollars. All officials and government employees, to avoid a penalty of one hundred gold florins, are called upon closely to follow and to keep a watchful eye over this decree. To the one who reports such persons as act contrary to this decree shall be granted one-half of the said money fine with absolute silence as to his name. This decree was solemnly read in the pulpits, and was published besidesin the usual places and ways. There immediately followed a course of"telling-ons", and of "coffee-smellings", that led to many bitterenmities and caused much unhappiness in the Duchy of Westphalia. Apparently the purpose of the archduke was to prevent persons of smallmeans from enjoying the drink, while those who could afford to purchasefifty pounds at a time were to be permitted the indulgence. As was to beexpected, the scheme was a complete failure. While the king of Prussia exploited his subjects by using the statecoffee monopoly as a means of extortion, the duke of Württemberg had ascheme of his own. He sold to Joseph Suess-Oppenheimer, an unscrupulousfinancier, the exclusive privilege of keeping coffee houses inWürttemberg. Suess-Oppenheimer in turn sold the individual coffee-houselicenses to the highest bidders, and accumulated a considerable fortune. He was the first "coffee king. " But coffee outlived all these unjust slanders and cruel taxations of toopaternal governments, and gradually took its rightful place as one ofthe favorite beverages of the German people. [Illustration: KOLSCHITZKY, THE GREAT BROTHER-HEART, IN HIS BLUE BOTTLECAFÉ, VIENNA, 1683 From a lithograph after the painting by Franz Schams, entitled "DasErste (Kulczycki'sche) Kaffee Haus"] CHAPTER IX TELLING HOW COFFEE CAME TO VIENNA _The romantic adventure of Franz George Kolschitzky, who carried "a message to Garcia" through the enemy's lines and won for himself the honor of being the first to teach the Viennese the art of making coffee, to say nothing of falling heir to the supplies of the green beans left behind by the Turks; also the gift of a house from a grateful municipality, and a statue after death--Affectionate regard in which "brother-heart" Kolschitzky is held as the patron saint of the Vienna kaffee-sieder--Life in the early Vienna cafés_ A romantic tale has been woven around the introduction of coffee intoAustria. When Vienna was besieged by the Turks in 1683, so runs thelegend, Franz George Kolschitzky, a native of Poland, formerly aninterpreter in the Turkish army, saved the city and won for himselfundying fame, with coffee as his principal reward. It is not known whether, in the first siege of Vienna by the Turks in1529, the invaders boiled coffee over their camp fires that surroundedthe Austrian capital; although they might have done so, as Selim I, after conquering Egypt in 1517, had brought with him to Constantinoplelarge stores of coffee as part of his booty. But it is certain that whenthey returned to the attack, 154 years later, they carried with them aplentiful supply of the green beans. Mohammed IV mobilized an army of 300, 000 men and sent it forth under hisvizier, Kara Mustapha, (Kuprili's successor) to destroy Christendom andto conquer Europe. Reaching Vienna July 7, 1683, the army quicklyinvested the city and cut it off from the world. Emperor Leopold hadescaped the net and was several miles away. Nearby was the prince ofLorraine, with an army of 33, 000 Austrians, awaiting the succor promisedby John Sobieski, king of Poland, and an opportunity to relieve thebesieged capital. Count Rudiger von Starhemberg, in command of theforces in Vienna, called for a volunteer to carry a message through theTurkish lines to hurry along the rescue. He found him in the person ofFranz George Kolschitzky, who had lived for many years among the Turksand knew their language and customs. On August 13, 1683, Kolschitzky donned a Turkish uniform, passed throughthe enemy's lines and reached the Emperor's army across the Danube. Several times he made the perilous journey between the camp of theprince of Lorraine and the garrison of the governor of Vienna. Oneaccount says that he had to swim the four intervening arms of the Danubeeach time he performed the feat. His messages did much to keep up themorale of the city's defenders. At length King John and his army ofrescuing Poles arrived and were consolidated with the Austrians on thesummit of Mount Kahlenberg. It was one of the most dramatic moments inhistory. The fate of Christian Europe hung in the balance. Everythingseemed to point to the triumph of the crescent over the cross. Onceagain Kolschitzky crossed the Danube, and brought back word concerningthe signals that the prince of Lorraine and King John would give fromMount Kahlenberg to indicate the beginning of the attack. CountStarhemberg was to make a sortie at the same time. [Illustration: FRANZ GEORGE KOLSCHITZKY, PATRON SAINT OF VIENNA COFFEELOVERS] The battle took place September 12, and thanks to the magnificentgeneralship of King John, the Turks were routed. The Poles here rendereda never-to-be-forgotten service to all Christendom. The Turkish invadersfled, leaving 25, 000 tents, 10, 000 oxen, 5, 000 camels, 100, 000 bushelsof grain, a great quantity of gold, and many sacks filled withcoffee--at that time unknown in Vienna. The booty was distributed; butno one wanted the coffee. They did not know what to do with it; that is, no one except Kolschitzky. He said, "If nobody wants those sacks, I willtake them", and every one was heartily glad to be rid of the strangebeans. But Kolschitzky knew what he was about, and he soon taught theViennese the art of preparing coffee. Later, he established the firstpublic booth where Turkish coffee was served in Vienna. This, then, is the story of how coffee was introduced into Vienna, wherewas developed that typical Vienna café which has become a model for alarge part of the world. Kolschitzky is honored in Vienna as the patronsaint of coffee houses. His followers, united in the guild of coffeemakers (_kaffee-sieder_), even erected a statue in his honor. It stillstands as part of the facade of a house where the Kolschitzygasse mergesinto the Favoritengasse, as shown in the accompanying picture. Vienna is sometimes referred to as the "mother of cafés". Café Sacher isworld-renowned. Tart à la Sacher is to be found in every cook-book. TheViennese have their "_jause_" every afternoon. When one drinks coffee ata Vienna café one generally has a _kipfel_ with it. This is acrescent-shaped roll--baked for the first time in the eventful year1683, when the Turks besieged the city. A baker made these crescentrolls in a spirit of defiance of the Turk. Holding sword in one hand and_kipfel_ in the other, the Viennese would show themselves on top oftheir redoubts and challenge the cohorts of Mohammed IV. Mohammed IV was deposed after losing the battle, and Kara Mustapha wasexecuted for leaving the stores--particularly the sacks of coffeebeans--at the gates of Vienna; but Vienna coffee and Vienna _kipfel_ arestill alive, and their appeal is not lessened by the years. [Illustration: THE FIRST COFFEE HOUSE IN THE LEOPOLDSTADT From a cut so titled in Bermann's _Alt und Neu Wien_] The hero Kolschitzky was presented with a house by the gratefulmunicipality; and there, at the sign of the Blue Bottle, according toone account, he continued as a coffee-house keeper for many years. [65]This, in brief, is the story that--although not authenticated in allits particulars--is seriously related in many books, and is firmlybelieved throughout Vienna. It seems a pity to discredit the hero of so romantic an adventure; butthe archives of Vienna throw a light upon Kolschitzky's later conductthat tends to show that, after all, this Viennese idol's feet were ofcommon clay. It is said that Kolschitzky, after receiving the sacks of green coffeeleft behind by the Turks, at once began to peddle the beverage fromhouse to house, serving it in little cups from a wooden platter. Laterhe rented a shop in Bischof-hof. Then he began to petition the municipalcouncil, that, in addition to the sum of 100 ducats already promised himas further recognition of his valor, he should receive a house with goodwill attached; that is, a shop in some growing business section. "Hispetitions to the municipal council", writes M. Bermann[66], "are amazingexamples of measureless self-conceit and the boldest greed. He seemeddetermined to get the utmost out of his own self-sacrifice. He insistedupon the most highly deserved reward, such as the Romans bestowed upontheir Curtius, the Lacedæmonians upon their Pompilius, the Atheniansupon Seneca, with whom he modestly compared himself. " At last, he was given his choice of three houses in the Leopoldstadt, any one of them worth from 400 to 450 gulden, in place of the moneyreward, that had been fixed by a compromise agreement at 300 gulden. ButKolschitzky was not satisfied with this; and urged that if he was toaccept a house in full payment it should be one valued at not less than1000 gulden. Then ensued much correspondence and considerable haggling. To put an end to the acrimonious dispute, the municipal council in 1685directed that there should be deeded over to Kolschitzky and his wife, Maria Ursula, without further argument, the house known at that time as30 (now 8) Haidgasse. It is further recorded that Kolschitzky sold the house within a year;and, after many moves, he died of tuberculosis, February 20, 1694, agedfifty-four years. He was courier to the emperor at the time of hisdeath, and was buried in the Stefansfreithof Cemetery. [Illustration: STATUE OF KOLSCHITZKY ERECTED BY THE COFFEE MAKERS GUILDOF VIENNA] Kolschitzky's heirs moved the coffee house to Donaustrand, near thewooden Schlagbrücke, later known as Ferdinand's _brücke_ (bridge). Thecelebrated coffee house of Franz Mosee (d. 1860) stood on this samespot. In the city records for the year 1700 a house in theStock-im-Eisen-Platz (square) is designated by the words "_allwo daserste kaffeegewölbe_" ("here was the first coffee house"). Unfortunately, the name of the proprietor is not given. Many stories are told of Kolschitzky's popularity as a coffee-housekeeper. He is said to have addressed everyone as _bruderherz_(brother-heart) and gradually he himself acquired the name _bruderherz_. A portrait of Kolschitzky, painted about the time of his greatest vogue, is carefully preserved by the Innung der Wiener Kaffee-sieder (theCoffee Makers' Guild of Vienna). Even during the lifetime of the first _kaffee-sieder_, a number ofothers opened coffee houses and acquired some little fame. Early in theeighteenth century a tourist gives us a glimpse of the progress made bycoffee drinking and by the coffee-house idea in Vienna. We read: The city of Vienna is filled with coffee houses, where the novelists or those who busy themselves with the newspapers delight to meet, to read the gazettes and discuss their contents. Some of these houses have a better reputation than others because such _zeitungs-doctors_ (newspaper doctors--an ironical title) gather there to pass most unhesitating judgment on the weightiest events, and to surpass all others in their opinions concerning political matters and considerations. All this wins them such respect that many congregate there because of them, and to enrich their minds with inventions and foolishness which they immediately run through the city to bring to the ears of the said personalities. It is impossible to believe what freedom is permitted, in furnishing this gossip. They speak without reverence not only of the doings of generals and ministers of state, but also mix themselves in the life of the Kaiser (Emperor) himself. Vienna liked the coffee house so well that by 1839 there were eighty ofthem in the city proper and fifty more in the suburbs. [Illustration] CHAPTER X THE COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON _One of the most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee--The first coffee house in London--The first coffee handbill, and the first newspaper advertisement for coffee--Strange coffee mixtures--Fantastic coffee claims--Coffee prices and coffee licenses--Coffee club of the Rota--Early coffee-house manners and customs--Coffee-house keepers' tokens--Opposition to the coffee house--"Penny universities"--Weird coffee substitutes--The proposed coffee-house newspaper monopoly--Evolution of the club--Decline and fall of the coffee house--Pen pictures of coffee-house life--Famous coffee houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries--Some Old World pleasure gardens--Locating the notable coffee houses_ The two most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee have to dowith the period of the old London and Paris coffee houses of theseventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Much of the poetry and romance ofcoffee centers around this time. "The history of coffee houses, " says D'Israeli, "ere the invention ofclubs, was that of the manners, the morals and the politics of apeople. " And so the history of the London coffee houses of theseventeenth and eighteenth centuries is indeed the history of themanners and customs of the English people of that period. _The First London Coffee House_ "The first coffee house in London, " says John Aubrey (1626-97), theEnglish antiquary and folklorist, "was in St. Michael's Alley, inCornhill, opposite to the church, which was sett up by one ... Bowman(coachman to Mr. Hodges, a Turkey merchant, who putt him upon it) in orabout the yeare 1652. 'Twas about four years before any other was settup, and that was by Mr. Farr. Jonathan Paynter, over-against to St. Michael's Church, was the first apprentice to the trade, viz. , toBowman. "[67] Another account, for which we are indebted to William Oldys (1696-1761), the bibliographer, relates that Mr. Edwards, a London merchant, acquiredthe coffee habit in Turkey, and brought home with him from Ragusa, inDalmatia, Pasqua Rosée, an Armenian or Greek youth, who prepared thebeverage for him. "But the novelty thereof, " says Oldys, "drawing toomuch company to him, he allowed the said servant with another of hisson-in-law to set up the first coffee house in London at St. Michael'sAlley, in Cornhill. " From this it would appear that Pasqua Rosée had as partner in thisenterprise, the Bowman, who, according to Aubrey, was coachman to Mr. Hodges, the son-in-law of Mr. Edwards, and a fellow merchant traveler. Oldys tells us that Rosée and Bowman soon separated. John Timbs(1801-1875), another English antiquary, says they quarreled, Roséekeeping the house, and his partner Bowman obtaining leave to pitch atent and to sell the drink in St. Michael's churchyard. Still another version of this historic incident is to be found in_Houghton's Collection_, 1698. It reads: It appears that a Mr. Daniel Edwards, an English merchant of Smyrna, brought with him to this country a Greek of the name of Pasqua, in 1652, who made his coffee; this Mr. Edwards married one Alderman Hodges's daughter, who lived in Walbrook, and set up Pasqua for a coffee man in a shed in the churchyard in St. Michael, Cornhill, which is now a scrivener's brave-house, when, having great custom, the ale-sellers petitioned the Lord Mayor against him as being no freeman. This made Alderman Hodges join his coachman, Bowman, who was free, as Pasqua's partner; but Pasqua, for some misdemeanor, was forced to run the country, and Bowman, by his trade and a contribution of 1000 sixpences, turned the shed to a house. Bowman's apprentices were first, John Painter, then Humphry, from whose wife I had this account. This account makes it appear that Edwards was Hodges' son-in-law. Whatever the relationship, most authorities agree that Pasqua Rosée wasthe first to sell coffee publicly, whether in a tent or shed, in Londonin or about the year 1652. His original shop-bill, or handbill, thefirst advertisement for coffee, is in the British Museum, and from itthe accompanying photograph was made for this work. It sets forth indirect fashion: "The Vertue of the _COFFEE_ Drink First publiquely madeand sold in England, by _Pasqua Rosée_ ... In St. _Michaels Alley_ in_Cornhill_ ... At the Signe of his own Head. "[68] H. R. Fox Bourne[69] (about 1870) is alone in an altogether differentversion of this historic event. He says: "In 1652 Sir Nicholas Crispe, a Levant merchant, opened in London thefirst coffee house known in England, the beverage being prepared by aGreek girl brought over for the work. " There is nothing to substantiate this story; the preponderance ofevidence is in support of the Edwards-Rosée version. Such then was the advent of the coffee house in London, which introducedto English-speaking people the drink of democracy. Oddly enough, coffeeand the Commonwealth came in together. The English coffee house, likeits French contemporary, was the home of liberty. Robinson, who accepts that version of the event wherein Edwards marriesHodges's daughter, says that after the partners Rosée and Bowmanseparated, and Bowman had set up his tent opposite Rosée, a zealouspartisan addressed these verses "To Pasqua Rosée, at the Sign of his ownHead and half his Body in St. Michael's Alley, next the firstCoffee-Tent in London": Were not the fountain of my Tears Each day exhausted by the steamOf your Coffee, no doubt appears But they would swell to such a streamAs could admit of no restrictionTo see, poor Pasqua, thy Affliction. What! Pasqua, you at first did broach This Nectar for the publick Good, Must you call Kitt down from the Coach To drive a Trade he understoodNo more than you did then your creed, Or he doth now to write or read? Pull Courage, Pasqua, fear no Harms From the besieging Foe;Make good your Ground, stand to your Arms, Hold out this summer, and then tho'He'll storm, he'll not prevail--your Face[70]Shall give the Coffee Pot the chace. Eventually Pasqua Rosée disappeared, some say to open a coffee house onthe Continent, in Holland or Germany. Bowman, having married AldermanHodges's cook, and having also prevailed upon about a thousand of hiscustomers to lend him sixpence apiece, converted his tent into asubstantial house, and eventually took an apprentice to the trade. Concerning London's second coffee-house keeper, James Farr, proprietorof the Rainbow, who had as his most distinguished visitor Sir HenryBlount, Edward Hatton[71] says: I find it recorded that one James Farr, a barber, who kept the coffee-house which is now the Rainbow, by the Inner Temple Gate (one of the first in England), was in the year 1657, prosecuted by the inquest of St Dunstan's in the West, for making and selling a sort of liquor called coffe, as a great nuisance and prejudice to the neighborhood, etc. , and who would then have thought London would ever have had near three thousand such nuisances, and that coffee would have been, as now, so much drank by the best of quality and physicians? [Illustration: FIRST ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE--1652 Handbill used by Pasqua Rosée, who opened the first coffee house inLondon From the original in the British Museum] Hatton evidently attributed Fair's nuisance to the coffee itself, whereas the presentment[72] clearly shows it was in Farr's chimney andnot in the coffee. Mention has already been made that Sir Henry Blount was spoken of as"the father of English coffee houses" and his claim to this distinctionwould seem to be a valid one, for his strong personality "stamped itselfupon the system. " His favorite motto, "_Loquendum est cum vulgo, sentiendum cum sapientibus_" (the crowd may talk about it; the wisedecide it), says Robinson, "expresses well their colloquial purpose, andwas natural enough on the lips of one whose experience had been worldwide. " Aubrey says of Sir Henry Blount, "He is now neer or altogethereighty yeares, his intellectuals good still and body pretty strong. " Women played a not inconspicuous part in establishing businesses for thesale of the coffee drink in England, although the coffee houses were notfor both sexes, as in other European countries. The London City_Quaeries_ for 1660 makes mention of "a she-coffee merchant. " MaryStringar ran a coffee house in Little Trinity Lane in 1669; Anne Bluntwas mistress of one of the Turk's-Head houses in Cannon Street in 1672. Mary Long was the widow of William Long, and her initials, together withthose of her husband, appear on a token issued from the Rose tavern inBridge Street, Covent Garden. Mary Long's token from the "Rose coffeehouse by the playhouse" in Covent Garden is shown among the group ofcoffee-house keepers' tokens herein illustrated. _The First Newspaper Advertisement_ The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appeared, May 26, 1657, inthe _Publick Adviser_ of London, one of the first weekly pamphlets. Thename of this publication was erroneously given as the _PublickAdvertiser_ by an early writer on coffee, and the error has been copiedby succeeding writers. The first newspaper advertisement was containedin the issue of the _Publick Adviser_ for the week of May 19 to May 26, and read: In _Bartholomew_ Lane on the back side of the Old Exchange, the drink called _Coffee_, (which is a very wholsom and Physical drink, having many excellent vertues, closes the Orifice of the Stomack, fortifies the heat within, helpeth Digestion, quickneth the Spirits, maketh the heart lightsom, is good against Eye-sores, Coughs, or Colds, Rhumes, Consumptions, Head-ach, Dropsie, Gout, Scurvy, Kings Evil, and many others is to be sold both in the morning, and at three of the clock in the afternoon). Chocolate was also advertised for sale in London this same year. Theissue of the _Publick Adviser_ for June 16, 1657, contained thisannouncement: In Bishopgate Street, in Queen's Head Alley, at a Frenchman's house is an excellent West India drink called chocolate, to be sold, where you may have it ready at any time, and also unmade at reasonable rates. Tea was first sold publicly at Garraway's (or Garway's) in 1657. _Strange Coffee Mixtures_ The doctors were loath to let coffee escape from the mysteries of thepharmacopoeia and become "a simple and refreshing beverage" that anyone might obtain for a penny in the coffee houses, or, if preferred, might prepare at home. In this they were aided and abetted by manywell-meaning but misguided persons (some of them men of considerableintelligence) who seemed possessed of the idea that the coffee drink wasan unpleasant medicine that needed something to take away its curse, orelse that it required a complex method of preparation. Witness "Judge"Walter Rumsey's _Electuary of Cophy_, which appeared in 1657 inconnection with a curious work of his called _Organon Salutis: aninstrument to cleanse the stomach_. [73] The instrument itself was aflexible whale-bone, two or three feet long, with a small linen or silkbutton at the end, and was designed to be introduced into the stomach toproduce the effect of an emetic. The electuary of coffee was to be takenby the patient before and after using the instrument, which the "judge"called his _Provang_. And this was the "judge's" "new and superior wayof preparing coffee" as found in his prescription for making electuaryof cophy: Take equal quantity of Butter and Sallet-oyle, melt them well together, but not boyle them: Then stirre them well that they may incorporate together: Then melt therewith three times as much Honey, and stirre it well together: Then add thereunto powder of Turkish Cophie, to make it a thick Electuary. A little consideration will convince any one that the electuary was mostlikely to achieve the purpose for which it was recommended. [Illustration: THE FIRST NEWSPAPER ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE--1657] Another concoction invented by the "judge" was known as "wash-brew", and included oatmeal, powder of "cophie", a pint of ale or any wine, ginger, honey, or sugar to please the taste; to these ingredients buttermight be added and any cordial powder or pleasant spice. It was to beput into a flannel bag and "so keep it at pleasure like starch. " Thiswas a favorite medicine among the common people of Wales. The book contained in a prefix an interesting historical document in theshape of a letter from James Howell (1595-1666) the writer andhistoriographer, which read: Touching coffee, I concurre with them in opinion, who hold it to be that black-broth which was us'd of old in Lacedemon, whereof the Poets sing; Surely it must needs be salutiferous, because so many sagacious, and the wittiest sort of Nations use it so much; as they who have conversed with Shashes and Turbants doe well know. But, besides the exsiccant quality it hath to dry up the crudities of the Stomach, as also to comfort the Brain, to fortifie the sight with its steem, and prevent Dropsies, Gouts, the Scurvie, together with the Spleen and Hypocondriacall windes (all which it doth without any violance or distemper at all. ) I say, besides all these qualities, 'tis found already, that this Coffee-drink hath caused a greater sobriety among the nations; for whereas formerly Apprentices and Clerks with others, used to take their mornings' draught in Ale, Beer or Wine, which by the dizziness they cause in the Brain, make many unfit for business, they use now to play the Good-fellows in this wakefull and civill drink: Therefore that worthy Gentleman, Mr. Mudiford[74], who introduced the practice hereof first to London, deserves much respect of the whole nation. The coffee drink at one time was mixed with sugar candy, and also withmustard. In the coffee houses, however, it was usually served black;"few people then mixed it with either sugar or milk. " _Fantastic Coffee Claims_ One can not fail to note in connection with the introduction of coffeeinto England that the beverage suffered most from the indiscretions ofits friends. On the one hand, the quacks of the medical professionsought to claim it for their own; and, on the other, more or lessignorant laymen attributed to the drink such virtues as its realchampions among the physicians never dreamed of. It was the favoritepastime of its friends to exaggerate coffee's merits; and of itsenemies, to vilify its users. All this furnished good "copy" for andagainst the coffee house, which became the central figure in each newcontroversy. From the early English author who damned it by calling it "morewholesome than toothsome", to Pasqua Rosée and his contemporaries, whourged its more fantastic claims, it was forced to make its way through averitable morass of misunderstanding and intolerance. No harmless drinkin history has suffered more at hands of friend and foe. Did its friends hail it as a panacea, its enemies retorted that it was aslow poison. In France and in England there were those who contendedthat it produced melancholy, and those who argued it was a cure for thesame. Dr. Thomas Willis (1621-1673), a distinguished Oxford physicianwhom Antoine Portal (1742-1832) called "one of the greatest geniusesthat ever lived", said he would sometimes send his patients to thecoffee house rather than to the apothecary's shop. An old broadside, described later in this chapter, stressed the notion that if you "do butthis Rare ARABIAN cordial use, and thou may'st all the Doctors SlopsRefuse. " As a cure for drunkenness its "magic" power was acclaimed by itsfriends, and grudgingly admitted by its foes. This will appear presentlyin a description of the war of the broadsides and the pamphlets. Coffeewas praised by one writer as a deodorizer. Another (Richard Bradley), inhis treatise concerning its use with regard to the plague, said if itsqualities had been fully known in 1665, "Dr. Hodges and other learnedmen of that time would have recommended it. " As a matter of fact, inGideon Harvey's _Advice against the Plague_, published in 1665, we find, "coffee is commended against the contagion. " This is how the drink's sobering virtue was celebrated by the author ofthe _Rebellious Antidote_: Come, Frantick Fools, leave off your Drunken fits. Obsequious be and I'll recall your Wits, From perfect Madness to a modest StrainFor farthings four I'll fetch you back again, Enable all your mene with tricks of State, Enter and sip and then attend your Fate;Come Drunk or Sober, for a gentle Fee, Come n'er so Mad, I'll your Physician be. Dr. Willis, in his _Pharmaceutice Rationalis_ (1674), was one of thefirst to attempt to do justice to both sides of the coffee question. Atbest, he thought it a somewhat risky beverage, and its votaries must, in some cases, be prepared to suffer languor and even paralysis; it mayattack the heart and cause tremblings in the limbs. On the other hand itmay, if judiciously used, prove a marvelous benefit; "being daily drunkit wonderfully clears and enlightens each part of the Soul and dispersesall the clouds of every Function. " It was a long time before recognition was obtained for the truth aboutthe "novelty drink"; especially that, if there were any beyond purelysocial virtues to be found in coffee, they were "political rather thanmedical. " Dr. James Duncan, of the Faculty of Montpellier, in his book _WholesomeAdvice against the Abuse of Hot Liquors_, done into English in 1706, found coffee no more deserving of the name of panacea than that ofpoison. George Cheyne (1671-1743), the noted British physician, proclaimed hisneutrality in the words, "I have neither great praise nor bitter blamefor the thing. " _Coffee Prices and Coffee Licenses_ Coffee, with tea and chocolate, was first mentioned in the EnglishStatute books in 1660, when a duty of four pence was laid upon everygallon made and sold, "to be paid by the maker. " Coffee was classed bythe House of Commons with "other outlandish drinks. " It is recorded in 1662 that "the right coffee powder" was being sold atthe Turk's Head coffee house in Exchange Alley for "4s. To 6s. 8d. Perpound; that pounded in a mortar, 2s; East India berry, 1s. 6d. ; and theright Turkie berry, well garbled [ground] at 3s. The ungarbled [in thebean] for less with directions how to use the same. " Chocolate was alsoto be had at "2s. 6d. The pound; the perfumed from 4s. To 10s. " At one time coffee sold for five guineas a pound in England, and evenforty crowns (about forty-eight dollars) a pound was paid for it. In 1663, all English coffee houses were required to be licensed; the feewas twelve pence. Failure to obtain a license was punished by a fine offive pounds for every month's violation of the law. The coffee houseswere under close surveillance by government officials. One of these wasMuddiman, a good scholar and an "arch rogue", who had formerly "writtenfor the Parliament" but who later became a paid spy. L'Estrange, who hada patent on "the sole right of intelligence", wrote in his_Intelligencer_ that he was alarmed at the ill effects of "the ordinarywritten papers of Parliament's news ... Making coffee houses and all thepopular clubs judges of those councils and deliberations which they havenothing to do with at all. " The first royal warrant for coffee was given by Charles II to AlexanderMan, a Scotsman who had followed General Monk to London, and set up inWhitehall. Here he advertised himself as "coffee man to Charles II. " Owing to increased taxes on tea, coffee, and newspapers, near the end ofQueen Anne's reign (1714) coffee-house keepers generally raised theirprices as follows: Coffee, two pence per dish; green tea, one and a halfpence per dish. All drams, two pence per dram. At retail, coffee wasthen sold for five shillings per pound; while tea brought from twelve totwenty-eight shillings per pound. _Coffee Club of The Rota_ "Coffee and Commonwealth", says a pamphleteer of 1665, "came in togetherfor a Reformation, to make 's a free and sober nation. " The writerargues that liberty of speech should be allowed, "where men of differingjudgements croud"; and he adds, "that's a coffee-house, for where shouldmen discourse so free as there?" Robinson's comments are apt: Now perhaps we do not always connect the ideas of sociableness and freedom of discussion with the days of Puritan rule; yet it must be admitted that something like geniality and openness characterized what Pepys calls the Coffee Club of the Rota. This "free and open Society of ingenious gentlemen" was founded in the year 1659 by certain members of the Republican party, whose peculiar opinions had been timidly expressed and not very cordially tolerated under the Great Oliver. By the weak Government that followed, these views were regarded with extreme dislike and with some amount of terror. "They met", says Aubrey, who was himself of their number, "at the Turk'sHead [Miles's coffee house] in New Palace Yard, Westminster, where theytake water, at one Miles's, the next house to the staires, where wasmade purposely a large ovall table, with a passage in the middle forMiles to deliver his coffee. " Robinson continues: This curious refreshment bar and the interest with which the beverage itself was regarded, were quite secondary to the excitement caused by another novelty. When, after heated disputation, a member desired to test the opinion of the meeting, any particular point might, by agreement, be put to the vote and then everything depended upon "our wooden oracle, " the first balloting-box ever seen in England. Formal methods of procedure and the intensely practical nature of the subjects discussed, combined to give a real importance to this Amateur Parliament. [Illustration: A COFFEE HOUSE IN THE TIME OF CHARLES II From a wood cut of 1674] The Rota, or Coffee Club, as Pepys called it, was essentially a debatingsociety for the dissemination of republican opinions. It was precededonly, in the reign of Henry IV, by the club called La Court de BoneCompagnie; by Sir Walter Raleigh's Friday Street, or Bread Street, club;the club at the Mermaid tavern in Bread Street, of which Shakespeare, Beaumont, Fletcher, Raleigh, Selden, Donne, _et al. _, were members; and"rare" Ben Jonson's Devil tavern club, between Middle Temple Gate andTemple Bar. The Rota derived its name from a plan, which it was designed to promote, for changing a certain number of members of parliament annually byrotation. It was founded by James Harrington, who had painted it infairest colors in his _Oceana_, that ideal commonwealth. Sir William Petty was one of its members. Around the table, "in a roomevery evening as full as it could be crammed, " says Aubrey, sat Milton(?) and Marvell, Cyriac Skinner, Harrington, Nevill, and their friends, discussing abstract political questions. The Rota became famous for its literary strictures. Among these was "Thecensure of the Rota upon Mr. Milton's book entitled _The ready and easieway to establish a free commonwealth_" (1660), although it is doubtfulif Milton was ever a visitor to this "bustling coffee club. " The Rotaalso censured "Mr. Driden's _Conquest of Granada_" (1673). _Early Coffee-House Manners and Customs_ Among many of the early coffee-house keepers there was great anxietythat the coffee house, open to high and low, should be conducted undersuch restraints as might secure the better class of customers fromannoyance. The following set of regulations in somewhat halting rhymewas displayed on the walls of several of the coffee houses in theseventeenth century: THE RULES AND ORDERS OF THE COFFEE HOUSE. Enter, Sirs, freely, but first, if you please, Peruse our civil orders, which are these. First, gentry, tradesmen, all are welcome hither, And may without affront sit down together:Pre-eminence of place none here should mind, But take the next fit seat that he can find:Nor need any, if finer persons come, Rise up to assigne to them his room;To limit men's expence, we think not fair, But let him forfeit twelve-pence that shall swear;He that shall any quarrel here begin, Shall give each man a dish t' atone the sin;And so shall he, whose compliments extendSo far to drink in _coffee_ to his friend;Let noise of loud disputes be quite forborne, No maudlin lovers here in corners mourn, But all be brisk and talk, but not too much, On sacred things, let none presume to touch. Nor profane Scripture, nor sawcily wrongAffairs of state with an irreverent tongue:Let mirth be innocent, and each man seeThat all his jests without reflection be;To keep the house more quiet and from blame, We banish hence cards, dice, and every game;Nor can allow of wagers, that exceedFive shillings, which ofttimes much trouble breed;Let all that's lost or forfeited be spentIn such good liquor as the house doth vent. And customers endeavour, to their powers, For to observe still, seasonable hours. Lastly, let each man what he calls for pay, And so you're welcome to come every day. The early coffee houses were often up a flight of stairs, and consistedof a single large room with "tables set apart for divers topics. " Thereis a reference to this in the prologue to a comedy of 1681 (quoted byMalone): In a coffee house just now among the rabbleI bluntly asked, which is the treason table? This was the arrangement at Man's and others favored by the wits, the_literati_, and "men of fashionable instincts. " In the distinctlybusiness coffee houses separate rooms were provided at a later time formercantile transactions. The introduction of wooden partitions--woodenboxes, as at a tavern--was also of somewhat later date. A print of 1674 shows five persons of different ranks in life, one ofthem smoking, sitting on chairs around a coffee-house table, on whichare small basins, or dishes, without saucers, and tobacco pipes, while acoffee boy is serving coffee. In the beginning, only coffee was dispensed in the English coffeehouses. Soon chocolate, sherbert, and tea were added; but the placesstill maintained their status as social and temperance factors. Constantine Jennings (or George Constantine) of the Grecian advertisedchocolate, sherbert and tea at retail in 1664-65; also free instructionin the part of preparing these liquors. "Drams and cordial waters wereto be had only at coffee houses newly set up, " says Elford the younger, writing about 1689. "While some few places added ale and beer as earlyas 1669, intoxicating liquors were not items of importance for manyyears. " [Illustration: A LONDON COFFEE HOUSE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY From a wood cut of the period] After the fire of 1666, many new coffee houses were opened that were notlimited to a single room up a flight of stairs. Because the coffee-housekeepers over-emphasized the sobering qualities of the coffee drink, theydrew many undesirable characters from the taverns and ale houses afterthe nine o'clock closing hour. These were hardly calculated to improvethe reputation of the coffee houses; and, indeed, the decline of thecoffee houses as a temperance institution would seem to trace back tothis attitude of false pity for the victims of tavern vices, evils thatmany of the coffee houses later on embraced to their own undoing. Theearly institution was unique, its distinctive features being unlikethose of any public house in England or on the Continent. Later on, inthe eighteenth century, when these distinctive features becameobscured, the name coffee house became a misnomer. [Illustration: COFFEE HOUSE, QUEEN ANNE'S TIME--1702-14 Showing coffee pots, coffee dishes, and coffee boy] However, Robinson says, "the close intercourse between the habitués ofthe coffee house, before it lost anything of its generous socialtraditions and whilst the issue of the struggle for political libertywas as yet uncertain, was to lead to something more than a mere jumblingor huddling together of opposites. The diverse elements gradually unitedin the bonds of common sympathy, or were forcibly combined bypersecution from without until there resulted a social, political andmoral force of almost irresistible strength. " _Coffee-House Keepers' Tokens_ The great London fire of 1666 destroyed some of the coffee houses; butprominent among those that survived was the Rainbow, whose proprietor, James Farr, issued one of the earliest coffee-house tokens, doubtless ingrateful memory of his escape. Farr's token shows an arched rainbowemerging from the clouds of the "great fire, " indicating that all waswell with him, and the Rainbow still radiant. On the reverse the medalwas inscribed, "In Fleet Street--His Half Penny. " A large number of these trade coins were put out by coffee-house keepersand other tradesmen in the seventeenth century as evidence of an amountdue, as stated thereon, by the issuer to the holder. Tokens originatedbecause of the scarcity of small change. They were of brass, copper, pewter, and even leather, gilded. They bore the name, address, andcalling of the issuer, the nominal value of the piece, and somereference to his trade. They were readily redeemed, on presentation, attheir face value. They were passable in the immediate neighborhood, seldom reaching farther than the next street. C. G. Williamson writes: Tokens are essentially democratic; they would never have been issued but for the indifference of the Government to a public need; and in them we have a remarkable instance of a people forcing a legislature to comply with demands at once reasonable and imperative. Taken as a whole series, they are homely and quaint, wanting in beauty, but not without a curious domestic art of their own. Robinson finds an exception to the general simplicity in the tokensissued by one of the Exchange Alley houses. The dies of these tokens aresuch as to have suggested the skilled workmanship of John Roettier. Themost ornate has the head of a Turkish sultan at that time famed for hishorrible deeds, ending in suicide; its inscription runs: Morat ye Great Men did mee call;Where Eare I came I conquer'd all. A number of the most interesting coffee-house keepers' tokens in theBeaufoy collection in the Guildhall Museum were photographed for thiswork, and are shown herewith. It will be observed that many of thetraders of 1660-75 adopted as their trade sign a hand pouring coffeefrom a pot, invariably of the Turkish-ewer pattern. Morat (Amurath) andSoliman were frequent coffee-house signs in the seventeenth century. J. H. Burn, in his _Catalogue of Traders' Tokens_, recites that in 1672"divers persons who presumed ... To stamp, coin, exchange and distributefarthings, halfpence and pence of brass and copper" were "taken intocustody, in order to a severe prosecution"; but upon submission, theiroffenses were forgiven, and it was not until the year 1675 that theprivate token ceased to pass current. [Illustration: PLATE 1--COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17THCENTURY Drawn for this work from the originals in the British Museum, and in theBeaufoy collection at the Guildhall Museum] A royal proclamation at the close of 1674 enjoined the prosecution ofany who should "utter base metals with private stamps, " or "hinder thevending of those half pence and farthings which are provided fornecessary exchange. " After this, tokens were issued stamped "necessarychange. " [Illustration: A BROAD-SIDE OF 1663] _Opposition to the Coffee House_ It is easy to see why the coffee houses at once found favor among men ofintelligence in all classes. Until they came, the average Englishman hadonly the tavern as a place of common resort. But here was a public houseoffering a non-intoxicating beverage, and its appeal was instant anduniversal. As a meeting place for the exchange of ideas it soon attainedwide popularity. But not without opposition. The publicans and ale-housekeepers, seeing business slipping away from them, made strenuouspropaganda against this new social center; and not a few attacks werelaunched against the coffee drink. Between the Restoration and the year1675, of eight tracts written upon the subject of the London coffeehouses, four have the words "character of a coffee house" as part oftheir titles. The authors appear eager to impart a knowledge of thetown's latest novelty, with which many readers were unacquainted. One of these early pamphlets (1662) was entitled _The Coffee Scuffle_, and professed to give a dialogue between "a learned knight and apitifull pedagogue, " and contained an amusing account of a house wherethe Puritan element was still in the ascendant. A numerous company ispresent, and each little group being occupied with its own subject, thegeneral effect is that of another Babel. While one is engaged in quotingthe classics, another confides to his neighbors how much he admiresEuclid; A third's for a lecture, a fourth a conjecture, A fifth for a penny in the pound. Theology is introduced. Mask balls and plays are condemned. Others againdiscuss the news, and are deep in the store of "mercuries" here to befound. One cries up philosophy. Pedantry is rife, and for the most partunchecked, when each 'prentice-boy "doth call for his coffee in Latin"and all are so prompt with their learned quotations that "'t would makea poor Vicar to tremble. " The first noteworthy effort attacking the coffee drink was a satiricalbroadside that appeared in 1663. It was entitled _A Cup of Coffee: or, Coffee in its Colours_. It said: For men and Christians to turn Turks, and thinkT'excuse the Crime because 'tis in their drink, Is more than Magick.... Pure English Apes! Ye may, for ought I know, Would it but mode, learn to eat Spiders too. The writer wonders that any man should prefer coffee to canary, andrefers to the days of Beaumont, Fletcher, and Ben Jonson. He says: They drank pure nectar as the gods drink too, Sublim'd with rich Canary.... Shall thenThese less than coffee's self, these coffee-men, These sons of nothing, that can hardly makeTheir Broth, for laughing how the jest doth take;Yet grin, and give ye for the Vine's pure BloodA loathsome potion, not yet understood, Syrrop of soot, or Essence of old Shooes, Dasht with Diurnals and the Books of news? The author of _A Cup of Coffee_, it will be seen, does not shrink fromusing epithets. [Illustration: PLATE 2--COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17THCENTURY Drawn for this work from the originals in the British Museum, and in theBeaufoy collection at the Guildhall Museum] _The Coffee Man's Granado Discharged upon the Maiden's ComplaintAgainst Coffee_, a dialogue in verse, also appeared in 1663. _The Character of a Coffee House, by an Eye and Ear Witness_ appeared in1665. It was a ten-page pamphlet, and proved to be excellent propagandafor coffee. It is so well done, and contains so much local color, thatit is reproduced here, the text Museum. The title page reads: TheCHARACTEROF ACOFFEE-HOUSEwhereinIs contained a Description of the Personsusually frequenting it, with their Discourseand Humors, As AlsoThe Admirable Vertues ofCOFFEEBy an Eye and Ear Witness _When Coffee once was vended here, The Alc'ron shortly did appear, For our Reformers were such Widgeons. New Liquors brought in new Religions. _ Printed in the Year, 1665. The text and the arrangement of the body of the pamphlet are as follows: THECHARACTEROF ACOFFEE-HOUSE THE DERIVATION OFA COFFEE-HOUSE A _Coffee-house_, the learned holdIt is a place where _Coffee's_ sold;This derivation cannot fail us, For where _Ale's_ vended, that's an _Ale-house_. This being granted to be true, 'Tis meet that next the _Signs_ we shewBoth _where_ and _how_ to find this houseWhere men such _cordial broth_ carowse. And if _Culpepper_ woon some gloryIn turning the _Dispensatory_From _Latin_ into _English_; thenWhy should not all good _English men_Give him much thanks who shews a _cure_For all diseases men endure? SIGNS: HOW TOFIND IT OUT As you along the streets do trudge, To take the pains you must not grudge, To view the Posts or Broomsticks whereThe Signs of _Liquors_ hanged are. And if you see the great _Morat_With Shash on's head instead of hat, Or any _Sultan_ in his dress, Or picture of a _Sultaness_, Or _John's_ admir'd curled pate, Or th' great _Mogul_ in's Chair of State, Or _Constantine_ the _Grecian_, Who fourteen years was th' onely manThat made _Coffee_ for th' great _Bashaw_, Although the man he never saw;Or if you see a _Coffee_-cupFil'd from a Turkish pot, hung upWithin the clouds, and round it _Pipes_, _Wax Candles_, _Stoppers_, these are typesAnd certain signs (with many moreWould be too long to write them 'ore, )Which plainly do Spectators tellThat in that house they _Coffee_ sell. Some wiser than the rest (no doubt, )Say they can by the smell find't out;In at a door (say they, ) but thrustYour Nose, and if you scent _burnt Crust_, Be sure there's _Coffee_ sold that's good, For so by most 'tis understood. Now being enter'd, there's no needingOf complements or gentile breeding, For you may seat you any where, There's no respect of persons there;Then comes the _Coffee-man_ to greet you, With welcome Sir, let me entreat you, To tell me what you'l please to have, For I'm your humble, humble slave;But if you ask, what good does Coffee?He'l answer, Sir, don't think I scoff yee, If I affirm there's no diseaseMen have that drink it but find ease. THE VERTUESOF COFFEE Look, there's a man who takes the steemIn at his Nose, has an extreme_Worm_ in his pate, and giddiness, Ask him and he will say no less. There sitteth one whose Droptick bellyWas hard as flint, now's soft as jelly. There stands another holds his head'Ore th' _Coffee_-pot, was almost deadEven now with Rhume; ask him hee'l sayThat all his Rhum's now past away. See, there's a man sits now demureAnd sober, was within this hourQuite drunk, and comes here frequently, For 'tis his daily Malady, More, it has such reviving power'Twill keep a man awake an houre, Nay, make his eyes wide open stareBoth Sermon time and all the prayer. Sir, should I tell you all the restO' th' cures 't has done, two hours at leastIn numb'ring them I needs must spend, Scarce able then to make an end. Besides these vertues that's therein. For any kind of _Medicine_, The _Commonwealth-Kingdom_ I'd say, Has mighty reason for to prayThat still _Arabia_ may produceEnough of Berry for it's use:For't has such strange magnetick force, That it draws after't great concourseOf all degrees of persons, evenFrom high to low, from morn till even;Especially the _sober Party_, And News-mongers do drink't most heartyHere you'r not thrust into a _Box_As _Taverns_ do to catch the _Fox_, But as from th' top of _Pauls_ high steeple, Th' whole _City's_ view'd, even so all _people_May here be seen; no secrets areAt th' _Court_ for _Peace_, or th' _Camp_ for _War_, But straight they'r here disclos'd and known;Men in this Age so wise are grown. Now (Sir) what profit may accrewBy this, to all good men, judge you. With that he's loudly call'd uponFor _Coffee_, and then whip he's gone. THE COMPANY Here at a Table sits (perplext)A griping _Usurer_, and nextTo him a gallant _Furioso_, Then nigh to him a _Virtuoso_;A _Player_ then (full fine) sits down, And close to him a _Country Clown_. O' th' other side sits some _Pragmatick_, And next to him some sly _Phanatick_. THE SEVERALLIQUORS The gallant he for _Tea_ doth call, The _Usurer_ for nought at all. The _Pragmatick_ he doth intreatThat they will fill him some _Beau-cheat_, The _Virtuoso_ he cries hand meSome _Coffee_ mixt with _Sugar-candy_. _Phanaticus_ (at last) says come, Bring me some _Aromaticum_. The _Player_ bawls for _Chocolate_, All which the _Bumpkin_ wond'ring at, Cries, ho, my _Masters_, what d' ye speak, D' ye call for drink in Heathen Greek?Give me some good old _Ale_ or _Beer_, Or else I will not drink, I swear. Then having charg'd their _Pipes_ around. THEIR DISCOURSE They silence break; First the profoundAnd sage _Phanatique_, Sirs what news?Troth says the _Us'rer_ I ne'r useTo tip my tongue with such discourse, 'Twere news to know how to disburseA summ of mony (makes me sad)To get ought by't, times are so bad. The other answers, truly SirYou speak but truth, for I'le averThey ne'r were worse; did you not hearWhat _prodigies_ did late appearAt _Norwich, Ipswich, Grantham, Gotam_?And though prophane ones do not not'em, Yet we--Here th' _Virtuoso_ stopsThe current of his speech, with hopesQuoth he, you will not tak'd amiss, I say all's lies that's news like this, For I have Factors all aboutThe Realm, so that no _Stars_ peep outThat are unusual, much less theseStrange and unheard-of _prodigies_You would relate, but they are tostTo me in letters by first Post. At which the _Furioso_ swearsSuch chat as this offends his earsIt rather doth become this AgeTo talk of bloodshed, fury, rage, And t' drink stout healths in brim-fill'd _Nogans_. To th' downfall of the _Hogan Mogans_. With that the _Player_ doffs his Bonnet, And tunes his voice as if a SonnetWere to be sung; then gently says, O what delight there is in _Plays_!Sure if we were but all in _Peace_, This noise of _Wars_ and _News_ would cease;All sorts of people then would clubTheir pence to see a Play that's good. You'l wonder all this while (perhaps)The _Curioso_ holds his chaps. But he doth in his thoughts devise, How to the rest he may seem wise;Yet able longer not to hold, His tedious tale too must be told, And thus begins, Sirs unto meIt reason seems that libertyOf speech and words should be allow'dWhere men of differing judgements croud, And that's a _Coffee-house_, for whereShould men discourse so free as there?_Coffee_ and _Commonwealth_ beginBoth with one letter, both came inTogether for a _Reformation_, To make's a free and sober _Nation_. But now--With that _Phanaticus_Gives him a nod, and speaks him thus, Hold brother, I know your intent, That's no dispute convenientFor this same place, truths seldome findAcceptance here, they'r more confin'dTo _Taverns_ and to _Ale-house_ liquor, Where men do vent their minds more quickerIf that may for a truth but passWhat's said, _In vino veritas_. With that up starts the _Country Clown_, And stares about with threatening frown. As if he would even eat them all up. Then bids the boy run quick and call up, A _Constable_, for he has reasonTo fear their Latin may be _treason_But straight they all call what's to pay, Lay't down, and march each several way. THE COMPANY At th' other table sits a Knight, And here _a grave old man_ ore rightAgainst his _worship_, then perhapsThat _by_ and _by_ a _Drawer_ clapsHis bum close by them, there down squats_A dealer in old shoes and hats_;And here withouten any panickFear, dread or care a bold _Mechanick_. HEIR DISCOURSE The _Knight_ (because he's so) he pratesOf matters far beyond their pates. _The grave old man_ he makes a bustle, And his wise sentence in must justle. Up starts th' _Apprentice boy_ and heSays boldly so and so't must be. _The dealer in old shoes to_ utterHis saying too makes no small sputter. Then comes the pert _mechanick blade_, And contradicts what all have said. * * * * * There by the fier-side doth sit, One freezing in an _Ague_ fit. Another poking in't with th' tongs, Still ready to cough up his lungsHere sitteth one that's melancolick, And there one singing in a frolick. Each one hath such a prety gesture, At Smithfield fair would yield a tester. Boy reach a pipe cries he that shakes, The songster no Tobacco takes, Says he who coughs, nor do I smoak, Then _Monsieur Mopus_ turns his cloakOff from his face, and with a graveMajestick beck his pipe doth crave. They load their guns and fall a smoakingWhilst he who coughs sits by a choaking, Till he no longer can abide. And so removes from th' fier side. Now all this while none calls to drink, Which makes the _Coffee boy_ to thinkMuch they his pots should so enclose, He cannot pass but tread on toes. With that as he the _Nectar_ fillsFrom pot to pot, some on't he spillsUpon the _Songster_. Oh cries he. Pox, what dost do? thou'st burnt my knee;No says the boy, (to make a baldAnd blind excuse. ) _Sir 'twill not scald_. With that the man lends him a cuffO' th' ear, and whips away in snuff. The other two, their pipes being out, Says _Monsieur Mopus_ I much doubtMy friend I wait for will not come, But if he do, say I'm gone home. Then says the _Aguish man_ I must comeAccording to my wonted custome, To give ye' a visit, although nowI dare not drink, and so _adieu_. The boy replies, O Sir, howeverYou'r very welcome, we do neverOur _Candles_, _Pipes_ or _Fier_ grutchTo daily customers and such, They'r _Company_ (without expence, )For that's sufficient recompence. Here at a table all alone, Sits (studying) _a spruce youngster_, (oneWho doth conceipt himself fully witty, And's counted _one o' th' wits o' th' City_, )Till by him (with a stately grace, )A Spanish _Don_ himself doth place. Then (cap in hand) a brisk _Monsieur_He takes his seat, and crowds as nearAs possibly that he can come. Then next a _Dutchman_ takes his room. The Wits glib tongue begins to chatter, Though't utters more of noise than matter, Yet 'cause they seem to mind his words, His lungs more battle still affordsAt last says he to _Don_, I trowYou understand me? _Sennor no_Says th' other. Here the Wit doth pauseA little while, then opes his jaws, And says to _Monsieur_, you enjoyOur tongue I hope? _Non par ma foy_, Replies the _Frenchman_: nor you, Sir?Says he to th' _Dutchman, Neen mynheer_, With that he's gone, and cries, why sho'dHe stay where _wit's_ not understood?There in a place of his own chusing(Alone) some _lover_ sits a musing, With arms across, and's eyes up lift, As if he were of sence bereft. Till sometimes to himself he's speaking, Then sighs as if his heart were breaking. Here in a corner sits a _Phrantick_, And there stands by a frisking Antick, Of all sorts some and all conditionsEven _Vintners_, _Surgeons_ and _Physicians_. The _blind_, the _deaf_, and _aged cripple_Do here resort and Coffee tipple. Now here (perhaps) you may expectMy _Muse_ some trophies should erectIn high flown verse, for to set forthThe _noble praises_ of its _worth_. Truth is, _old Poets_ beat their brainsTo find out high and lofty strainsTo praise the (now too frequent) useOf the bewitching _grapes strong juice_, Some have strain'd hard for to exaltThe _liquor_ of our _English Mault_Nay _Don_ has almost crackt his _nodle_Enough t'applaud his _Caaco Caudle_. The _Germans Mum_, _Teag's Usquebagh_, (Made him so well defend _Tredagh_, )_Metheglin_, which the _Brittains_ tope, Hot _Brandy_ wine, the _Hogans_ hope. Stout _Meade_ which makes the _Russ_ to laugh, Spic'd _Punch_ (in bowls) the _Indians quaff_. All these have had their pens to raiseThem _Monuments_ of lasting praise, Onely poor _Coffee_ seems to meNo subject fit for _Poetry_At least 'tis one that none of mine is, So I do wave 't, and here write-- FINIS. [Illustration: A BROAD-SIDE OF 1667] _News from the Coffe House; in which is shewn their several sorts ofPassions_ appeared in 1667. It was reprinted in 1672 as _The CoffeeHouse or News-mongers' Hall_. Several stanzas from these broadsides have been much quoted. They serveto throw additional light upon the manners of the time, and upon thekind of conversation met with in any well frequented coffee house of theseventeenth century, particularly under the Stuarts. They are finelydescriptive of the company characteristics of the early coffee houses. The fifth stanza of the edition of 1667, inimical to the French, wasomitted when the broadside was amended and reprinted in 1672, the yearthat England joined with France and again declared war on the Dutch. Thefollowing verses with explanatory notes are from Timbs: NEWS FROM THE COFFE HOUSE You that delight in Wit and Mirth, And long to hear such News, As comes from all Parts of the _Earth_, _Dutch_, _Danes_, and _Turks_, and _Jews_, I'le send yee to a Rendezvouz, Where it is smoaking new;Go hear it at a _Coffe-house_, _It cannot but be true_. There Battles and Sea-Fights are Fought, And bloudy Plots display'd;They know more Things then ere was thought Or ever was betray'd:No Money in the Minting-house Is halfe so Bright and New;And comming from a _Coffe-house_ _It cannot but be true_. Before the _Navyes_ fall to Work, They know who shall be Winner;They there can tell ye what the _Turk_ Last _Sunday_ had to Dinner;Who last did Cut _Du Ruitters_[75] Corns, Amongst his jovial Crew;Or Who first gave the _Devil_ Horns, _Which cannot but be true_. A _Fisherman_ did boldly tell, And strongly did avouch, He Caught a Shoal of Mackarel, That Parley'd all in _Dutch_, And cry'd out _Yaw, yaw, yaw Myne Here_; But as the Draught they DrewThey Stunck for fear, that _Monck[76] was there_, _Which cannot but be true_. * * * * * There's nothing done in all the World, From _Monarch_ to the _Mouse_But every Day or Night 'tis hurld Into the _Coffe-house_. What _Lillie_[77] or what _Booker_[78] can By Art, not bring about, At _Coffe-house_ you'l find a Man, _Can quickly find it out_. They know who shall in Times to come, Be either made, or undone, From great _St. Peters street_ in _Rome_, To _Turnbull-street_[79] in _London_; * * * * * They know all that is Good, or Hurt, To Dam ye, or to Save ye;There is the _Colledge_, and the _Court_, The _Country_, _Camp_ and _Navie_;So great a _Universitie_, I think there ne're was any;In which you may a Schoolar be For spending of a Penny. * * * * * Here Men do talk of every Thing, With large and liberal Lungs, Like Women at a Gossiping, With double tyre of Tongues;They'l give a Broad-side presently, Soon as you are in view, With Stories that, you'l wonder at, Which they will swear are true. The Drinking there of _Chockalat_, Can make a _Fool_ a _Sophie_:'Tis thought the _Turkish Mahomet_ Was first Inspir'd with _Coffe_, By which his Powers did Over-flow The Land of _Palestine_:Then let us to, the _Coffe-house_ go, 'Tis Cheaper farr then Wine. You shall know there, what Fashions are; How Perrywiggs are Curl'd;And for a Penny you shall heare, All Novells in the World. Both Old and Young, and Great and Small, And Rich, and Poore, you'l see;Therefore let's to the _Coffe_ All, Come All away with Mee. FINIS. Robert Morton made a contribution to the controversy in _Lines Appendedto the Nature, Quality and Most Excellent Vertues of Coffee_ in 1670. There was published in 1672 _A Broad-side Against Coffee, or theMarriage of the Turk_, verses that attained considerable fame because oftheir picturesque invective. They also stressed the fact that PasquaRosées partner was a coachman, and imitated the broken English of theRagusan youth: A BROAD-SIDE AGAINST COFFEE; OR, THE MARRIAGE OF THE TURK _Coffee_, a kind of _Turkish Renegade_, Has late a match with _Christian water_ made;At first between them happen'd a Demur, Yet joyn'd they were, but not without great _stir_; * * * * * _Coffee_ was cold as _Earth, Water_ as _Thames_, And stood in need of recommending Flames; * * * * * _Coffee_ so brown as berry does appear, Too swarthy for a Nymph so fair, so clear: * * * * * A Coachman was the first (here) _Coffee_ made, And ever since the rest _drive on_ the trade;_Me no good Engalash_! and sure enough, He plaid the Quack to salve his Stygian stuff;_Ver boon for de stomach, de Cough, de Ptisick_And I believe him, for it looks like Physick. _Coffee_ a crust is charkt into a coal, The smell and taste of the Mock _China_ bowl;Where huff and puff, they labour out their lungs, Lest _Dives_-like they should bewail their tongues. And yet they tell ye that it will not burn, Though on the Jury Blisters you return;Whose furious heat does make the water rise, And still through the Alembicks of your eyes. Dread and desire, ye fall to't snap by snap, As hungry Dogs do scalding porrige lap, But to cure Drunkards it has got great Fame;_Posset_ or _Porrige_, will't not do the same?Confusion huddles all into one Scene, Like _Noah's_ Ark, the clean and the unclean. But now, alas! the Drench has credit got, And he's no Gentleman that drinks it not;That such a _Dwarf_ should rise to such a stature!But Custom is but a remove from Nature. A _little_ Dish, and a _large_ Coffee-house, What is it, but a _Mountain_ and a _Mouse_? * * * * * _Mens humana novitatis avidissima. _ [Illustration: A BROAD-SIDE OF 1670] And so it came to pass that coffee history repeated itself in England. Many good people became convinced that coffee was a dangerous drink. Thetirades against the beverage in that far-off time sound not unlike theadvertising patter employed by some of our present-day coffee-substitutemanufacturers. It was even ridiculed by being referred to as "ninnybroth" and "Turkey gruel. " [Illustration: A BROAD-SIDE OF 1672] _A brief description of the excellent vertues of that sober andwholesome drink called coffee_ appeared in 1674 and proved an able anddignified answer to the attacks that had preceded it. That same year, for the first time in history, the sexes divided in a coffeecontroversy, and there was issued _The Women's Petition against Coffee, representing to public consideration the grand inconveniences accruingto their sex from the excessive use of the drying and enfeeblingLiquor_, in which the ladies, who had not been accorded the freedom ofthe coffee houses in England, as was the custom in France, Germany, Italy, and other countries on the Continent, complained that coffee mademen as "unfruitful as the deserts where that unhappy berry is said to bebought. " Besides the more serious complaint that the whole race was indanger of extinction, it was urged that "on a domestic message a husbandwould stop by the way to drink a couple of cups of coffee. " This pamphlet is believed to have precipitated the attempt atsuppression by the crown the following year, despite the promptappearing, in 1674, of _The Men's Answer to the Women's Petition AgainstCoffee, vindicating ... Their liquor, from the undeserved aspersionlately cast upon them, in their scandalous pamphlet_. The 1674 broadside in defense of coffee was the first to be illustrated;and for all its air of pretentious grandeur and occasional bathos, itwas not a bad rhyming advertisement for the persecuted drink. It wasprinted for Paul Greenwood and sold "at the sign of the coffee mill andtobacco-roll in Cloath-fair near West-Smithfield, who selleth the bestArabian coffee powder and chocolate in cake or roll, after the Spanishfashion, etc. " The following extracts will serve to illustrate its epiccharacter: When the sweet Poison of the Treacherous Grape, Had Acted on the world a General Rape;Drowning our very Reason and our SoulsIn such deep Seas of large o'reflowing Bowls. * * * * * When Foggy Ale, leavying up mighty TrainsOf muddy Vapours, had besieg'd our Brains; * * * * * Then Heaven in Pity, to Effect our Cure. * * * * * First sent amongst us this _All-healing-Berry_, At once to make us both _Sober_ and _Merry_. _Arabian_ Coffee, a Rich CordialTo Purse and Person Beneficial, Which of so many Vertues doth partake, Its Country's called Felix for its sake. From the Rich Chambers of the Rising Sun, Where Arts, and all good Fashions first begun, Where Earth with choicest Rarities is blest, And dying _Phoenix_ builds Her wondrous Nest:COFFEE arrives, that Grave and wholesome Liquor, That heals the Stomack, makes the Genius quicker, Relieves the Memory, Revives the Sad. * * * * * Do but this Rare ARABIAN Cordial Use, And thou may'st all the Doctors Slops Refuse. Hush then, dull QUACKS, your Mountebanking cease, COFFEE'S a speedier Cure for each Disease;How great its Vertues are, we hence may think, The Worlds third Part makes it their common Drink:In Breif, all you who Healths Rich Treasures Prize, And Court not Ruby Noses, or blear'd Eyes, But own Sobriety to be your Drift. And Love at once good Company and Thrift;To Wine no more make Wit and Coyn a Trophy, But come each Night and Frollique here in Coffee. [Illustration: A BROAD-SIDE OF 1674 The first one to be illustrated] An eight-page folio, the last argument to be issued in defense of coffeebefore Charles II sought to follow in the footsteps of Kair Bey andKuprili, was issued in the early part of 1675. It was entitled _CoffeeHouses Vindicated. In answer to the late published Character of a CoffeeHouse. Asserting from Reason, Experience and good Authors the ExcellentUse and physical Virtues of that Liquor ... With the Grand Convenienceof such civil Places of Resort and ingenious Conversation_. The advantage of a coffee house compared with a "publick-house" is thusset forth: First, In regard of easy expense. Being to wait for or meet a friend, a tavern-reckoning soon breeds a purse-consumption: in an ale house, you must gorge yourself with pot after pot.... But here, for a penny or two, you may spend two or three hours, have the shelter of a house, the warmth of a fire, the diversion of company; and conveniency, if you please, of taking a pipe of tobacco; and all this without any grumbling or repining. Secondly. For sobriety. It is grown, by the ill influences of I know not what hydropick stars, almost a general custom amongst us, that no bargain can be drove, or business concluded between man and man, but it must be transacted at some publick-house ... Where continual sippings ... Would be apt to fly up into their brains, and render them drowsy and indisposed ... Whereas, having now the opportunity of a coffee-house, they repair thither, take each man a dish or two (so far from causing, that it cures any dizziness, or disturbant fumes): and so, dispatching their business, go out more sprightly about their affairs, than before.... Lastly, For diversion ... Where can young gentlemen, or shop-keepers, more innocently and advantageously spend an hour or two in the evening than at a coffee-house? Where they shall be sure to meet company, and, by the custom of the house, not such as at other places stingy and reserved to themselves, but free and communicative, where every man may modestly begin his story, and propose to, or answer another, as he thinks fit.... So that, upon the whole matter, spight of the idle sarcasms and paltry reproaches thrown upon it, we may, with no less truth than plainness, give this brief character of a well-regulated coffee-house, (for our pen disdains to be an advocate for any sordid holes, that assume that name to cloke the practice of debauchery, ) that it is the sanctuary of health, the nursery of temperance, the delight of frugality, and academy of civility, and free-school of ingenuity. _The Ale Wives' Complaint Against the Coffee-houses_, a dialogue betweena victualer's wife and a coffee man, at difference about spiriting awayeach other's trade, also was issued in 1675. As early as 1666, and again in 1672, we find the government planning tostrike a blow at the coffee houses. By the year 1675, these "seminariesof sedition" were much frequented by persons of rank and substance, who, "suitable to our native genius, " says Anderson, [80] "used great freedomtherein with respect to the courts' proceedings in these and likepoints, so contrary to the voice of the people. " In 1672, Charles II, seemingly eager to emulate the Oriental intolerantsthat preceded him, determined to try his hand at suppression. "Havingbeen informed of the great inconveniences arising from the great numberof persons that resort to coffee-houses, " the king "desired the LordKeeper and the Judges to give their opinion in writing as to how far hemight lawfully proceed against them. " Roger North in his _Examen_ gives the full story; and D'Israeli, commenting on it, says, "it was not done without some apparent respectfor the British constitution. " The courts affected not to act againstthe law, and the judges were summoned to a consultation; but the fivewho met could not agree in opinion. Sir William Coventry spoke against the proposed measure. He pointed outthat the government obtained considerable revenue from coffee, that theking himself owed to these seemingly obnoxious places no small debt ofgratitude in the matter of his own restoration; for they had beenpermitted in Cromwell's time, when the king's friends had used moreliberty of speech than "they dared to do in any other. " He urged, also, that it might be rash to issue a command so likely to be disobeyed. At last, being hard pressed for a reply, the judges gave such a haltingopinion in favor of the king's policy as to remind us of the reluctantverdict wrung from the physicians and lawyers of Mecca on the occasionof coffee's first persecution. [81] "The English lawyers, in languagewhich, for its civility and indefiniteness, " says Robinson, "would havebeen the envy of their Eastern brethren, " declared that: Retailing coffee _might_ be an innocent trade, as it _might_ be exercised; but as it is used at present, in the nature of a common assembly, to discourse of matters of State, news and _great Persons_, as they are Nurseries of Idleness and Pragmaticalness, and hinder the expence of our native Provisions, they _might_ be thought common nuisances. An attempt was made to mold public opinion to a favorable considerationof the attempt at suppression in _The Grand Concern of Englandexplained_, which was good propaganda for his majesty's enterprise, bututterly failed to carry conviction to the lovers of liberty. After much backing and filling, the king, on December 23, 1675, issued aproclamation which in its title frankly stated its object--"for thesuppression of coffee houses. " It is here given in a somewhat condensedform: BY THE KING: A PROCLAMATIONFOR THE SUPPRESSION OFCOFFEE HOUSES _Charles R. _ Whereas it is most apparent that the multitude of Coffee Houses of late years set up and kept within this kingdom, the dominion of Wales, and town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, and the great resort of Idle and disaffected persons to them, have produced very evil and dangerous effects; as well for that many tradesmen and others, do herein mispend much of their time, which might and probably would be employed in and about their Lawful Calling and Affairs; but also, for that in such houses ... Divers false, malitious and scandalous reports are devised and spread abroad to the Defamation of his Majestie's Government, and to the Disturbance of the Peace and Quiet of the Realm; his Majesty hath thought fit and necessary, that the said Coffee Houses be (for the future) Put down, and suppressed, and doth ... Strictly charge and command all manner of persons, That they or any of them do not presume from and after the Tenth Day of January next ensuing, to keep any Public Coffee House, or to utter or sell by retail, in his, her or their house or houses (to be spent or consumed within the same) any Coffee, Chocolet, Sherbett or Tea, as they will answer the contrary at their utmost perils ... (all licenses to be revoked). Given at our Court at Whitehall, this third-and-twentieth day of Dec. , 1675, in the seven-and-twentieth year of our Reign. GOD SAVE THE KING. And then a remarkable thing happened. It is not usual for a royalproclamation issued on the 29th of one month to be recalled on the 8thday of the next; but this is the record established by Charles II. Theproclamation was made on December 23, 1675, and issued December 29, 1675. It forbade the coffee houses to operate after January 10, 1676. But so intense was the feeling aroused, that eleven days was sufficienttime to convince the king that a blunder had been made. Men of allparties cried out against being deprived of their accustomed haunts. Thedealers in coffee, tea, and chocolate demonstrated that the proclamationwould greatly lessen his majesty's revenues. Convulsion and discontentloomed large. The king heeded the warning, and on January 8, 1676, another proclamation was issued by which the first proclamation wasrecalled. In order to save the king's face, it was solemnly recited that "HisGracious Majesty, " out of his "princely consideration and royalcompassion" would allow the retailers of coffee liquor to keep openuntil the 24th of the following June. But this was clearly only a royalsubterfuge, as there was no further attempt at molestation, and it isextremely doubtful if any was contemplated at the time the secondproclamation was promulgated. "Than both which proclamations nothing could argue greater guilt norgreater weakness, " says Anderson. Robinson remarks, "A battle forfreedom of speech was fought and won over this question at a time whenParliaments were infrequent and when the liberty of the press did notexist. " "_Penny Universities_" We read in 1677 that "none dare venture into the coffee houses unless hebe able to argue the question whether Parliament were dissolved or not. " All through the years remaining in the seventeenth century, and throughmost of the eighteenth century, the London coffee houses grew andprospered. As before stated, they were originally temperanceinstitutions, very different from the taverns and ale houses. "Withinthe walls of the coffee house there was always much noise, much clatter, much bustle, but decency was never outraged. " At prices ranging from one to two pence per dish, the demand grew sogreat that coffee-house keepers were obliged to make the drink in potsholding eight or ten gallons. The seventeenth-century coffee houses were sometimes referred to as the"penny universities"; because they were great schools of conversation, and the entrance fee was only a penny. Two pence was the usual price ofa dish of coffee or tea, this charge also covering newspapers andlights. It was the custom for the frequenter to lay his penny on thebar, on entering or leaving. Admission to the exchange of sparkling witand brilliant conversation was within the reach of all. So great a _Universitie_I think there ne're was any;In which you may a Schoolar beFor spending of a Penny. "Regular customers, " we are told, "had particular seats and specialattention from the fair lady at the bar, and the tea and coffee boys. " It is believed that the modern custom of tipping, and the word "tip, "originated in the coffee houses, where frequently hung brass-bound boxesinto which customers were expected to drop coins for the servants. Theboxes were inscribed "To Insure Promptness" and from the initial lettersof these words came "tip. " The _National Review_ says, "before 1715 the number of coffee houses inLondon was reckoned at 2000. " Dufour, who wrote in 1683, declares, uponinformation received from several persons who had staid in London, thatthere were 3000 of these places. However, 2000 is probably nearer thefact. In that critical time in English history, when the people, tired of themisgovernment of the later Stuarts, were most in need of a forum wherequestions of great moment could be discussed, the coffee house became asanctuary. Here matters of supreme political import were threshed outand decided for the good of Englishmen for all time. And because many ofthese questions were so well thought out then, there was no need tofight them out later. England's great struggle for political liberty wasreally fought and won in the coffee house. To the end of the reign of Charles II, coffee was looked upon by thegovernment rather as a new check upon license than an added luxury. After the revolution, the London coffee merchants were obliged topetition the House of Lords against new import duties, and it was notuntil the year 1692 that the government, "for the greater encouragementand advancement of trade and the greater importation of the saidrespective goods or merchandises, " discharged one half of the obnoxioustariff. _Weird Coffee Substitutes_ Shortly after the "great fire, " coffee substitutes began to appear. First came a liquor made with betony, "for the sake of those who couldnot accustom themselves to the bitter taste of coffee. " Betony is a herbbelonging to the mint family, and its root was formerly employed inmedicine as an emetic or purgative. In 1719, when coffee was 7s. Apound, came bocket, later known as saloop, a decoction of sassafras andsugar, that became such a favorite among those who could not afford teaor coffee, that there were many saloop stalls in the streets of London. It was also sold at Read's coffee house in Fleet Street. _The Coffee Men Overreach Themselves_ The coffee-house keepers had become so powerful a force in the communityin 1729 that they lost all sense of proportion; and we find themseriously proposing to usurp the functions of the newspapers. Thevainglorious coffee men requested the government to hand over to them ajournalistic monopoly; the argument being that the newspapers of the daywere choked with advertisements, filled with foolish stories gathered byall-too enterprising newswriters, and that the only way for thegovernment to escape "further excesses occasioned by the freedom of thepress" and to rid itself of "those pests of society, the unlicensednewsvendors, " was for it to intrust the coffee men, as "the chiefsupporters of liberty" with the publication of a _Coffee House Gazette_. Information for the journal was to be supplied by the habitués of thehouses themselves, written down on brass slates or ivory tablets, andcalled for twice daily by the _Gazette's_ representatives. All theprofits were to go to the coffee men--including the expected increase ofcustom. Needless to say, this amazing proposal of the coffee-house masters tohave the public write its own newspapers met with the scorn and thederision it invited, and nothing ever came of it. The increasing demand for coffee caused the government tardily to seekto stimulate interest in the cultivation of the plant in Britishcolonial possessions. It was tried out in Jamaica in 1730. By 1732 theexperiment gave such promise that Parliament, "for encouraging thegrowth of coffee in His Majesty's plantations in America, " reduced theinland duty on coffee coming from there, "but of none other, " from twoshillings to one shilling six pence per pound. "It seems that the Frenchat Martinico, Hispaniola, and at the Isle de Bourbon, near Madagascar, had somewhat the start of the English in the new product as had also theDutch at Surinam, yet none had hitherto been found to equal coffee fromArabia, whence all the rest of the world had theirs. " Thus writes AdamAnderson in 1787, somewhat ungraciously seeking to damn England'sbusiness rivals with faint praise. Java coffee was even then in thelead, and the seeds of Bourbon-Santos were multiplying rapidly inBrazilian soil. The British East India Company, however, was much more interested in teathan in coffee. Having lost out to the French and Dutch on the "littlebrown berry of Arabia, " the company engaged in so lively a propagandafor "the cup that cheers" that, whereas the annual tea imports from 1700to 1710 averaged 800, 000 pounds, in 1721 more than 1, 000, 000 pounds oftea were brought in. In 1757, some 4, 000, 000 pounds were imported. Andwhen the coffee house finally succumbed, tea, and not coffee, was firmlyintrenched as the national drink of the English people. A movement in 1873 to revive the coffee house in the form of a coffee"palace, " designed to replace the public house as a place of resort forworking men, caused the Edinburgh Castle to be opened in London. Themovement attained considerable success throughout the British Isles, andeven spread to the United States. _Evolution of the Club_ Every profession, trade, class, and party had its favorite coffee house. "The bitter black drink called coffee, " as Mr. Pepys described thebeverage, brought together all sorts and conditions of men; and out oftheir mixed association there developed groups of patrons favoringparticular houses and giving them character. It is easy to trace thetransition of the group into a clique that later became a club, continuing for a time to meet at the coffee house or the chocolatehouse, but eventually demanding a house of its own. _Decline and Fall of the Coffee House_ Starting as a forum for the commoner, "the coffee house soon became theplaything of the leisure class; and when the club was evolved, thecoffee house began to retrograde to the level of the tavern. And so theeighteenth century, which saw the coffee house at the height of itspower and popularity, witnessed also its decline and fall. It is saidthere were as many clubs at the end of the century as there were coffeehouses at the beginning. " For a time, when the habit of reading newspapers descended the socialladder, the coffee house acquired a new lease of life. Sir Walter Besantobserves: They were then frequented by men who came, not to talk, but to read; the smaller tradesmen and the better class of mechanic now came to the coffee-house, called for a cup of coffee, and with it the daily paper, which they could not afford to take in. Every coffee-house took three or four papers; there seems to have been in this latter phase of the once social institution no general conversation. The coffee-house as a place of resort and conversation gradually declined; one can hardly say why, except that all human institutions do decay. Perhaps manners declined; the leaders in literature ceased to be seen there; the city clerk began to crowd in; the tavern and the club drew men from the coffee-house. A few houses survived until the early years of the nineteenth century, but the social side had disappeared. As tea and coffee entered thehomes, and the exclusive club house succeeded the democratic coffeeforum, the coffee houses became taverns or chop houses, or, convincedthat they had outlived their usefulness, just ceased to be. _Pen Pictures of Coffee-House Life_ From the writings of Addison in the _Spectator_, Steele in the _Tatler_, Mackay in his _Journey Through England_, Macaulay in his history, andothers, it is possible to draw a fairly accurate pen-picture of life inthe old London coffee house. In the seventeenth century the coffee room usually opened off thestreet. At first only tables and chairs were spread about on a sandedfloor. Later, this arrangement was succeeded by the boxes, or booths, such as appear in the Rowlandson caricatures, the picture of theinterior of Lloyds, etc. The walls were decorated with handbills and posters advertising thequack medicines, pills, tinctures, salves, and electuaries of theperiod, all of which might be purchased at the bar near the entrance, presided over by a prototype of the modern English barmaid. There werealso bills of the play, auction notices, etc. , depending upon thecharacter of the place. Then, as now, the barmaids were made much of by patrons. Tom Brownrefers to them as charming "Phillises who invite you by their amorousglances into their smoaky territories. " Messages were left and letters received at the bar for regularcustomers. Stella was instructed to address her letters to Swift, "undercover to Addison at the St. James's coffee house. " Says Macaulay: Foreigners remarked that it was the coffee house which specially distinguished London from all other cities; that the coffee house was the Londoner's home, and that those who wished to find a gentleman commonly asked, not whether he lived in Fleet Street or Chancery Lane, but whether he frequented the Grecian or the Rainbow. [Illustration: MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF MANY OF THE OLD LONDONCOFFEE HOUSES PREVIOUS TO THE FIRE OF 1748] So every man of the upper or middle classes went daily to his coffeehouse to learn the news and to discuss it. The better class houses werethe meeting places of the most substantial men in the community. Everycoffee house had its orator, who became to his admirers a kind of"fourth estate of the realm. " Macaulay gives us the following picture of the coffee house of 1685: Nobody was excluded from these places who laid down his penny at the bar. Yet every rank and profession, and every shade of religious and political opinion had its own headquarters. There were houses near St. James' Park, where fops congregated, their heads and shoulders covered with black or flaxen wigs, not less ample than those which are now worn by the Chancellor and by the Speaker of the House of Commons. The atmosphere was like that of a perfumer's shop. Tobacco in any form than that of richly scented snuff was held in abomination. If any clown, ignorant of the usages of the house, called for a pipe, the sneers of the whole assembly and the short answers of the waiters soon convinced him that he had better go somewhere else. Nor, indeed, would he have far to go. For, in general, the coffee-houses reeked with tobacco like a guard room. Nowhere was the smoking more constant than at Will's. That celebrated house, situated between Covent Garden and Bow street, was sacred to polite letters. There the talk was about poetical justice and the unities of place and time. Under no roof was a greater variety of figures to be seen. There were earls in stars and garters, clergymen in cassocks and bands, pert Templars, sheepish lads from universities, translators and index makers in ragged coats of frieze. The great press was to get near the chair where John Dryden sate. In winter that chair was always in the warmest nook by the fire; in summer it stood in the balcony. To bow to the Laureate, and to hear his opinion of Racine's last tragedy, or of Bossu's treatise on epic poetry, was thought a privilege. A pinch from his snuff-box was an honour sufficient to turn the head of a young enthusiast. There were coffee-houses where the first medical men might be consulted. Dr. John Radcliffe, who, in the year 1685, rose to the largest practice in London, came daily, at the hour when the Exchange was full, from his house in Bow street, then a fashionable part of the capital, to Garraway's, and was to be found, surrounded by surgeons and apothecaries, at a particular table. There were Puritan coffee-houses where no oath was heard, and where lank-haired men discussed election and reprobation through their noses; Jew coffee-houses, where dark-eyed money changers from Venice and Amsterdam greeted each other; and Popish coffee-houses, where, as good Protestants believed, Jesuits planned over their cups another great fire, and cast silver bullets to shoot the King. Ned Ward gives us this picture of the coffee house of the seventeenthcentury. He is describing Old Man's, Scotland Yard: We now ascended a pair of stairs, which brought us into an old-fashioned room, where a gaudy crowd of odoriferous Tom-Essences were walking backwards and forwards, with their hats in their hands, not daring to convert them to their intended use lest it should put the foretops of their wigs into some disorder. We squeezed through till we got to the end of the room, where, at a small table, we sat down, and observed that it was as great a rarity to hear anybody call for a dish of politicians porridge, or any other liquor, as it is to hear a beau call for a pipe of tobacco; their whole exercise being to charge and discharge their nostrils and keep the curls of their periwigs in their proper order. The clashing of their snush-box lids, in opening and shutting, made more noise than their tongues. Bows and cringes of the newest mode were here exchanged 'twixt friend and friend with wonderful exactness. They made a humming like so many hornets in a country chimney, not with their talking, but with their whispering over their new Minuets and Bories, with the hands in their pockets, if only freed from their snush-box. We now began to be thoughtful of a pipe of tobacco, whereupon we ventured to call for some instruments of evaporation, which were accordingly brought us, but with such a kind of unwillingness, as if they would much rather been rid of our company; for their tables were so very neat, and shined with rubbing like the upper-leathers of an alderman's shoes, and as brown as the top of a country housewife's cupboard. The floor was as clean swept as a Sir Courtly's dining room, which made us look round to see if there were no orders hung up to impose the forfeiture of so much mop-money upon any person that should spit out of the chimney-corner. Notwithstanding we wanted an example to encourage us in our porterly rudeness, we ordered them to light the wax candle, by which we ignified our pipes and blew about our whiffs; at which several Sir Foplins drew their faces into as many peevish wrinkles as the beaux at the Bow Street Coffee-house, near Covent Garden, did when the gentleman in masquerade came in amongst them, with his oyster-barrel muff and turnip-buttons, to ridicule their foperies. In _A Brief and Merry History of Great Britain_ we read: There is a prodigious number of Coffee-Houses in London, after the manner I have seen some in Constantinople. These Coffee-Houses are the constant Rendezvous for Men of Business as well as the idle People. Besides Coffee, there are many other Liquors, which People cannot well relish at first. They smoak Tobacco, game and read Papers of Intelligence; here they treat of Matters of State, make Leagues with Foreign Princes, break them again, and transact Affairs of the last Consequence to the whole World. They represent these Coffee-Houses as the most agreeable things in London, and they are, in my Opinion, very proper Places to find People that a Man has Business with, or to pass away the Time a little more agreeably than he can do at home; but in other respects they are loathsome, full of smoak, like a Guard-Room, and as much crowded. I believe 'tis these Places that furnish the Inhabitants with Slander, for there one hears exact Account of everything done in Town, as if it were but a Village. At those Coffee-Houses, near the Courts, called White's, St. James's, Williams's, the Conversation turns chiefly upon the Equipages, Essence, Horse-Matches, Tupees, Modes and Mortgages; the Cocoa-Tree upon Bribery and Corruption, Evil ministers, Errors and Mistakes in Government; the Scotch Coffee-Houses towards Charing Cross, on Places and Pensions; the Tiltyard and Young Man's on Affronts, Honour, Satisfaction, Duels and Rencounters. I was informed that the latter happen so frequently, in this part of the Town, that a Surgeon and a Sollicitor are kept constantly in waiting; the one to dress and heal such Wounds as may be given, and the other in case of Death to bring off the Survivor with a Verdict of Se Devendendo or Manslaughter. In those Coffee-Houses about the Temple the Subjects are generally on Causes, Costs, Demurrers, Rejoinders and Exceptions; Daniel's the Welch Coffee-House in Fleet Street, on Births, Pedigrees and Descents; Child's and the Chapter upon Glebes, Tithes, Advowsons, Rectories and Lectureships; North's Undue Elections, False Polling, Scrutinies, etc. ; Hamlin's, Infant-Baptism, Lay-Ordination, Free-Will, Election and Reprobation; Batson's, the Prices of Pepper, Indigo and Salt-Petre; and all those about the Exchange, where the Merchants meet to transact their Affairs, are in a perpetual hurry about Stock-Jobbing, Lying, Cheating, Tricking Widows and Orphans, and committing Spoil and Rapine on the Publick. [Illustration: WHITE'S AND BROOKES', ST. JAMES'S STREET] In the eighteenth century beer and wine were commonly sold at the coffeehouses in addition to tea and chocolate. Daniel Defoe, writing of hisvisit to Shrewsbury in 1724, says, "I found there the most coffee housesaround the Town Hall that ever I saw in any town, but when you come intothem they are but ale houses, only they think that the name coffee housegives a better air. " Speaking of the coffee houses of the city, Besant says: Rich merchants alone ventured to enter certain of the coffee houses, where they transacted business more privately and more expeditiously than on the Exchange. There were coffee houses where officers of the army alone were found; where the city shopkeeper met his chums; where actors congregated; where only divines, only lawyers, only physicians, only wits and those who came to hear them were found. In all alike the visitor put down his penny and went in, taking his own seat if he was an habitue; he called for a cup of tea or coffee and paid his twopence for it; he could call also, if he pleased, for a cordial; he was expected to talk with his neighbour whether he knew him or not. Men went to certain coffee houses in order to meet the well-known poets and writers who were to be found there, as Pope went in search of Dryden. The daily papers and the pamphlets of the day were taken in. Some of the coffee houses, but not the more respectable, allowed the use of tobacco. [Illustration: COFFEE HOUSE POLITICIANS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY] [Illustration: THE GREAT FAIR ON THE FROZEN THAMES--1683 From a broadside entitled _Wonders on the Deep_. Figure 2 is the Duke ofYork's Coffee House] Mackay, in his _Journey Through England_ (1724), says: We rise by nine, and those that frequent great men's levees find entertainment at them till eleven, or, as in Holland, go to tea-tables; about twelve the _beau monde_ assemble in several coffee or chocolate houses; the best of which are the Cocoatree and White's chocolate houses, St. James', the Smyrna, Mrs. Rochford's and the British coffee houses; and all these so near one another that in less than an hour you see the company of them all. We are carried to these places in chairs (or sedans), which are here very cheap, a guinea a week, or a shilling per hour, and your chairmen serve you for porters to run on errands, as your gondoliers do at Venice. If it be fine weather we take a turn into the park till two, when we go to dinner; and if it be dirty, you are entertained at picquet or basset at White's, or you may talk politics at the Smyrna or St. James'. I must not forget to tell you that the parties have their different places, where, however, a stranger is always well received; but a Whig will no more go to the Cocoatree than a Tory will be seen at the Coffee House, St James'. The Scots go generally to the British, and a mixture of all sorts go to the Smyrna. There are other little coffee houses much frequented in this neighborhood--Young Man's for officers; Old Man's for stock jobbers, paymasters and courtiers, and Little Man's for sharpers. I never was so confounded in my life as when I entered into this last. I saw two or three tables full at faro, and was surrounded by a set of sharp faces that I was afraid would have devoured me with their eyes. I was glad to drop two or three half crowns at faro to get off with a clear skin, and was overjoyed I so got rid of them. At two we generally go to dinner; ordinaries are not so common here as abroad, yet the French have set up two or three good ones for the convenience of foreigners in Suffolk street, where one is tolerably well served; but the general way here is to make a party at the coffee house to go to dine at the tavern, where we sit till six, when we go to the play, except you are invited to the table of some great man, which strangers are always courted to and nobly entertained. Mackay writes that "in all the coffee houses you have not only theforeign prints but several English ones with foreign occurrences, besides papers of morality and party disputes. " "After the play, " writes Defoe, "the best company generally go to Tom'sand Will's coffee houses, near adjoining, where there is playing atpicquet and the best of conversation till midnight. Here you will seeblue and green ribbons and stars sitting familiarly and talking with thesame freedom as if they had left their equality and degrees of distanceat home. " [Illustration: THE LION'S HEAD AT BUTTON'S COFFEE HOUSE Designed by Hogarth, and put up by Addison, 1713 From a water color byT. H. Shepherd] Before entering the coffee house every one was recommended by the_Tatler_ to prepare his body with three dishes of bohea and to purge hisbrains with two pinches of snuff. Men had their coffee houses as nowthey have their clubs--sometimes contented with one, sometimes belongingto three or four. Johnson, for instance, was connected with St. James's, the Turk's Head, the Bedford, Peele's, besides the taverns which hefrequented. Addison and Steele used Button's; Swift, Button's, theSmyrna, and St. James's; Dryden, Will's; Pope, Will's and Button's;Goldsmith, the St. James's and the Chapter; Fielding, the Bedford;Hogarth, the Bedford and Slaughter's; Sheridan, the Piazza; Thurlow, Nando's. _Some Famous Coffee Houses_ Among the famous English coffee houses of the seventeenth-eighteenthcentury period were St. James's, Will's, Garraway's, White's, Slaughter's, the Grecian, Button's, Lloyd's, Tom's, and Don Saltero's. St. James's was a Whig house frequented by members of Parliament, with afair sprinkling of literary stars. Garraway's catered to the gentry ofthe period, many of whom naturally had Tory proclivities. One of the notable coffee houses of Queen Anne's reign was Button's. Here Addison could be found almost every afternoon and evening, alongwith Steele, Davenant, Carey, Philips, and other kindred minds. Pope wasa member of the same coffee house club for a year, but his inbornirascibility eventually led him to drop out of it. At Button's a lion's head, designed by Hogarth after the Lion of Venice, "a proper emblem of knowledge and action, being all head and paws, " wasset up to receive letters and papers for the _Guardian_. [82] The_Tatler_ and the _Spectator_ were born in the coffee house, and probablyEnglish prose would never have received the impetus given it by theessays of Addison and Steele had it not been for coffee houseassociations. Pope's famous _Rape of the Lock_ grew out of coffee-house gossip. Thepoem itself contains one charming passage on coffee. [83] Another frequenter of the coffee houses of London, when he had the moneyto do so, was Daniel Defoe, whose _Robinson Crusoe_ was the precursor ofthe English novel. Henry Fielding, one of the greatest of all Englishnovelists, loved the life of the more bohemian coffee houses, and was, in fact, induced to write his first great novel, _Joseph Andrews_, through coffee-house criticisms of Richardson's _Pamela_. Other frequenters of the coffee houses of the period were Thomas Grayand Richard Brinsley Sheridan. Garrick was often to be seen at Tom's inBirchin Lane, where also Chatterton might have been found on many anevening before his untimely death. _The London Pleasure Gardens_ The second half of the eighteenth century was covered by the reigns ofthe Georges. The coffee houses were still an important factor in Londonlife, but were influenced somewhat by the development of gardens inwhich were served tea, chocolate, and other drinks, as well as coffee. At the coffee houses themselves, while coffee remained the favoritebeverage, the proprietors, in the hope of increasing their patronage, began to serve wine, ale, and other liquors. This seems to have been thefirst step toward the decay of the coffee house. [Illustration: A TRIO OF NOTABLES AT BUTTON'S IN 1730 The figure in the cloak is Count Viviani; of the figures facing thereader, the draughts player is Dr. Arbuthnot, and the figure standing isassumed to be Pope] The coffee houses, however, continued to be the centers of intellectuallife. When Samuel Johnson and David Garrick came together to London, literature was temporarily in a bad way, and the hack writers of thetime dwelt in Grub Street. It was not until after Johnson had met with some success, and hadestablished the first of his coffee-house clubs at the Turk's Head, thatliterature again became a fashionable profession. This really famous literary club met at the Turk's Head from 1763 to1783. Among the most notable members were Johnson, the arbiter ofEnglish prose; Oliver Goldsmith; Boswell, the biographer; Burke, theorator; Garrick, the actor; and Sir Joshua Reynolds, the painter. Amongthe later members were Gibbon, the historian; and Adam Smith, thepolitical economist. Certain it is that during the sway of the English coffee house, and atleast partly through its influence, England produced a better proseliterature, as embodied alike in her essays, literary criticisms, andnovels, than she ever had produced before. The advent of the pleasure garden brought coffee out into the open inEngland; and one of the reasons why gardens, such as Ranelagh andVauxhall, began to be more frequented than the coffee houses was thatthey were popular resorts for women as well as for men. All kinds ofbeverages were served in them; and soon the women began to favor tea asan afternoon drink. At least, the great development in the use of teadates from this period; and many of these resorts called themselves teagardens. The use of coffee by this time, however, was well established in thehomes as a breakfast and dinner beverage, and such consumption more thanmade up for any loss sustained through the gradual decadence of thecoffee house. Yet signs of the change in national taste that arrivedwith the Georges were not wanting; for the active propaganda of theBritish East India Company was fairly well launched during Queen Anne'sreign. The London pleasure gardens of the eighteenth century were unique. Atone time there was a "mighty maze" of them. Their season extended fromApril or May to August or September. At first there was no charge foradmission, but Warwick Wroth[84] tells us that visitors usuallypurchased cheese cakes, syllabubs, tea, coffee and ale. The four best-known London gardens were Vauxhall; Marylebone; Cuper's, where the charge for admission subsequently was fixed at not less than ashilling; and Ranelagh, where the charge of half a crown included "theElegant Regale" of tea, coffee, and bread and butter. The pleasure gardens provided walks, rooms for dancing, skittle grounds, bowling greens, variety entertainments, and promenade concerts; and nota few places were given over to fashionable gambling and racing. The Vauxhall Gardens, one of the most favored resorts ofpleasure-seeking Londoners, were located on the Surrey side of theThames, a short distance east of Vauxhall Bridge. They were originallyknown as the New Spring Gardens (1661), to distinguish them from the oldSpring Gardens at Charing Cross. They became famous in the reign ofCharles II. Vauxhall was celebrated for its walks, lit with thousands oflamps, its musical and other performances, suppers, and fireworks. Highand low were to be found there, and the drinking of tea and coffee inthe arbors was a feature. The illustration shows the garden brightlyilluminated by lanterns and lamps on some festival occasion. Coffee andtea were served in the arbors. [Illustration: VAUXHALL GARDENS ON A GALA NIGHT] The Ranelagh, "a place of public entertainment, " erected at Chelsea in1742, was a kind of Vauxhall under cover. The principal room, known asthe Rotunda, was circular in shape, 150 feet in diameter, and had anorchestra in the center and tiers of boxes all around. Promenading andtaking refreshments in the boxes were the principal divertisements. Except on gala nights of masquerades and fireworks, only tea, coffee, bread and butter were to be had at Ranelagh. [Illustration: THE ROTUNDA IN RANELAGH GARDENS WITH THE COMPANY ATBREAKFAST--1751] In the group of gardens connected with mineral springs was the Dog andDuck (St. George's Spa), which became at last a tea garden and a dancingsaloon of doubtful repute. Still another division, recognized by Wroth, consisted mainly of teagardens, among them Highbury Barn, The Canonbury House, Hornsey andCopenhagen House, Bagnigge Wells, and White Conduit House. The two lastnamed were the classic tea gardens of the period. Both were providedwith "long rooms" in case of rain, and for indoor promenades with organmusic. Then there were the Adam and Eve tea gardens, with arbors fortea-drinking parties, which subsequently became the Adam and Eve Tavernand Coffee House. Well known were the Bayswater Tea Gardens and the JewsHarp House and Tea Gardens. All these were provided with neat, "genteel"boxes, let into the hedges and alcoves, for tea and coffee drinkers. _Locating the Notable Coffee Houses_ GARRAWAY'S, 3 'Change Alley, Cornhill, was a place for great mercantiletransactions. Thomas Garway, the original proprietor, was a tobacconistand coffee man, who claimed to be the first that sold tea in England, although not at this address. The later Garraway's was long famous as asandwich and drinking room for sherry, pale ale, and punch, in additionto tea and coffee. It is said that the sandwich-maker was occupied twohours in cutting and arranging the sandwiches for the day's consumption. After the "great fire" of 1666 GARRAWAY'S moved into the same place inExchange Alley where Elford had been before the fire. Here he claimed tohave the oldest coffee house in London; but the ground on which BOWMAN'Shad stood was occupied later by the VIRGINIA and the JAMAICA coffeehouses. The latter was damaged by the fire of 1748 which consumedGARRAWAY'S and ELFORD'S (see map of the 1748 fire). WILL'S, the predecessor of BUTTON'S, first had the title of the RED COW, then of the ROSE. It was kept by William Urwin, and was on the northside of Russell Street at the corner of Bow Street. "It was Dryden whomade Will's coffee house the great resort of the wits of his time. "(_Pope_ and _Spence_. ) The room in which the poet was accustomed to sitwas on the first floor; and his place was the place of honor by thefireside in the winter, and at the corner of the balcony, looking overthe street, in fine weather; he called the two places his winter and hissummer seat. This was called the dining-room floor. The company did notsit in boxes as subsequently, but at various tables which were dispersedthrough the room. Smoking was permitted in the public room; it was thenso much in vogue that it does not seem to have been considered anuisance. Here, as in other similar places of meeting, the visitorsdivided themselves into parties; and we are told by Ward that the youngbeaux and wits, who seldom approached the principal table, thought it agreat honor to have a pinch out of Dryden's snuff-box. After Dryden'sdeath WILL'S was transferred to a house opposite, and became BUTTON'S, "over against THOMAS'S in Covent Garden. " Thither also Addisontransferred much company from THOMAS'S. Here Swift first saw Addison. Hither also came "Steele, Arbuthnot and many other wits of the time. "BUTTON'S continued in vogue until Addison's death and Steele'sretirement into Wales, after which the coffee drinkers went to theBEDFORD, dinner parties to the SHAKESPEARE. BUTTON'S was subsequentlyknown as the CALEDONIEN. [Illustration: GARRAWAY'S COFFEE HOUSE IN 'CHANGE ALLEY Garway (or Garraway) claimed to have been first to sell Tea in England] [Illustration: BUTTON'S COFFEE HOUSE, GREAT RUSSELL STREET Afterward it became the Caledonien From a water color by T. H. Shepherd] SLAUGHTER'S, famous as the resort of painters and sculptors in theeighteenth century, was situated at the upper end of the west side ofSt. Martin's Lane. Its first landlord was Thomas Slaughter, 1692. Asecond SLAUGHTER'S (NEW SLAUGHTER'S) was established in the same streetin 1760, when the original SLAUGHTER'S adopted the name of OLDSLAUGHTER'S. It was torn down in 1843-44. Among the notables whofrequented it were Hogarth; young Gainsborough; Cipriani; Haydon;Roubiliac; Hudson, who painted the Dilettanti portraits; M'Ardell, themezzotinto-scraper; Luke Sullivan, the engraver; Gardell, the portraitpainter; and Parry, the Welsh harper. TOM'S, in Birchin Lane, Cornhill, though in the main a mercantileresort, acquired some celebrity from having been frequented by Garrick. TOM'S was also frequented by Chatterton, as a place "of the bestresort. " Then there was TOM'S in Devereux Court, Strand, and TOM'S at 17Great Russell Street, Covent Garden, opposite BUTTON'S, a celebratedresort during the reign of Queen Anne and for more than a century after. THE GRECIAN, Devereux Court, Strand, was originally kept by oneConstantine, a Greek. From this house Steele proposed to date hislearned articles in the _Tatler_; it is mentioned in No. 1 of the_Spectator_, and it was much frequented by Goldsmith. The GRECIAN wasFoote's morning lounge. In 1843 the premises became the GrecianChambers, with a bust of Lord Devereux, earl of Essex, over the door. [Illustration: SLAUGHTER'S COFFEE HOUSE, ST. MARTIN'S LANE It was taken down in 1843 From a water color by T. H. Shepherd, 1841] [Illustration: TOM'S COFFEE HOUSE, 17 GREAT RUSSELL STREET Used as a coffee house until 1804 and razed in 1865 From a water color by T. H. Shepherd] LLOYD'S, Royal Exchange, celebrated for its priority of shippingintelligence and its marine insurance, originated with Edward Lloyd, whoabout 1688 kept a coffee house in Tower Street, later in Lombard Streetcorner of Abchurch Lane. It was a modest place of refreshment forseafarers and merchants. As a matter of convenience, Edward Lloydprepared "ships' lists" for the guidance of the frequenters of thecoffee house. "These lists, which were written by hand, contained, "according to Andrew Scott, "an account of vessels which the underwriterswho met there were likely to have offered them for insurance. " Such wasthe beginning of two institutions that have since exercised a dominantinfluence on the sea-carrying trade of the whole world--the RoyalExchange Lloyd's, the greatest insurance institution in the world, andLloyd's Register of Shipping. Lloyd's now has 1400 agents in all partsof the world. It receives as many as 100, 000 telegrams a year. Itrecords through its intelligence service the daily movements of 11, 000vessels. In the beginning one of the apartments in the Exchange was fitted up asLLOYD'S coffee room. Edward Lloyd died in 1712. Subsequently the coffeehouse was in Pope's Head Alley, where it was called NEW LLOYD'S coffeehouse, but on September 14, 1784, it was removed to the northwest cornerof the Royal Exchange, where it remained until the partial destructionof that building by fire. [Illustration: LLOYD'S COFFEE HOUSE IN THE ROYAL EXCHANGE, SHOWING THESUBSCRIPTION ROOM] In rebuilding the Exchange there were provided the Subscribers' orUnderwriters' room, the Merchants' room, and the Captains' room. _TheCity_, second edition, 1848, contains the following description of thismost famous rendezvous of eminent merchants, shipowners, underwriters, insurance, stock and exchange brokers: Here is obtained the earliest news of the arrival and sailing of vessels, losses at sea, captures, recaptures, engagements and other shipping intelligence; and proprietors of ships and freights are insured by the underwriters. The rooms are in the Venetian style with Roman enrichments. At the entrance of the room are exhibited the Shipping Lists, received from Lloyd's agents at home and abroad, and affording particulars of departures or arrivals of vessels, wrecks, salvage, or sale of property saved, etc. To the right and left are "Lloyd's Books, " two enormous ledgers. Right hand, ships "spoken with" or arrived at their destined ports; left hand, records of wrecks, fires or severe collisions, written in a fine Roman hand in "double lines. " To assist the underwriters in their calculations, at the end of the room is an Anemometer, which registers the state of the wind day and night; attached is a rain gauge. THE BRITISH, Cockspur Street, "long a house of call for Scotchmen, " wasfortunate in its landladies. In 1759 it was kept by the sister of BishopDouglas, so well known for his works against Lauder and Bower, which mayexplain its Scottish fame. At another period it was kept by Mrs. Anderson, described in Mackenzie's _Life of Home_ as "a woman ofuncommon talents and the most agreeable conversation. " DON SALTERO'S, 18 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, was opened by a barber namedSalter in 1695. Sir Hans Sloane contributed of his own collection someof the refuse gimcracks that were to be found in Salter's "museum. "Vice-Admiral Munden, who had been long on the coast of Spain, where hehad acquired a fondness for Spanish titles, named the keeper of thehouse Don Saltero, and his coffee house and museum DON SALTERO'S. SQUIRE'S was in Fulwood's Rents, Holburn, running up to Gray's Inn. Itwas one of the receiving houses of the _Spectator_. In No. 269 the_Spectator_ accepts Sir Roger de Coverley's invitation to "smoke a pipewith him over a dish of coffee at Squire's. As I love the old man, Itake delight in complying with everything that is agreeable to him, andaccordingly waited on him to the coffee-house, where his venerablefigure drew upon us the eyes of the whole room. He had no sooner seatedhimself at the upper end of the high table, but he called for a cleanpipe, a paper of tobacco, a dish of coffee, a wax candle and the'Supplement' (a periodical paper of that time), with such an air ofcheerfulness and good humour, that all the boys in the coffee room (whoseemed to take pleasure in serving him) were at once employed on hisseveral errands, insomuch that nobody else could come at a dish of teauntil the Knight had got all his conveniences about him. " Such was thecoffee room in the _Spectator's_ day. [Illustration: INTERIOR OF DICK'S COFFEE HOUSE From the frontispiece to "The Coffee House--a dramatick Piece" (seechapter XXXII)] THE COCOA-TREE was originally a coffee house on the south side of PallMall. When there grew up a need for "places of resort of a more elegantand refined character, " chocolate houses came into vogue, and theCOCOA-TREE was the most famous of these. It was converted into a club in1746. [Illustration: THE GRECIAN COFFEE HOUSE, DEVEREUX COURT It was closed in 1843. From a drawing dated 1809] WHITE'S chocolate house, established by Francis White about 1693 in St. James's Street, originally open to any one as a coffee house, soonbecame a private club, composed of "the most fashionable exquisites ofthe town and court. " In its coffee-house days, the entrance wassixpence, as compared with the average penny fee of the other coffeehouses. Escott refers to WHITE'S as being "the one specimen of the classto which it belongs, of a place at which, beneath almost the same roof, and always bearing the same name, whether as coffee house or club, thesame class of persons has congregated during more than two hundredyears. " Among hundreds of other coffee houses that flourished during theseventeenth and eighteenth centuries the following more notable ones aredeserving of mention: [Illustration: DON SALTERO'S COFFEE HOUSE, CHEYNE WALK From a steel engraving in the British Museum] [Illustration: THE BRITISH COFFEE HOUSE IN COCKSPUR STREET From a print published in 1770] BAKER'S, 58 'Change Alley, for nearly half a century noted for its chopsand steaks broiled in the coffee room and eaten hot from the gridiron;the BALTIC, in Threadneedle Street, the rendezvous of brokers andmerchants connected with the Russian trade; the BEDFORD, "under thePiazza, in Covent Garden, " crowded every night with men of parts and"signalized for many years as the emporium of wit, the seat of criticismand the standard of taste"; the CHAPTER, in Paternoster Row, frequentedby Chatterton and Goldsmith; CHILD'S, in St. Paul's Churchyard, one ofthe _Spectator's_ houses, and much frequented by the clergy and fellowsof the Royal Society; DICK'S, in Fleet Street, frequented by Cowper, andthe scene of Rousseau's comedietta, entitled _The Coffee House_; ST. JAMES'S, in St. James's Street, frequented by Swift, Goldsmith, andGarrick; JERUSALEM, in Cowper's Court, Cornhill, frequented by merchantsand captains connected with the commerce of China, India, and Australia;JONATHAN'S, in 'Change Alley, described by the _Tatler_ as "the generalmart of stock jobbers"; the LONDON, in Ludgate Hill, noted for itspublishers' sales of stock and copyrights; MAN'S, in Scotland Yard, which took its name from the proprietor, Alexander Man, and wassometimes known as OLD MAN'S, or the ROYAL, to distinguish it from YOUNGMAN'S, LITTLE MAN'S, NEW MAN'S, etc. , minor establishments in theneighborhood;[85] NANDO'S, in Fleet Street, the favorite haunt of LordThurlow and many professional loungers, attracted by the fame of thepunch and the charms of the landlady; NEW ENGLAND AND NORTH AND SOUTHAMERICAN, in Threadneedle Street, having on its subscription listrepresentatives of Barings, Rothschilds, and other wealthyestablishments; PEELE'S, in Fleet Street, having a portrait of Dr. Johnson said to have been painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds; the PERCY, inOxford Street, the inspiration for the _Percy Anecdotes_; the PIAZZA, inCovent Garden, where Macklin fitted up a large coffee room, or theater, for oratory, and Fielding and Foote poked fun at him; the RAINBOW, inFleet Street, the second coffee house opened in London, having its tokenmoney; the SMYRNA, in Pall Mall, a "place to talk politics, " andfrequented by Prior and Swift; TOM KING'S, one of the old night housesof Covent Garden Market, "well known to all gentlemen to whom beds areunknown"; the TURK'S HEAD, 'Change Alley, which also had its tokens; theTURK'S HEAD, in the Strand, which was a favorite supping house for Dr. Johnson and Boswell; the FOLLY, a coffee house on a house-boat on theThames, which became quite notorious during Queen Anne's reign. [Illustration: THE FRENCH COFFEE HOUSE IN LONDON, SECOND HALF OF THEEIGHTEENTH CENTURY From the original water-color drawing by Thomas Rowlandson] [Illustration] [Illustration: RAMPONAUX' ROYAL DRUMMER, ONE OF THE MOST POPULAR OF THEEARLY PARISIAN CAFÉS Started originally as a tavern, this hostelry added coffee to itscuisine and became famous in the reign of Louis XV The illustration isfrom an early print used to advertise the "Royal Drummer's" attractions] CHAPTER XI HISTORY OF THE EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES _The introduction of coffee into Paris by Thévenot in 1657--How Soliman Aga established the custom of coffee drinking at the court of Louis XIV--Opening the first coffee houses--How the French adaptation of the Oriental coffee house first appeared in the real French café of François Procope--The important part played by the coffee houses in the development of French literature and the stage--Their association with the Revolution and the founding of the Republic--Quaint customs and patrons--Historic Parisian cafés_ If we are to accept the authority of Jean La Roque, "before the year1669 coffee had scarcely been seen in Paris, except at M. Thévenot's andat the homes of some of his friends. Nor had it been heard of except inthe writings of travelers. " As noted in chapter V, Jean de Thévenot brought coffee into Paris in1657. One account says that a decoction, supposed to have been coffee, was sold by a Levantine in the Petit Châtelet under the name of _cohove_or _cahoue_ during the reign of Louis XIII, but this lacks confirmation. Louis XIV is said to have been served with coffee for the first time in1664. Soon after the arrival, in July, 1669, of the Turkish ambassador, Soliman Aga, it became noised abroad that he had brought with him forhis own use, and that of his retinue, great quantities of coffee. He"treated several persons with it, both in the court and the city. " Atlength "many accustomed themselves to it with sugar, and others whofound benefit by it could not leave it off. " Within six months all Paris was talking of the sumptuous coffeefunctions of the ambassador from Mohammed IV to the court of Louis XIV. Isaac D'Israeli best describes them in his _Curiosities of Literature_: On bended knee, the black slaves of the Ambassador, arrayed in the most gorgeous Oriental costumes, served the choicest Mocha coffee in tiny cups of egg-shell porcelain, hot, strong and fragrant, poured out in saucers of gold and silver, placed on embroidered silk doylies fringed with gold bullion, to the grand dames, who fluttered their fans with many grimaces, bending their piquant faces--be-rouged, be-powdered and be-patched--over the new and steaming beverage. It was in 1669 or 1672 that Madame de Sévigné (Marie de Rabutin-Chantal;1626-96), the celebrated French letter-writer, is said to have made thatfamous prophecy, "There are two things Frenchmen will neverswallow--coffee and Racine's poetry, " sometimes abbreviated into, "Racine and coffee will pass. " What Madame really said, according to oneauthority, was that Racine was writing for Champmeslé, the actress, andnot for posterity; again, of coffee she said, "_s'en dégoûterait comme;d'un indigne favori_" (People will become disgusted with it as with anunworthy favorite). Larousse says the double judgment was wrongly attributed to Mme. DeSévigné. The celebrated aphorism, like many others, was forged later. Mme. De Sévigné said, "Racine made his comedies for the Champmeslé--notfor the ages to come. " This was in 1672. Four years later, she said toher daughter, "You have done well to quit coffee. Mlle. De Mere has alsogiven it up. " [Illustration: COFFEE WAS FIRST SOLD AND SERVED PUBLICLY IN THE FAIR OFST. -GERMAIN From a Seventeenth-Century Print] However it may have been, the amiable letter-writer was destined to liveto see Frenchmen yielding at once to the lure of coffee and to thepoetical artifices of the greatest dramatic craftsman of his day. While it is recorded that coffee made slow progress with the court ofLouis XIV, the next king, Louis XV, to please his mistress, du Barry, gave it a tremendous vogue. It is related that he spent $15, 000 a yearfor coffee for his daughters. Meanwhile, in 1672, one Pascal, an Armenian, first sold coffee publiclyin Paris. Pascal, who, according to one account, was brought to Paris bySoliman Aga, offered the beverage for sale from a tent, which was also akind of booth, in the fair of St. -Germain, supplemented by the serviceof Turkish waiter boys, who peddled it among the crowds from small cupson trays. The fair was held during the first two months of spring, in alarge open plot just inside the walls of Paris and near the LatinQuarter. As Pascal's waiter boys circulated through the crowds on thosechilly days the fragrant odor of freshly made coffee brought many readysales of the steaming beverage; and soon visitors to the fair learned tolook for the "little black" cupful of cheer, or _petit noir_, a namethat still endures. When the fair closed, Pascal opened a small coffee shop on the Quai del'École, near the Pont Neuf; but his frequenters were of a type whopreferred the beers and wines of the day, and coffee languished. Pascalcontinued, however, to send his waiter boys with their large coffeejugs, that were heated by lamps, through the streets of Paris and fromdoor to door. Their cheery cry of "_café! café!_" became a welcome callto many a Parisian, who later missed his _petit noir_ when Pascal gaveup and moved on to London, where coffee drinking was then in high favor. [Illustration: STREET COFFEE VENDER OF PARIS--PERIOD, 1672 TO 1689--TWOSOUS PER DISH, SUGAR INCLUDED] Lacking favor at court, coffee's progress was slow. The French smart setclung to its light wines and beers. In 1672, Maliban, another Armenian, opened a coffee house in the rue Bussy, next to the Metz tennis courtnear St. -Germain's abbey. He supplied tobacco also to his customers. Later he went to Holland, leaving his servant and partner, Gregory, aPersian, in charge. Gregory moved to the rue Mazarine, to be near theComédie Française. He was succeeded in the business by Makara, anotherPersian, who later returned to Ispahan, leaving the coffee house to oneLe Gantois, of Liége. About this period there was a cripple boy from Candia, known as leCandiot, who began to cry "coffee!" in the streets of Paris. He carriedwith him a coffee pot of generous size, a chafing-dish, cups, and allother implements necessary to his trade. He sold his coffee from door todoor at two sous per dish, sugar included. [Illustration: MANY OF THE EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES FOLLOWEDPASCAL'S LEAD AND AFFECTED ARMENIAN DECORATIONS From a Seventeenth-Century Print] A Levantine named Joseph also sold coffee in the streets, and later hadseveral coffee shops of his own. Stephen, from Aleppo, next opened acoffee house on Pont au Change, moving, when his business prospered, tomore pretentious quarters in the rue St. -André, facing St. -Michael'sbridge. [Illustration: A CORNER OF THE HISTORIC CAFÉ DE PROCOPE SHOWING VOLTAIREAND DIDEROT IN DEBATE From a rare water color] All these, and others, were essentially the Oriental style of coffeehouse of the lower order, and they appealed principally to the poorerclasses and to foreigners. "Gentlemen and people of fashion" did notcare to be seen in this type of public house. But when the Frenchmerchants began to set up, first at St. -Germain's fair, "spaciousapartments in an elegant manner, ornamented with tapestries, largemirrors, pictures, marble tables, branches for candles, magnificentlustres, and serving coffee, tea, chocolate, and other refreshments", they were soon crowded with people of fashion and men of letters. In this way coffee drinking in public acquired a badge ofrespectability. Presently there were some three hundred coffee houses inParis. The principal coffee men, in addition to plying their trade inthe city, maintained coffee rooms in St. -Germain's and St. -Laurence'sfairs. These were frequented by women as well as men. _The Progenitor of the Real Parisian Café_ It was not until 1689, that there appeared in Paris a real Frenchadaptation of the Oriental coffee house. This was the Café de Procope, opened by François Procope (Procopio Cultelli, or Cotelli) who came fromFlorence or Palermo. Procope was a _limonadier_ (lemonade vender) whohad a royal license to sell spices, ices, barley water, lemonade, andother such refreshments. He early added coffee to the list, andattracted a large and distinguished patronage. Procope, a keen-witted merchant, made his appeal to a higher class ofpatrons than did Pascal and those who first followed him. He establishedhis café directly opposite the newly opened Comédie Française, in thestreet then known as the rue des Fossés-St. -Germain, but now the rue del'Ancienne Comédie. A writer of the period has left this description ofthe place: "The Café de Procope ... Was also called the Antre [cavern]de Procope, because it was very dark even in full day, and ill-lightedin the evenings; and because you often saw there a set of lank, sallowpoets, who had somewhat the air of apparitions. " Because of its location, the Café de Procope became the gathering placeof many noted French actors, authors, dramatists, and musicians of theeighteenth century. It was a veritable literary salon. Voltaire was aconstant patron; and until the close of the historic café, after anexistence of more than two centuries, his marble table and chair wereamong the precious relics of the coffee house. His favorite drink issaid to have been a mixture of coffee and chocolate. Rousseau, authorand philosopher; Beaumarchais, dramatist and financier; Diderot, theencyclopedist; Ste. -Foix, the abbé of Voisenon; de Belloy, author of the_Siege of Callais_; Lemierre, author of _Artaxerce_; Crébillon; Piron;La Chaussée; Fontenelle; Condorcet; and a host of lesser lights in theFrench arts, were habitués of François Procope's modest coffee saloonnear the Comédie Française. Naturally, the name of Benjamin Franklin, recognized in Europe as one ofthe world's foremost thinkers in the days of the American Revolution, was often spoken over the coffee cups of Café de Procope; and when thedistinguished American died in 1790, this French coffee house went intodeep mourning "for the great friend of republicanism. " The walls, insideand out, were swathed in black bunting, and the statesmanship andscientific attainments of Franklin were acclaimed by all frequenters. The Café de Procope looms large in the annals of the French Revolution. During the turbulent days of 1789 one could find at the tables, drinkingcoffee or stronger beverages, and engaged in debate over the burningquestions of the hour, such characters as Marat, Robespierre, Danton, Hébert, and Desmoulins. Napoleon Bonaparte, then a poor artilleryofficer seeking a commission, was also there. He busied himself largelyin playing chess, a favorite recreation of the early Parisiancoffee-house patrons. It is related that François Procope once compelledyoung Bonaparte to leave his hat for security while he sought money topay his coffee score. After the Revolution, the Café de Procope lost its literary prestige andsank to the level of an ordinary restaurant. During the last half of thenineteenth century, Paul Verlaine, bohemian, poet, and leader of thesymbolists, made the Café de Procope his haunt; and for a time itregained some of its lost popularity. The Restaurant Procope stillsurvives at 13 rue de l'Ancienne Comédie. History records that, with the opening of the Café de Procope, coffeebecame firmly established in Paris. In the reign of Louis XV there were600 cafés in Paris. At the close of the eighteenth century there weremore than 800. By 1843 the number had increased to more than 3000. _The Development of the Cafés_ Coffee's vogue spread rapidly, and many cabaréts and famous eatinghouses began to add it to their menus. Among these was the Tour d'Argent(silver tower), which had been opened on the Quai de la Tournelle in1582, and speedily became Paris's most fashionable restaurant. It stillis one of the chief attractions for the epicure, retaining thereputation for its cooking that drew a host of world leaders, fromNapoleon to Edward VII, to its quaint interior. [Illustration: THE CAFÉ DE PROCOPE IN 1743 From an engraving by Bosredon] Another tavern that took up coffee after Procope, was the RoyalDrummer, which Jean Ramponaux established at the Courtille desPorcherons and which followed Magny's. His hostelry rightly belongs tothe tavern class, although coffee had a prominent place on its menu. Itbecame notorious for excesses and low-class vices during the reign ofLouis XV, who was a frequent visitor. Low and high were to be found inRamponaux's cellar, particularly when some especially wild revelry wasin prospect. Marie Antoinette once declared she had her most enjoyabletime at a wild _farandole_ in the Royal Drummer. Ramponaux was taken toits heart by fashionable Paris; and his name was used as a trade mark onfurniture, clothes, and foods. [Illustration: THE CASHIER'S COUNTER IN A PARIS COFFEE HOUSE OF 1782 From a drawing by Rétif de la Bretonne] The popularity of Ramponaux's Royal Drummer is attested by aninscription on an early print showing the interior of the café. Translated, it reads: The pleasures of ease untroubled to taste, The leisure of home to enjoy without haste, Perhaps a few hours at Magny's to waste, Ah, that was the old-fashioned way!Today all our laborers, everyone knows, Go running away ere the working hours close, And why? They must be at Monsieur Ramponaux'! Behold, the new style of café! When coffee houses began to crop up rapidly in Paris, the majoritycentered in the Palais Royal, "that garden spot of beauty, enclosed onthree sides by three tiers of galleries, " which Richelieu had erected in1636, under the name of Palais Cardinal, in the reign of Louis XIII. Itbecame known as the Palais Royal in 1643; and soon after the opening ofthe Café de Procope, it began to blossom out with many attractive coffeestalls, or rooms, sprinkled among the other shops that occupied thegalleries overlooking the gardens. _Life In The Early Coffee Houses_ Diderot tells in 1760, in his _Rameau's Nephew_, of the life andfrequenters of one of the Palais Royal coffee houses, the Regency (_Caféde la Régence_): In all weathers, wet or fine, it is my practice to go toward five o'clock in the evening to take a turn in the Palais Royal.... If the weather is too cold or too wet I take shelter in the Regency coffee house. There I amuse myself by looking on while they play chess. Nowhere in the world do they play chess as skillfully as in Paris and nowhere in Paris as they do at this coffee house; 'tis here you see Légal the profound, Philidor the subtle, Mayot the solid; here you see the most astounding moves, and listen to the sorriest talk, for if a man be at once a wit and a great chess player, like Légal, he may also be a great chess player and a sad simpleton, like Joubert and Mayot. The beginnings of the Regency coffee house are associated with thelegend that Lefévre, a Parisian, began peddling coffee in the streets ofParis about the time Procope opened his café in 1689. The story has itthat Lefévre later opened a café near the Palais Royal, selling it in1718 to one Leclerc, who named it the Café de la Régence, in honor ofthe regent of Orleans, a name that still endures on a broad sign overits doors. The nobility had their rendezvous there after having paidtheir court to the regent. [Illustration: THE CAFÉ FOY IN THE PALAIS ROYAL, 1789 From an engraving by Bosredon] To name the patrons of the Café de la Régence in its long career wouldbe to outline a history of French literature for more than twocenturies. There was Philidor the "greatest theoretician of theeighteenth century, better known for his chess than his music";Robespierre, of the Revolution, who once played chess with agirl--disguised as a boy--for the life of her lover; Napoleon, who wasthen noted more for his chess than his empire-building propensities; andGambetta, whose loud voice, generally raised in debate, disturbed onechess player so much that he protested because he could not follow hisgame. Voltaire, Alfred de Musset; Victor Hugo, Théophile Gautier, J. J. Rousseau, the Duke of Richelieu, Marshall Saxe, Buffon, Rivarol, Fontenelle, Franklin, and Henry Murger are names still associated withmemories of this historic café: Marmontel and Philidor played there attheir favorite game of chess. Diderot tells in his _Memoirs_ that hiswife gave him every day nine sous to get his coffee there. It was inthis establishment that he worked on his _Encyclopedia_. Chess is today still in favor at the Régence, although the players arenot, as were the earlier patrons, obliged to pay by the hour for theirtables with extra charges for candles placed by the chess-boards. Thepresent Café de la Régence is in the rue St. -Honoré, but retains inlarge measure its aspect of olden days. Michelet, the historian, has given us a rhapsodic pen picture of theParisian cafés under the regency: Paris became one vast café. Conversation in France was at its zenith. There were less eloquence and rhetoric than in '89. With the exception of Rousseau, there was no orator to cite. The intangible flow of wit was as spontaneous as possible. For this sparkling outburst there is no doubt that honor should be ascribed in part to the auspicious revolution of the times, to the great event which created new customs, and even modified human temperament--the advent of coffee. Its effect was immeasurable, not being weakened and neutralized as it is today by the brutalizing influence of tobacco. They took snuff, but did not smoke. The cabarét was dethroned, the ignoble cabarét, where, during the reign of Louis XIV, the youth of the city rioted amid wine-casks in the company of light women. The night was less thronged with chariots. Fewer lords found a resting place in the gutter. The elegant shop, where conversation flowed, a salon rather than a shop, changed and ennobled its customs. The reign of coffee is that of temperance. Coffee, the beverage of sobriety, a powerful mental stimulant, which, unlike spirituous liquors, increases clearness and lucidity; coffee, which suppresses the vague, heavy fantasies of the imagination, which from the perception of reality brings forth the sparkle and sunlight of truth; coffee anti-erotic.... The three ages of coffee are those of modern thought; they mark the serious moments of the brilliant epoch of the soul. Arabian coffee is the pioneer, even before 1700. The beautiful ladies that you see in the fashionable rooms of Bonnard, sipping from their tiny cups--they are enjoying the aroma of the finest coffee of Arabia. And of what are they chatting? Of the seraglio, of Chardin, of the Sultana's coiffure, of the _Thousand and One Nights_ (1704). They compare the ennui of Versailles with the paradise of the Orient. Very soon, in 1710-1720, commences the reign of Indian coffee, abundant, popular, comparatively cheap. Bourbon, our Indian island, where coffee was transplanted, suddenly realizes unheard-of happiness. This coffee of volcanic lands acts as an explosive on the Regency and the new spirit of things. This sudden cheer, this laughter of the old world, these overwhelming flashes of wit, of which the sparkling verse of Voltaire, the _Persian Letters_, give us a faint idea! Even the most brilliant books have not succeeded in catching on the wing this airy chatter, which comes, goes, flies elusively. This is that spirit of ethereal nature which, in the _Thousand and One Nights_, the enchanter confined in his bottle. But what phial would have withstood that pressure? The lava of Bourbon, like the Arabian sand, was unequal to the demand. The Regent recognized this and had coffee transported to the fertile soil of our Antilles. The strong coffee of Santo Domingo, full, coarse, nourishing as well as stimulating, sustained the adult population of that period, the strong age of the encyclopedia. It was drunk by Buffon, Diderot, Rousseau, added its glow to glowing souls, its light to the penetrating vision of the prophets gathered in the cave of Procope, who saw at the bottom of the black beverage the future rays of '89. Danton, the terrible Danton, took several cups of coffee before mounting the tribune. 'The horse must have its oats, ' he said. The vogue of coffee popularized the use of sugar, which was then boughtby the ounce at the apothecary's shop. Dufour says that in Paris theyused to put so much sugar in the coffee that "it was nothing but a syrupof blackened water. " The ladies were wont to have their carriages stopin front of the Paris cafés and to have their coffee served to them bythe porter on saucers of silver. Every year saw new cafés opened. When they became so numerous, andcompetition grew so keen, it was necessary to invent new attractions forcustomers. Then was born the _café chantant_, where songs, monologues, dances, little plays and farces (not always in the best taste), wereprovided to amuse the frequenters. Many of these _cafés chantants_ werein the open air along the Champs-Elysées. In bad weather, Paris providedthe pleasure-seeker with the Eldorado, Alcazar d'Hiver, Scala, Gaieté, Concert du XIXme Siécle, Folies Bobino, Rambuteau, Concert Européen, and countless other meeting places where one could be served with a cupof coffee. [Illustration: THE CAFÉ DES MILLE COLONNES IN 1811 From an engraving by Bosredon] As in London, certain cafés were noted for particular followings, likethe military, students, artists, merchants. The politicians had theirfavorite resorts. Says Salvandy:[86] These were senates in miniature; here mighty political questions were discussed; here peace and war were decided upon; here generals were brought to the bar of justice ... Distinguished orators were victoriously refuted, ministers heckled upon their ignorance, their incapacity, their perfidy, their corruption. The café is in reality a French institution; in them we find all these agitations and movements of men, the like of which is unknown in the English tavern. No government can go against the sentiment of the cafés. The Revolution took place because they were for the Revolution. Napoleon reigned because they were for glory. The Restoration was shattered, because they understood the Charter in a different manner. In 1700 appeared the _Portefeuille Galant_, containing conversations ofthe cafés. _The Cafés in the French Revolution_ The Palais Royal coffee houses were centers of activity in the dayspreceding and following the Revolution. A picture of them in the Julydays of 1789 has been left by Arthur Young, who was visiting Paris atthat time: The coffee houses present yet more singular and astounding spectacles; they are not only crowded within, but other expectant crowds are at the doors and windows, listening _à gorge déployée_ to certain orators who from chairs or tables harangue each his little audience; the eagerness with which they are heard, and the thunder of applause they receive for every sentiment of more than common hardiness or violence against the government, cannot easily be imagined. The Palais Royal teemed with excited Frenchmen on the fateful Sunday ofJuly 12, 1789. The moment was a tense one, when, coming out of the CaféFoy, Camille Desmoulins, a youthful journalist, mounted a table andbegan the harangue that precipitated the first overt act of the FrenchRevolution. Blazing with a white hot frenzy, he so played upon thepassions of the mob that at the conclusion of his speech he and hisfollowers "marched away from the Café on their errand of Revolution. "The Bastille fell two days later. As if abashed by its reputation as the starting point of the mob spiritof the Revolution, Café Foy became in after years a sedategathering-place of artists and literati. Up to its close it wasdistinguished among other famous Parisian cafés for its exclusivenessand strictly enforced rule of "no smoking. " Even from the first the Parisian cafés catered to all classes ofsociety; and, unlike the London coffee houses, they retained thisdistinctive characteristic. A number of them early added other liquidand substantial refreshments, many becoming out-and-out restaurants. _Coffee-House Customs and Patrons_ Coffee's effect on Parisians is thus described by a writer of the latterpart of the eighteenth century: I think I may safely assert that it is to the establishment of so many cafés in Paris that is due the urbanity and mildness discernible upon most faces. Before they existed, nearly everybody passed his time at the cabarét, where even business matters were discussed. Since their establishment, people assemble to hear what is going on, drinking and playing only in moderation, and the consequence is that they are more civil and polite, at least in appearance. Montesquieu's satirical pen pictured in his _Persian Letters_ theearliest cafés as follows: In some of these houses they talk news; in others, they play draughts. There is one where they prepare the coffee in such a manner that it inspires the drinkers of it with wit; at least, of all those who frequent it, there is not one person in four who does not think he has more wit after he has entered that house. But what offends me in these wits is that they do not make themselves useful to their country. Montesquieu encountered a geometrician outside a coffee house on thePont Neuf, and accompanied him inside. He describes the incident in thismanner: I observe that our geometrician was received there with the utmost officiousness, and that the coffee house boys paid him much more respect than two musqueteers who were in a corner of the room. As for him, he seemed as if he thought himself in an agreeable place; for he unwrinkled his brows a little and laughed, as if he had not the least tincture of geometrician in him.... He was offended at every start of wit, as a tender eye is by too strong a light.... At last I saw an old man enter, pale and thin, whom I knew to be a coffee house politician before he sat down; he was not one of those who are never to be intimidated by disasters, but always prophesy of victories and success; he was one of those timorous wretches who are always boding ill. Café Momus and Café Rotonde figure conspicuously in the record of Frenchbohemianism. The Momus stood near the right bank of the River Seine inrue des Prêtres St. -Germain, and was known as the home of the bohemians. The Rotonde stood on the left bank at the corner of the rue de l'Écolede Médecine and the rue Hautefeuille. [Illustration: THE CAFÉ DE PARIS IN 1843 From an engraving by Bosredon] Alexandre Schanne has given us a glimpse of bohemian life in the earlycafés. He lays his scene in the Café Rotonde, and tells how a number ofpoor students were wont to make one cup of coffee last the coterie afull evening by using it to flavor and to color the one glass of watershared in common. He says: Every evening, the first comer at the waiter's inquiry, "What will you take, sir?" never failed to reply, "Nothing just at present, I am waiting for a friend. " The friend arrived, to be assailed by the brutal question, "Have you any money?" He would make a despairing gesture in the negative, and then add, loud enough to be heard by the _dame du comptoir_, "By Jove, no; only fancy, I left my purse on my console-table, with gilt feet, in the purest Louis XV style. Ah! what a thing it is to be forgetful. " He would sit down, and the waiter would wipe the table as if he had something to do. A third would come, who was sometimes able to reply, "Yes. I have ten sous. " "Good!" we would reply; "order a cup of coffee, a glass and a water bottle; pay and give two sous to the waiter to secure his silence. " This would be done. Others would come and take their places beside us, repeating to the waiter the same chorus, "We are with this gentleman. " Frequently we would be eight or nine sitting at the same table, and only one customer. Whilst smoking and reading the papers we would, however, pass the glass and bottle. When the water began to run short, as on a ship in distress, one of us would have the impudence to call out, "Waiter, some water!" The master of the establishment, who understood our situation, had no doubt given orders for us to be left alone, and made his fortune without our help. He was a good fellow and an intelligent one, having subscribed to all the scientific journals of Europe, which brought him the custom of foreign students. Another café perpetuating the best traditions of the Latin Quarter wasthe Vachette, which survived until the death of Jean Moréas in 1911. TheVachette is usually cited by antiquarians as a model of circumspectionas compared with the scores of cafés in the Quarter that were given upto debaucheries. One writer puts it: "The Vachette traditions leanedmore to scholarship than sensuality. " In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries the Parisian caféwas truly a coffee house; but as many of the patrons began to while awaymost of their waking hours in them, the proprietors added otherbeverages and food to hold their patronage. Consequently, we find listedamong the cafés of Paris some houses that are more accurately describedas restaurants, although they may have started their careers as coffeehouses. _Historic Parisian Cafés_ Some of the historic cafés are still thriving in their originallocations, although the majority have now passed into oblivion. Glimpsesof the more famous houses are to be found in the novels, poetry, andessays written by the French literati who patronized them. Thesefirst-hand accounts give insights that are sometimes stirring, oftenamusing, and frequently revolting--such as the assassination ofSt. -Fargean in Février's low-vaulted cellar café in the Palais Royal. There is Magny's, originally the haunt of such literary men as Gautier, Taine, Saint-Victor, Turguenieff, de Goncourt, Soulie, Renan, Edmond. Inrecent years the old Magny's was razed, and on its site was built themodern restaurant of the same name, but in a style that has noresemblance to its predecessor. Even the name of the street has beenchanged, from rue Contrescarpe to the rue Mazet. Méot's, the Véry, Beauvilliers', Massé's, the Café Chartres, the TroiFréres Provençaux, and the du Grand Commun, all situated in the PalaisRoyal, are cafés that figured conspicuously in the French Revolution, and are closely identified with the French stage and literature. Méot'sand Massé's were the trysting places of the Royalists in the dayspreceding the outbreak, but welcomed the Revolutionists after they camein power. The Chartres was notorious as the gathering place of youngaristocrats who escaped the guillotine, and, thus made bold, oftencalled their like from adjoining cafés to partake in some of their plansfor restoration of the empire. The Trois Fréres Provençaux, well knownfor its excellent and costly dinners, is mentioned by Balzac, LordLytton, and Alfred de Musset in some of their novels. The Café du GrandCommun appears in Rousseau's _Confessions_ in connection with the play_Devin du Village_. Among the most famous of the cafés on the Rue St. Honoré were Venua's, patronized by Robespierre and his companions of the Revolution, andperhaps the scene of the inhuman murder of Berthier and its revoltingaftermath; the Mapinot, which has gone down in café history as the sceneof the banquet to Archibald Alison, the 22-year-old historian; andVoisin's café, around which still cling traditions of such literarylights as Zola, Alphonse Daudet, and Jules de Goncourt. [Illustration: INTERIOR OF A TYPICAL PARISIAN CAFÉ OF THE EARLYNINETEENTH CENTURY] Perhaps the boulevard des Italiens had, and still has, more fashionablecafés than any other section of the French capital. The Tortoni, openedin the early days of the Empire by Velloni, an Italian lemonade vender, was the most popular of the boulevard cafés, and was generally throngedwith fashionables from all parts of Europe. Here Louis Blanc, historianof the Revolution, spent many hours in the early days of his fame. Talleyrand; Rossini, the musician; Alfred Stevens and Edouard Manet, artists, are some of the names still linked with the traditions of theTortoni. Farther down the boulevard were the Café Riche, Maison Dorée, Café Anglais, and the Café de Paris. The Riche and the Dorée, standingside by side, were both high-priced and noted for their revelries. TheAnglais, which came into existence after the snuffing out of the Empire, was also distinguished for its high prices, but in return gave anexcellent dinner and fine wines. It is told that even during the siegeof Paris the Anglais offered its patrons "such luxuries as ass, mule, peas, fried potatoes, and champagne. " Probably the Café de Paris, which came into existence in 1822, in theformer home of the Russian Prince Demidoff, was the most richly equippedand elegantly conducted of any café in Paris in the nineteenth century. Alfred de Musset, a frequenter, said, "you could not open its doors forless than 15 francs. " The Café Littéraire, opened on boulevard Bonne Nouvelle late in thenineteenth century, made a direct appeal to literary men for patronage, printing this footnote on its menu: "Every customer spending a franc inthis establishment is entitled to one volume of any work to be selectedfrom our vast collection. " The names of Parisian cafés once more or less famous are legion. Some ofthem are: The Café Laurent, which Rousseau was forced to leave after writing anespecially bitter satire; the English café in which eccentric LordWharton made merry with the Whig habitués; the Dutch café, the haunt ofJacobites; Terre's, in the rue Neuve des Petits Champs, which Thackeraydescribed in _The Ballad of Bouillabaisse_; Maire's, in the boulevardSt. -Denis, which dates back beyond 1850; the Café Madrid, in theboulevard Montmartre, of which Carjat, the Spanish lyric poet, was anattraction; the Café de la Paix, in the boulevard des Capucines, theresort of Second Empire Imperialists and their spies; the Café Durand, in the place de la Madeleine, which started on a plane with thehigh-priced Riche, and ended its career early in the twentieth century;the Rocher de Cancale, memorable for its feasts and high-living patronsfrom all over Europe; the Café Guerbois, near the rue de St. Petersburg, where Manet, the impressionist, after many vicissitudes, won fame forhis paintings and held court for many years; the Chat Noir, on the rueVictor Massé at Montmartre, a blend of café and concert hall, which hassince been imitated widely, both in name and feature. [Illustration: CHESS HAS BEEN A FAVORITE PASTIME AT THE CAFÉ DE LARÉGENCE FOR TWO HUNDRED YEARS. ] CHAPTER XII INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO NORTH AMERICA _Captain John Smith, founder of the Colony of Virginia, is the first to bring to North America a knowledge of coffee in 1607--The coffee grinder on the Mayflower--Coffee drinking in 1668--William Penn's coffee purchase in 1683--Coffee in colonial New England--The psychology of the Boston "tea party, " and why the United States became a nation of coffee drinkers instead of tea drinkers, like England--The first coffee license to Dorothy Jones in 1670--The first coffee house in New England--Notable coffee houses of old Boston--A skyscraper coffee house_ Undoubtedly the first to bring a knowledge of coffee to North Americawas Captain John Smith, who founded the Colony of Virginia at Jamestownin 1607. Captain Smith became familiar with coffee in his travels inTurkey. Although the Dutch also had early knowledge of coffee, it does notappear that the Dutch West India Company brought any of it to the firstpermanent settlement on Manhattan Island (1624). Nor is there any recordof coffee in the cargo of the Mayflower (1620), although it included awooden mortar and pestle, later used to make "coffee powder. " In the period when New York was New Amsterdam, and under Dutch occupancy(1624-64), it is possible that coffee may have been imported fromHolland, where it was being sold on the Amsterdam market as early as1640, and where regular supplies of the green bean were being receivedfrom Mocha in 1663; but positive proof is lacking. The Dutch appear tohave brought tea across the Atlantic from Holland before coffee. TheEnglish may have introduced the coffee drink into the New York colonybetween 1664 and 1673. The earliest reference to coffee in America is1668[87], at which time a beverage made from the roasted beans, andflavored with sugar or honey, and cinnamon, was being drunk in New York. Coffee first appears in the official records of the New England colonyin 1670. In 1683, the year following William Penn's settlement on theDelaware, we find him buying supplies of coffee in the New York marketand paying for them at the rate of eighteen shillings and nine pence perpound. [88] Coffee houses patterned after the English and Continental prototypeswere soon established in all the colonies. Those of New York andPhiladelphia are described in separate chapters. The Boston houses aredescribed at the end of this chapter. Norfolk, Chicago, St. Louis, and New Orleans also had them. ConradLeonhard's coffee house at 320 Market Street. St. Louis, was famous forits coffee and coffee cake, from 1844 to 1905, when it became a bakeryand lunch room, removing in 1919 to Eighth and Pine Streets. In the pioneer days of the great west, coffee and tea were hard to get;and, instead of them, teas were often made from garden herbs, spicewood, sassafras-roots, and other shrubs, taken from the thickets[89]. In1839, in the city of Chicago, one of the minor taverns was known as theLake Street coffee house. It was situated at the corner of Lake andWells Streets. A number of hotels, which in the English sense might moreappropriately be called inns, met a demand for modest accommodation[90]. Two coffee houses were listed in the Chicago directories for 1843 and1845, the Washington coffee house, 83 Lake Street; and the Exchangecoffee house, Clarke Street between La Salle and South Water Streets. [Illustration: TYPES OF COLONIAL COFFEE ROASTERS The cylinder at the top of the picture was revolved by hand in thefireplace; the skillets were set in the smouldering ashes] The old-time coffee houses of New Orleans were situated within theoriginal area of the city, the section bounded by the river, CanalStreet, Esplanade Avenue and Rampart Street. In the early days most ofthe big business of the city was transacted in the coffee houses. The_brûleau_, coffee with orange juice, orange peel, and sugar, with cognacburned and mixed in it, originated in the New Orleans coffee house, andled to its gradual evolution into the saloon. _How the United States Became a Nation of Coffee Drinkers_ Coffee, tea, and chocolate were introduced into North America almostsimultaneously in the latter part of the seventeenth century. In thefirst half of the eighteenth century, tea had made such progress inEngland, thanks to the propaganda of the British East India Company, that, being moved to extend its use in the colonies, the directorsturned their eyes first in the direction of North America. Here, however, King George spoiled their well-laid plans by his unfortunatestamp act of 1765, which caused the colonists to raise the cry of "notaxation without representation. " Although the act was repealed in 1766, the right to tax was asserted, and in 1767 was again used, duties being laid on paints, oils, lead, glass, and tea. Once more the colonists resisted; and, by refusing toimport any goods of English make, so distressed the Englishmanufacturers that Parliament repealed every tax save that on tea. Despite the growing fondness for the beverage in America, the colonistspreferred to get their tea elsewhere to sacrificing their principles andbuying it from England. A brisk trade in smuggling tea from Holland wasstarted. In a panic at the loss of the most promising of its colonial markets, the British East India Company appealed to Parliament for aid, and waspermitted to export tea, a privilege it had never before enjoyed. Cargoes were sent on consignment to selected commissioners in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. The story of the subsequenthappenings properly belongs in a book on tea. It is sufficient here torefer to the climax of the agitation against the fateful tea tax, because it is undoubtedly responsible for our becoming a nation ofcoffee drinkers instead of one of tea drinkers, like England. [Illustration: AN EARLY FAMILY COFFEE ROASTER This machine, known in Holland as a "Coffee Burner, " was used late inthe 18th century in New England. It hung in the fireplace or stood inthe embers] The Boston "tea party" of 1773, when citizens of Boston, disguised asIndians, boarded the English ships lying in Boston harbor and threwtheir tea cargoes into the bay, cast the die for coffee; for there andthen originated a subtle prejudice against "the cup that cheers", whichone hundred and fifty years have failed entirely to overcome. Meanwhile, the change wrought in our social customs by this act, and those of likenature following it, in the New York, Pennsylvania, and Charlestoncolonies, caused coffee to be crowned "king of the American breakfasttable", and the sovereign drink of the American people. [Illustration: HISTORICAL RELICS ASSOCIATED WITH THE EARLY DAYS OFCOFFEE IN NEW ENGLAND These exhibits are in the Museum of the Maine Historical Society atPortland. On the left is Kenrick's Patent coffee mill. In the center isa Britannia urn with an iron bar for heating the liquid. The bar wasencased in a tin receptacle that hung inside the cover. On the right isa wall type of coffee or spice grinder] _Coffee in Colonial New England_ The history of coffee in colonial New England is so closely interwovenwith the story of the inns and taverns that it is difficult todistinguish the genuine coffee house, as it was known in England, fromthe public house where lodgings and liquors were to be had. The coffeedrink had strong competition from the heady wines, the liquors, andimported teas, and consequently it did not attain the vogue among thecolonial New Englanders that it did among Londoners of the lateseventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Although New England had its coffee houses, these were actually tavernswhere coffee was only one of the beverages served to patrons. "Theywere", says Robinson, "generally meeting places of those who wereconservative in their views regarding church and state, being friends ofthe ruling administration. Such persons were terms 'Courtiers' by theiradversaries, the Dissenters and Republicans. " Most of the coffee houses were established in Boston, the metropolis ofthe Massachusetts Colony, and the social center of New England. WhilePlymouth, Salem, Chelsea, and Providence had taverns that served coffee, they did not achieve the name and fame of some of the more celebratedcoffee houses in Boston. It is not definitely known when the first coffee was brought in; but itis reasonable to suppose that it came as part of the household suppliesof some settler (probably between 1660 and 1670), who had becomeacquainted with it before leaving England. Or it may have beenintroduced by some British officer, who in London had made the rounds ofthe more celebrated coffee houses of the latter half of the seventeenthcentury. _The First Coffee License_ According to early town records of Boston, Dorothy Jones was the firstto be licensed to sell "coffee and cuchaletto, " the latter being theseventeenth-century spelling for chocolate or cocoa. This license isdated 1670, and is said to be the first written reference to coffee inthe Massachusetts Colony. It is not stated whether Dorothy Jones was avender of the coffee drink or of "coffee powder, " as ground coffee wasknown in the early days. [Illustration: THE MAYFLOWER "COFFEE GRINDER" Mortar and pestle for "braying" coffee to make coffee powder, broughtover in the Mayflower by the parents of Peregrine White] There is some question as to whether Dorothy Jones was the first to sellcoffee as a beverage in Boston. Londoners had known and drunk coffee foreighteen years before Dorothy Jones got her coffee license. Britishgovernment officials were frequently taking ship from London to theMassachusetts Colony, and it is likely that they brought tidings andsamples of the coffee the English gentry had lately taken up. No doubtthey also told about the new-style coffee houses that were becomingpopular in all parts of London. And it may be assumed that their talescaused the landlords of the inns and taverns of colonial Boston to addcoffee to their lists of beverages. _New England's First Coffee House_ The name coffee house did not come into use in New England until late inthe seventeenth century. Early colonial records do not make it clearwhether the London coffee house or the Gutteridge coffee house was thefirst to be opened in Boston with that distinctive title. In alllikelihood the London is entitled to the honor, for Samuel Gardner Drakein his _History and Antiquities of the City of Boston_, published in1854, says that "Benj. Harris sold books there in 1689. " Drake seems tobe the only historian of early Boston to mention the London coffeehouse. Granting that the London coffee house was the first in Boston, then theGutteridge coffee house was the second. The latter stood on the northside of State Street, between Exchange and Washington Streets, and wasnamed after Robert Gutteridge, who took out an innkeeper's license in1691. Twenty-seven years later, his widow, Mary Gutteridge, petitionedthe town for a renewal of her late husband's permit to keep a publiccoffee house. The British coffee house, which became the American coffee house whenthe crown officers and all things British became obnoxious to thecolonists, also began its career about the time Gutteridge took out hislicense. It stood on the site that is now 66 State Street, and becameone of the most widely known coffee houses in colonial New England. Of course, there were several inns and taverns in existence in Bostonlong before coffee and coffee houses came to the New England metropolis. Some of these taverns took up coffee when it became fashionable in thecolony, and served it to those patrons who did not care for the strongerdrinks. [Illustration: THE CROWN COFFEE HOUSE, BOSTON One of the first in New England to bear the distinctive name of coffeehouse; opened in 1711 and burned down in 1780] The earliest known inn was set up by Samuel Cole in Washington Street, midway between Faneuil Hall and State Street. Cole was licensed as a"comfit maker" in 1634, four years after the founding of Boston; and twoyears later, his inn was the temporary abiding place of the Indianchief Miantonomoh and his red warriors, who came to visit Governor Vane. In the following year, the Earl of Marlborough found that Cole's inn wasso "exceedingly well governed, " and afforded so desirable privacy, thathe refused the hospitality of Governor Winthrop at the governor'smansion. [Illustration: COFFEE MAKING AND SERVING DEVICES USED IN THEMASSACHUSETTS COLONY These exhibits are in the Museum of the Essex Institute at Salem, Mass. Top row, left and right, Britannia serving pots; center, Britannia tableurn; bottom row, left end, tin coffee making pot; center, Britanniaserving pots; right end, tin French drip pot] Another popular inn of the day was the Red Lyon, which was opened in1637 by Nicholas Upshall, the Quaker, who later was hanged for trying tobribe a jailer to pass some food into the jail to two Quakeresses whowere starving within. Ship tavern, erected in 1650, at the corner of North and Clark Streets, then on the waterfront, was a haunt of British government officials. Thefather of Governor Hutchinson was the first landlord, to be succeeded in1663 by John Vyal. Here lived the four commissioners who were sent tothese shores by King Charles II to settle the disputes then beginningbetween the colonies and England. Another lodging and eating place for the gentlemen of quality in thefirst days of Boston was the Blue Anchor, in Cornhill, which wasconducted in 1664 by Robert Turner. Here gathered members of thegovernment, visiting officials, jurists, and the clergy, summoned intosynod by the Massachusetts General Court. It is assumed that the clergyconfined their drinking to coffee and other moderate beverages, leavingthe wines and liquors to their confrères. _Some Notable Boston Coffee Houses_ In the last quarter of the seventeenth century quite a number of tavernsand inns sprang up. Among the most notable that have obtainedrecognition in Boston's historical records were the King's Head, at thecorner of Fleet and North Streets; the Indian Queen, on a passagewayleading from Washington Street to Hawley Street; the Sun, in FaneuilHall Square, and the Green Dragon, which became one of the mostcelebrated coffee-house taverns. The King's Head, opened in 1691, early became a rendezvous of crownofficers and the citizens in the higher strata of colonial society. The Indian Queen also became a favorite resort of the crown officersfrom Province House. Started by Nathaniel Bishop about 1673, it stoodfor more than 145 years as the Indian Queen, and then was replaced bythe Washington coffee house, which became noted throughout New Englandas the starting place for the Roxbury "hourlies, " the stage coaches thatran every hour from Boston to nearby Roxbury. [Illustration: COFFEE DEVICES THAT FIGURED IN THE PIONEERING OF THEGREAT WEST Photographed for this work in the Museum of the State Historical Societyof Wisconsin. Left to right, English decorated tin pot; coffee and spicemill from Lexington, Mass. ; Globe roaster built by Rays & Wilcox Co. , Berlin, Conn. , under Wood's patent; sheet brass coffee mill fromLexington, Mass. ; John Luther's coffee mill, Warren, R. I. ; cast-ironhopper mill] The Sun tavern lived a longer life than any other Boston inn. Started in1690 in Faneuil Hall Square, it was still standing in 1902, according toHenry R. Blaney; but has since been razed to make way for a modernskyscraper. [Illustration: METAL AND CHINA COFFEE POTS USED IN NEW ENGLAND'SCOLONIAL DAYS From the collection in the Museum of the Pocumtuck Valley MemorialAssociation, Deerfield, Mass. ] _New England's Most Famous Coffee House_ The Green Dragon, the last of the inns that were popular at the close ofthe seventeenth century, was the most celebrated of Boston'scoffee-house taverns. It stood on Union Street, in the heart of thetown's business center, for 135 years, from 1697 to 1832, and figured inpractically all the important local and national events during its longcareer. Red-coated British soldiers, colonial governors, bewigged crownofficers, earls and dukes, citizens of high estate, plottingrevolutionists of lesser degree, conspirators in the Boston Tea Party, patriots and generals of the Revolution--all these were wont to gatherat the Green Dragon to discuss their various interests over their cupsof coffee, and stronger drinks. In the words of Daniel Webster, thisfamous coffee-house tavern was the "headquarters of the Revolution. " Itwas here that Warren, John Adams, James Otis, and Paul Revere met as a"ways and means committee" to secure freedom for the American colonies. Here, too, came members of the Grand Lodge of Masons to hold theirmeetings under the guidance of Warren, who was the first grand master ofthe first Masonic lodge in Boston. The site of the old tavern, nowoccupied by a business block, is still the property of the St. Andrew'sLodge of Free Masons. The old tavern was a two-storied brick structurewith a sharply pitched roof. Over its entrance hung a sign bearing thefigure of a green dragon. [Illustration: THE GREEN DRAGON, THE CENTER OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFEIN BOSTON FOR 135 YEARS This tavern figured in practically all the important national affairsfrom 1697 to 1832, and, according to Daniel Webster, was the"headquarters of the Revolution"] Patrons of the Green Dragon and the British coffee house were decidedlyopposed in their views on the questions of the day. While the GreenDragon was the gathering place of the patriotic colonials, the Britishwas the rendezvous of the loyalists, and frequent were the encountersbetween the patrons of these two celebrated taverns. It was in theBritish coffee house that James Otis was so badly pummeled, after beinglured there by political enemies, that he never regained his formerbrilliancy as an orator. It was there, in 1750, that some British red coats staged the firsttheatrical entertainment given in Boston, playing Otway's _Orphan_. There, the first organization of citizens to take the name of a clubformed the Merchants' Club in 1751. The membership included officers ofthe king, colonial governors and lesser officials, military and navalleaders, and members of the bar, with a sprinkling of high-rankingcitizens who were staunch friends of the crown. However, the Britishbecame so generally disliked that as soon as the king's troops evacuatedBoston in the Revolution, the name of the coffee house was changed tothe American. The Bunch of Grapes, that Francis Holmes presided over as early as 1712, was another hot-bed of politicians. Like the Green Dragon over the way, its patrons included unconditional freedom seekers, many coming from theBritish coffee house when things became too hot for them in that Toryatmosphere. The Bunch of Grapes became the center of a stirringcelebration in 1776, when a delegate from Philadelphia read theDeclaration of Independence from the balcony of the inn to the crowdassembled in the street below. So enthusiastic did the Bostonians becomethat, in the excitement that followed, the inn was nearly destroyed whenone enthusiast built a bonfire too close to its walls. Another anecdotetold of the Bunch of Grapes concerns Sir William Phipps, governor ofMassachusetts from 1692-94, who was noted for his irascibility. He hadhis favorite chair and window in the inn, and in the accounts of theperiod it is written that on any fine afternoon his gloweringcountenance could be seen at the window by the passers-by on StateStreet. After the beginning of the eighteenth century the title of coffee housewas applied to a number of hostelries opened in Boston. One of these wasthe Crown, which was opened in the "first house on Long Wharf" in 1711by Jonathan Belcher, who later became governor of Massachusetts, andstill later of New Jersey. The first landlord of the Crown was ThomasSelby, who by trade was a periwig maker, but probably found the sellingof strong drink and coffee more profitable. Selby's coffee house wasalso used as an auction room. The Crown stood until 1780, when it wasdestroyed in a fire that swept the Long Wharf. On its site now standsthe Fidelity Trust Company at 148 State Street. Another early Boston coffee house on State Street was the RoyalExchange. How long it had been standing before it was first mentioned incolonial records in 1711 is unknown. It occupied an ancient two-storybuilding, and was kept in 1711 by Benjamin Johns. This coffee housebecame the starting place for stage coaches running between Boston andNew York, the first one leaving September 7, 1772. In the _ColumbianCentinel_ of January 1, 1800, appeared an advertisement in which it wassaid: "New York and Providence Mail Stage leaves Major Hatches' RoyalExchange Coffee House in State Street every morning at 8 o'clock. " In the latter half of the eighteenth century the North-End coffee housewas celebrated as the highest-class coffee house in Boston. It occupiedthe three-storied brick mansion which had been built about 1740 byEdward Hutchinson, brother of the noted governor. It stood on the westside of North Street, between Sun Court and Fleet Street, and was one ofthe most pretentious of its kind. An eighteenth century writer, indescribing this coffee-house mansion, made much of the fact that it hadforty-five windows and was valued at $4, 500, a large sum for those days. During the Revolution, Captain David Porter, father of Admiral David D. Porter, was the landlord, and under him it became celebrated throughoutthe city as a high-grade eating place. The advertisements of theNorth-End coffee house featured its "dinners and suppers--small andretired rooms for small company--oyster suppers in the nicest manner. " [Illustration: METAL COFFEE POTS USED IN THE NEW YORK COLONY Left, tin coffee pot, dark brown, with "love apple" decoration in red, New Jersey Historical Society, Newark; right, weighted bottom tin potwith rose decoration, private owner] _A "Skyscraper" Coffee House_ The Boston coffee-house period reached its height in 1808, when thedoors of the Exchange coffee house were thrown open after three years ofbuilding. This structure, situated on Congress Street near StateStreet, was the skyscraper of its day, and probably was the mostambitious coffee-house project the world has known. Built of stone, marble, and brick, it stood seven stories high, and cost a half-milliondollars. Charles Bulfinch, America's most noted architect of thatperiod, was the designer. [Illustration: EXCHANGE COFFEE HOUSE, BOSTON, 1808, PROBABLY THE LARGESTAND MOST COSTLY IN THE WORLD Built of stone, marble and brick, it stood seven stories high and cost$500, 000. It was patterned after Lloyd's of London, and was the centerof marine intelligence in Boston] Like Lloyd's coffee house in London, the Exchange was the center ofmarine intelligence, and its public rooms were thronged all day andevening with mariners, naval officers, ship and insurance brokers, whohad come to talk shop or to consult the records of ship arrivals anddepartures, manifests, charters, and other marine papers. The firstfloor of the Exchange was devoted to trading. On the next floor was thelarge dining room, where many sumptuous banquets were given, notably theone to President Monroe in July, 1817, which was attended by formerPresident John Adams, and by many generals, commodores, governors, andjudges. The other floors were given over to living and sleeping rooms, of which there were more than 200. The Exchange coffee house wasdestroyed by fire in 1818; and on its site was erected another, bearingthe same name, but having slight resemblance to its predecessor. [Illustration] [Illustration: PRESIDENT-ELECT WASHINGTON WELCOMED AT THE MERCHANTSCOFFEE HOUSE, NEW YORK The reception took place April 23, 1789, one week before hisinauguration. From a painting by Charles P. Gruppe, owned by the author] CHAPTER XIII HISTORY OF COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK _The burghers of New Amsterdam begin to substitute coffee for "must, " or beer, at breakfast in 1668--William Penn makes his first purchase of coffee in the green bean from New York merchants in 1683--The King's Arms, the first coffee house--The historic Merchants, sometimes called the "Birthplace of our Union"--The coffee house as a civic forum--The Exchange, Whitehall, Burns, Tontine, and other celebrated coffee houses--The Vauxhall and Ranelagh pleasure gardens_ The Dutch founders of New York seem to have introduced tea into NewAmsterdam before they brought in coffee. This was somewhere about themiddle of the seventeenth century. We find it recorded that about 1668the burghers succumbed to coffee[91]. Coffee made its way slowly, firstin the homes, where it replaced the "must", or beer, at breakfast. Chocolate came about the same time, but was more of a luxury than tea orcoffee. After the surrender of New York to the British in 1674, English mannersand customs were rapidly introduced. First tea, and later coffee, werefavorite beverages in the homes. By 1683 New York had become so centrala market for the green bean, that William Penn, as soon as he foundhimself comfortably settled in the Pennsylvania Colony, sent over to NewYork for his coffee supplies[92]. It was not long before a social needarose that only the London style of coffee house could fill. The coffee houses of early New York, like their prototypes in London, Paris, and other old world capitals, were the centers of the business, political and, to some extent, of the social life of the city. But theynever became the forcing-beds of literature that the French and Englishhouses were, principally because the colonists had no professionalwriters of note. There is one outstanding feature of the early American coffee houses, particularly of those opened in New York, that is not distinctive of theEuropean houses. The colonists sometimes held court trials in the long, or assembly, room of the early coffee houses; and often held theirgeneral assembly and council meetings there. _The Coffee House as a Civic Forum_ The early coffee house was an important factor in New York life. Whatthe perpetuation of this public gathering place meant to the citizens isshown by a complaint (evidently designed to revive the decliningfortunes of the historic Merchants coffee house) in the _New YorkJournal_ of October 19, 1775, which, in part, said: To the Inhabitants of New York: It gives me concern, in this time of public difficulty and danger, to find we have in this city no place of daily general meeting, where we might hear and communicate intelligence from every quarter and freely confer with one another on every matter that concerns us. Such a place of general meeting is of very great advantage in many respects, especially at such a time as this, besides the satisfaction it affords and the sociable disposition it has a tendency to keep up among us, which was never more wanted than at this time. To answer all these and many other good and useful purposes, coffee houses have been universally deemed the most convenient places of resort, because, at a small expense of time or money, persons wanted may be found and spoke with, appointments may be made, current news heard, and whatever it most concerns us to know. In all cities, therefore, and large towns that I have seen in the British dominions, sufficient encouragement has been given to support one or more coffee houses in a genteel manner. How comes it then that New York, the most central, and one of the largest and most prosperous cities in British America, cannot support one coffee house? It is a scandal to the city and its inhabitants to be destitute of such a convenience for want of due encouragement. A coffee house, indeed, there is, a very good and comfortable one, extremely well tended and accommodated, but it is frequented but by an inconsiderable number of people; and I have observed with surprise, that but a small part of those who do frequent it, contribute anything at all to the expense of it, but come in and go out without calling for or paying anything to the house. In all the coffee houses in London, it is customary for every one that comes in to call for at least a dish of coffee, or leave the value of one, which is but reasonable, because when the keepers of these houses have been at the expense of setting them up and providing all necessaries for the accommodation of company, every one that comes to receive the benefit of these conveniences ought to contribute something towards the expense of them. A FRIEND TO THE CITY. _New York's First Coffee House_ Some chroniclers of New York's early days are confident that the firstcoffee house in America was opened in New York; but the earliestauthenticated record they have presented is that on November 1, 1696, John Hutchins bought a lot on Broadway, between Trinity churchyard andwhat is now Cedar Street, and there built a house, naming it the King'sArms. Against this record, Boston can present the statement in SamuelGardner Drake's _History and Antiquities of the City of Boston_ thatBenj. Harris sold books at the "London Coffee House" in 1689. [Illustration: NEW YORK'S PIONEER COFFEE HOUSE, THE KING'S ARMS, OPENEDIN 1696 This view shows the garden side of the historic old house as it wasconducted by John Hutchins, near Trinity Church, on Broadway. Theobservatory may have been added later] The King's Arms was built of wood, and had a front of yellow brick, saidto have been brought from Holland. The building was two stories high, and on the roof was an "observatory, " arranged with seats, andcommanding a fine view of the bay, the river, and the city. Here thecoffee-house visitors frequently sat in the afternoons. It is not shownin the illustration. [Illustration: BURNS COFFEE HOUSE AS IT APPEARED ABOUT THE MIDDLE OF THENINETEENTH CENTURY It stood for many years on Broadway, opposite Bowling Green, in the oldDe Lancey House, becoming known in 1763 as the King's Arms, and laterthe Atlantic Garden House] The sides of the main room on the lower floor were lined with booths, which, for the sake of greater privacy, were screened with greencurtains. There a patron could sip his coffee, or a more stimulatingdrink, and look over his mail in the same exclusiveness affected by theLondoner of the time. The rooms on the second floor were used for special meetings ofmerchants, colonial magistrates and overseers, or similar public andprivate business. The meeting room, as above described, seems to have been one of thechief features distinguishing a coffee house from a tavern. Althoughboth types of houses had rooms for guests, and served meals, the coffeehouse was used for business purposes by permanent customers, while thetavern was patronized more by transients. Men met at the coffee housedaily to carry on business, and went to the tavern for convivialpurposes or lodgings. Before the front door hung the sign of "the lionand the unicorn fighting for the crown. " For many years the King's Arms was the only coffee house in the city; orat least no other seems of sufficient importance to have been mentionedin colonial records. For this reason it was more frequently designatedas "the" coffee house than the King's Arms. Contemporary records of thearrest of John Hutchins of the King's Arms, and of Roger Baker, forspeaking disrespectfully of King George, mention the King's Head, ofwhich Baker was proprietor. But it is generally believed that thispublic house was a tavern and not rightfully to be considered as acoffee house. The White Lion, mentioned about 1700, was also a tavern, or inn. _The New Coffee House_ Under date of September 22, 1709, the _Journal of the General Assemblyof the Colony of New York_ refers to a conference held in the "NewCoffee House. " About this date the business section of the city hadbegun to drift eastward from Broadway to the waterfront; and from thisfact it is assumed that the name "New Coffee House" indicates that theKing's Arms had been removed from its original location near CedarStreet, or that it may have lost favor and have been superseded inpopularity by a newer coffee house. The _Journal_ does not give thelocation of the "New" coffee house. Whatever the case may be, the nameof the King's Arms does not again appear in the records until 1763, andthen it had more the character of a tavern, or roadhouse. The public records from 1709 up to 1729 are silent in regard to coffeehouses in New York. In 1725 the pioneer newspaper in the city, the _NewYork Gazette_, came into existence; and four years later, 1729, thereappeared in it an advertisement stating that "a competent bookkeeper maybe heard of" at the "Coffee House. " In 1730 another advertisement in thesame journal tells of a sale of land by public vendue (auction) to beheld at the Exchange coffee house. _The Exchange Coffee House_ By reason of its name, the Exchange Coffee House is thought to have beenlocated at the foot of Broad Street, abutting the sea-wall and near theLong Bridge of that day. At that time this section was the businesscenter of the city, and here was a trading exchange. That the Exchange coffee house was the only one of its kind in New Yorkin 1732 is inferred from the announcement in that year of a meeting ofthe conference committee of the Council and Assembly "at the CoffeeHouse. " In seeming confirmation of this conclusion, is the advertisementin 1733 in the _New York Gazette_ requesting the return of "lost sleevebuttons to Mr. Todd, next door to the Coffee House. " The records of theday show that a Robert Todd kept the famous Black Horse tavern which waslocated in this part of the city. Again we hear of the Exchange coffee house in 1737, and apparently inthe same location, where it is mentioned in an account of the "Negroplot" as being next door to the Fighting Cocks tavern by the LongBridge, at the foot of Broad Street. Also in this same year it is namedas the place of public vendue of land situated on Broadway. By this time the Exchange coffee house had virtually become the city'sofficial auction room, as well as the place to buy and to drink coffee. Commodities of many kinds were also bought and sold there, both withinthe house and on the sidewalk before it. _The Merchants Coffee House_ In the year 1750, the Exchange coffee house had begun to lose itslong-held prestige, and its name was changed to the Gentlemen's Exchangecoffee house and tavern. A year later it had migrated to Broadway underthe name of the Gentlemens' coffee house and tavern. In 1753 it wasmoved again, to Hunter's Quay, which was situated on what is now FrontStreet, somewhere between the present Old Slip and Wall Street. Thefamous old coffee house seems to have gone out of existence about thistime, its passing hastened, no doubt, by the newer enterprise, theMerchants coffee house, which was to become the most celebrated in NewYork, and, according to some writers, the most historic in America. It is not certain just when the Merchants coffee house was first opened. As near as can be determined, Daniel Bloom, a mariner, in 1737 boughtthe Jamaica Pilot Boat tavern from John Dunks and named it the Merchantscoffee house. The building was situated on the northwest corner of thepresent Wall Street and Water (then Queen) Street; and Bloom was itslandlord until his death, soon after the year 1750. He was succeeded byCaptain James Ackland, who shortly sold it to Luke Roome. The latterdisposed of the building in 1758 to Dr. Charles Arding. The doctorleased it to Mrs. Mary Ferrari, who continued as its proprietor untilshe moved, in 1772, to the newer building diagonally across the street, built by William Brownejohn, on the southeast corner of Wall and WaterStreets. Mrs. Ferrari took with her the patronage and the name of theMerchants coffee house, and the old building was not used again as acoffee house. The building housing the original Merchants coffee house was a two-storystructure, with a balcony on the roof, which was typical of the middleeighteenth century architecture in New York. On the first floor were thecoffee bar and booths described in connection with the King's Armscoffee house. The second floor had the typical long room for publicassembly. During Bloom's proprietorship the Merchants coffee house had a long, hard struggle to win the patronage away from the Exchange coffee house, which was flourishing at that time. But, being located near the MealMarket, where the merchants were wont to gather for trading purposes, itgradually became the meeting place of the city, at the expense of theExchange coffee house, farther down the waterfront. [Illustration: MERCHANTS COFFEE HOUSE (AT THE RIGHT) AS IT APPEARED FROM1772 TO 1804 The original coffee house of this name was opened on the northwestcorner of Wall and Water Streets about 1737, the business being moved tothe southeast corner in 1772] Widow Ferrari presided over the original Merchants coffee house forfourteen years, until she moved across the street. She was a keenbusiness woman. Just before she was ready to open the new coffee houseshe announced to her old patrons that she would give a house-warming, atwhich arrack, punch, wine, cold ham, tongue, and other delicacies of theday would be served. The event was duly noted in the newspapers, onestating that "the agreeable situation and the elegance of the new househad occasioned a great resort of company to it. " Mrs. Ferrari continued in charge until May 1, 1776, when CorneliusBradford became proprietor and sought to build up the patronage, thathad dwindled somewhat during the stirring days immediately preceding theRevolution. In his announcement of the change of ownership, he said, "Interesting intelligence will be carefully collected and the greatestattention will be given to the arrival of vessels, when trade andnavigation shall resume their former channels. " He referred to thecomplete embargo of trade to Europe which the colonists were enduring. When the American troops withdrew from the city during the Revolution, Bradford went also, to Rhinebeck on the Hudson. During the British occupation, the Merchants coffee house was a place ofgreat activity. As before, it was the center of trading, and under theBritish régime it became also the place where the prize ships were sold. The Chamber of Commerce resumed its sessions in the upper long room in1779, having been suspended since 1775. The Chamber paid fifty poundsrent per annum for the use of the room to Mrs. Smith, the landlady atthe time. In 1781 John Stachan, then proprietor of the Queen's Head tavern, becamelandlord of the Merchants coffee house, and he promised in a publicannouncement "to pay attention not only as a Coffee House, but as atavern, in the truest; and to distinguish the same as the City Tavernand Coffee House, with constant and best attendance. Breakfast fromseven to eleven; soups and relishes from eleven to half-past one. Tea, coffee, etc. , in the afternoon, as in England. " But when he begancharging sixpence for receiving and dispatching letters by man-o'-war toEngland, he brought a storm about his ears, and was forced to give upthe practise. He continued in charge until peace came, and CorneliusBradford came with it to resume proprietorship of the coffee house. Bradford changed the name to the New York coffee house, but the publiccontinued to call it by its original name, and the landlord soon gavein. He kept a marine list, giving the names of vessels arriving anddeparting, recording their ports of sailing. He also opened a registerof returning citizens, "where any gentleman now resident in the city, "his advertisement stated, "may insert their names and place ofresidence. " This seems to have been the first attempt at a citydirectory. By his energy Bradford soon made the Merchants coffee houseagain the business center of the city. When he died, in 1786, he wasmourned as one of the leading citizens. His funeral was held at thecoffee house over which he had presided so well. The Merchants coffee house continued to be the principal publicgathering place until it was destroyed by fire in 1804. During itsexistence it had figured prominently in many of the local and nationalhistoric events, too numerous to record here in detail. Some of the famous events were: The reading of the order to thecitizens, in 1765, warning them to stop rioting against the Stamp Act;the debates on the subject of not accepting consignments of goods fromGreat Britain; the demonstration by the Sons of Liberty, sometimescalled the "Liberty Boys, " made before Captain Lockyer of the tea shipNancy which had been turned away from Boston and sought to land itscargo in New York in 1774; the general meeting of citizens on May 19, 1774, to discuss a means of communicating with the Massachusetts colonyto obtain co-ordinated effort in resisting England's oppression, out ofwhich came the letter suggesting a congress of deputies from thecolonies and calling for a "virtuous and spirited Union;" the massmeeting of citizens in the days immediately following the battles atConcord and Lexington in Massachusetts; and the forming of the Committeeof One Hundred to administer the public business, making the Merchantscoffee house virtually the seat of government. When the American Army held the city in 1776, the coffee house becamethe resort of army and navy officers. Its culminating glory came onApril 23, 1789, when Washington, the recently elected first president ofthe United States, was officially greeted at the coffee house by thegovernor of the State, the mayor of the city, and the lesser municipalofficers. As a meeting place for societies and lodges the Merchants coffee housewas long distinguished. In addition to the purely commercialorganizations that gathered in its long room, these bodies regularly metthere in their early days: The Society of Arts, Agriculture and Economy;Knights of Corsica; New York Committee of Correspondence; New YorkMarine Society; Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York; Lodge 169, Free and Accepted Masons; Whig Society; Society of the New YorkHospital; St. Andrew's Society; Society of the Cincinnati; Society ofthe Sons of St. Patrick; Society for Promoting the Manumission ofSlaves; Society for the Relief of Distressed Debtors; Black FriarsSociety; Independent Rangers; and Federal Republicans. Here also came the men who, in 1784, formed the Bank of New York, thefirst financial institution in the city; and here was held, in 1790, thefirst public sale of stocks by sworn brokers. Here, too, was held theorganization meeting of subscribers to the Tontine coffee house, whichin a few years was to prove a worthy rival. _Some Lesser Known Coffee Houses_ Before taking up the story of the famous Tontine coffee house it shouldbe noted that the Merchants coffee house had some prior measure ofcompetition. For four years the Exchange coffee room sought to cater tothe wants of the merchants around the foot of Broad Street. It waslocated in the Royal Exchange, which had been erected in 1752 in placeof the old Exchange, and until 1754 had been used as a store. ThenWilliam Keen and Alexander Lightfoot got control and started theircoffee room, with a ball room attached. The partnership split up in1756, Lightfoot continuing operations until he died the next year, whenhis widow tried to carry it on. In 1758 it had reverted into itsoriginal character of a mercantile establishment. [Illustration: THE TONTINE COFFEE HOUSE (SECOND BUILDING AT THE LEFT), OPENED IN 1792 This is the original structure, northwest corner of Wall and WaterStreets, which was succeeded about 1850 by a five-story building (seepage 122) that in turn was replaced by a modern office building] Then there was the Whitehall coffee house, which two men, named Rogersand Humphreys, opened in 1762, with the announcement that "acorrespondence is settled in London and Bristol to remit by everyopportunity all the public prints and pamphlets as soon as published;and there will be a weekly supply of New York, Boston and other Americannewspapers. " This enterprise had a short life. The early records of the city infrequently mention the Burns coffeehouse, sometimes calling it a tavern. It is likely that the place wasmore an inn than a coffee house. It was kept for a number of years byGeorge Burns, near the Battery, and was located in the historic old DeLancey house, which afterward became the City hotel. Burns remained the proprietor until 1762, when it was taken over by aMrs. Steele, who gave it the name of the King's Arms. Edward Bardenbecame the landlord in 1768. In later years it became known as theAtlantic Garden house. Traitor Benedict Arnold is said to have lodged inthe old tavern after deserting to the enemy. The Bank coffee house belonged to a later generation, and had few of thecharacteristics of the earlier coffee houses. It was opened in 1814 byWilliam Niblo, of Niblo's Garden fame, and stood at the corner ofWilliam and Pine Streets, at the rear of the Bank of New York. Thecoffee house endured for probably ten years, and became the gatheringplace of a coterie of prominent merchants, who formed a sort of club. The Bank coffee house became celebrated for its dinners and dinnerparties. Fraunces' tavern, best known as the place where Washington bade farewellto his army officers, was, as its name states, a tavern, and can not beproperly classed as a coffee house. While coffee was served, and therewas a long room for gatherings, little, if any, business was done thereby merchants. It was largely a meeting place for citizens bent on a"good time. " Then there was the New England and Quebec coffee house, which was also atavern. [Illustration: THE TONTINE BUILDING OF 1850 Northwest corner of Wall and Water Streets; an omnibus of theBroadway-Wall-Street Ferry line is passing] _The Tontine Coffee House_ The last of the celebrated coffee houses of New York bore the name, Tontine coffee house. For several years after the burning of theMerchants coffee house, in 1804, it was the only one of note in thecity. Feeling that they should have a more commodious coffee house forcarrying on their various business enterprises, some 150 merchantsorganized, in 1791, the Tontine coffee house. This enterprise was basedon the plan introduced into France in 1653 by Lorenzo Tonti, with slightvariations. According to the New York Tontine plan, each holder's sharereverted automatically to the surviving shareholders in the association, instead of to his heirs. There were 157 original shareholders, and 203shares of stock valued at £200 each. [Illustration: NIBLO'S GARDEN, BROADWAY AND PRINCE STREET, 1828] The directors bought the house and lot on the northwest corner of Walland Water Streets, where the original Merchants coffee house stood, paying £1, 970. They next acquired the adjoining lots on Wall and WaterStreets, paying £2, 510 for the former, and £1, 000 for the latter. The cornerstone of the new coffee house was laid June 5, 1792; and ayear later to the day, 120 gentlemen sat down to a banquet in thecompleted coffee house to celebrate the event of the year before. JohnHyde was the first landlord. The house had cost $43, 000. [Illustration: COFFEE RELICS OF DUTCH NEW YORK Spice-grinder boat, coffee roaster, and coffee pots at the Van CortlandtMuseum] A contemporary account of how the Tontine coffee house looked in 1794 issupplied by an Englishman visiting New York at the time: The Tontine tavern and coffee house is a handsome large brick building; you ascend six or eight steps under a portico, into a large public room, which is the Stock Exchange of New York, where all bargains are made. Here are two books kept, as at Lloyd's [in London] of every ship's arrival and clearance. This house was built for the accommodation of the merchants by Tontine shares of two hundred pounds each. It is kept by Mr. Hyde, formerly a woolen draper in London. You can lodge and board there at a common table, and you pay ten shillings currency a day, whether you dine out or not. [Illustration: NEW YORK'S VAUXHALL GARDEN OF 1803 From an old print] The stock market made its headquarters in the Tontine coffee house in1817, and the early organization was elaborated and became the New YorkStock and Exchange Board. It was removed in 1827 to the MerchantsExchange Building, where it remained until that place was destroyed byfire in 1835. It was stipulated in the original articles of the Tontine Associationthat the house was to be kept and used as a coffee house, and thisagreement was adhered to up to the year 1834, when, by permission of theCourt of Chancery, the premises were let for general business-officepurposes. This change was due to the competition offered by theMerchants Exchange, a short distance up Wall Street, which had beenopened soon after the completion of the Tontine coffee house building. As the city grew, the business-office quarters of the original Tontinecoffee house became inadequate; and about the year 1850 a new five-storybuilding, costing some $60, 000, succeeded it. By this time the buildinghad lost its old coffee-house characteristics. This new Tontinestructure is said to have been the first real office building in NewYork City. Today the site is occupied by a large modern office building, which still retains the name of Tontine. It was owned by John B. AndCharles A. O'Donohue, well known New York coffee merchants, until 1920, when it was sold for $1, 000, 000 to the Federal Sugar Refining Company. The Tontine coffee house did not figure so prominently in the historicevents of the nation and city as did its neighbor, the Merchants coffeehouse. However, it became the Mecca for visitors from all parts of thecountry, who did not consider their sojourn in the city complete untilthey had at least inspected what was then one of the most pretentiousbuildings in New York. Chroniclers of the Tontine coffee house alwayssay that most of the leaders of the nation, together with distinguishedvisitors from abroad, had foregathered in the large room of the oldcoffee house at some time during their careers. It was on the walls of the Tontine coffee house that bulletins wereposted on Hamilton's struggle for life after the fatal duel forced onhim by Aaron Burr. The changing of the Tontine coffee house into a purely mercantilebuilding marked the end of the coffee-house era in New York. Exchangesand office buildings had come into existence to take the place of thebusiness features of the coffee houses; clubs were organized to takecare of the social functions; and restaurants and hotels had sprung upto cater to the needs for beverages and food. _New York's Pleasure Gardens_ There was a fairly successful attempt made to introduce the Londonpleasure-garden idea into New York. First, tea gardens were added toseveral of the taverns already provided with ball rooms. Then, on theoutskirts of the city, were opened the Vauxhall and the Ranelaghgardens, so named after their famous London prototypes. The firstVauxhall garden (there were three of this name) was on Greenwich Street, between Warren and Chambers Streets. It fronted on the North River, affording a beautiful view up the Hudson. Starting as the Bowling Greengarden, it changed to Vauxhall in 1750. Ranelagh was on Broadway, between Duane and Worth Streets, on the sitewhere later the New York Hospital was erected. From advertisements ofthe period (1765-69) we learn that there were band concerts twice a weekat the Ranelagh. The gardens were "for breakfasting as well as theevening entertainment of ladies and gentlemen. " There was a commodioushall in the garden for dancing. Ranelagh lasted twenty years. Coffee, tea, and hot rolls could be had in the pleasure gardens at any hour ofthe day. Fireworks were featured at both Ranelagh and Vauxhall gardens. The second Vauxhall was near the intersection of the present Mulberryand Grand Streets, in 1798; the third was on Bowery Road, near AstorPlace, in 1803. The Astor library was built upon its site in 1853. William Niblo, previously proprietor of the Bank coffee house in PineStreet, opened, in 1828, a pleasure garden, that he named Sans Souci, onthe site of a circus building called the Stadium at Broadway and PrinceStreet. In the center of the garden remained the stadium, which wasdevoted to theatrical performances of "a gay and attractive character. "Later, he built a more pretentious theater that fronted on Broadway. Theinterior of the garden was "spacious, and adorned with shrubbery andwalks, lighted with festoons of lamps. " It was generally known asNiblo's garden. Among other well known pleasure gardens of old New York were Contoit's, later the New York garden, and Cherry gardens, on old Cherry Hill. [Illustration: TAVERN AND GROCERS' SIGNS USED IN OLD NEW YORK Left, Smith Richards, grocer and confectioner, "at the sign of the teacanister and two sugar loaves" (1773); center, the King's Arms, originally Burns coffee house (1767); right, George Webster, Grocer, "atthe sign of the three sugar loaves"] CHAPTER XIV COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD PHILADELPHIA _Ye Coffee House, Philadelphia's first coffee house, opened about 1700--The two London coffee houses--The City tavern, or Merchants coffee house--How these, and other celebrated resorts, dominated the social, political, and business life of the Quaker City in the eighteenth century_ William Penn is generally credited with the introduction of coffee intothe Quaker colony which he founded on the Delaware in 1682. He alsobrought to the "city of brotherly love" that other great drink of humanbrotherhood, tea. At first (1700), "like tea, coffee was only a drinkfor the well-to-do, except in sips. "[93] As was the case in the otherEnglish colonies, coffee languished for a time while tea rose in favor, more especially in the home. Following the stamp act of 1765, and the tea tax of 1767, thePennsylvania Colony joined hands with the others in a general teaboycott; and coffee received the same impetus as elsewhere in thecolonies that became the thirteen original states. The coffee houses of early Philadelphia loom large in the history of thecity and the republic. Picturesque in themselves, with their distinctivecolonial architecture, their associations also were romantic. Many acivic, sociological, and industrial reform came into existence in thelow-ceilinged, sanded-floor main rooms of the city's early coffeehouses. For many years, Ye coffee house, the two London coffee houses, and theCity tavern (also known as the Merchants coffee house) each in its turndominated the official and social life of Philadelphia. The earlierhouses were the regular meeting places of Quaker municipal officers, ship captains, and merchants who came to transact public and privatebusiness. As the outbreak of the Revolution drew near, fiery colonials, many in Quaker garb, congregated there to argue against Britishoppression of the colonies. After the Revolution, the leading citizensresorted to the coffee house to dine and sup and to hold their socialfunctions. When the city was founded in 1682, coffee cost too much to admit of itsbeing retailed to the general public at coffee houses. William Pennwrote in his _Accounts_ that in 1683 coffee in the berry was sometimesprocured in New York at a cost of eighteen shillings nine pence thepound, equal to about $4. 68. He told also that meals were served in theordinaries at six pence (equal to twelve cents), to wit: "We have sevenordinaries for the entertainment of strangers and for workmen that arenot housekeepers, and a good meal is to be had there for six pencesterling. " With green coffee costing $4. 68 a pound, making the price ofa cup about seventeen cents, it is not likely that coffee was on themenus of the ordinaries serving meals at twelve cents each. Ale was thecommon meal-time beverage. There were four classes of public houses--inns, taverns, ordinaries, andcoffee houses. The inn was a modest hotel that supplied lodgings, food, and drink, the beverages consisting mostly of ale, port, Jamaica rum, and Madeira wine. The tavern, though accommodating guests with bed andboard, was more of a drinking place than a lodging house. The ordinarycombined the characteristics of a restaurant and a boarding house. Thecoffee house was a pretentious tavern, dispensing, in most cases, intoxicating drinks as well as coffee. _Philadelphia's First Coffee House_ The first house of public resort opened in Philadelphia bore the name ofthe Blue Anchor tavern, and was probably established in 1683 or 1684;colonial records do not state definitely. As its name indicates, thiswas a tavern. The first coffee house came into existence about the year1700. Watson, in one place in his _Annals_ of the city, says 1700, butin another 1702. The earlier date is thought to be correct, and isseemingly substantiated by the co-authors Scharf and Westcott in their_History_ of the city, in which they say, "The first public housedesignated as a coffee house was built in Penn's time [1682-1701] bySamuel Carpenter, on the east side of Front Street, probably aboveWalnut Street. That it was the first of its kind--the only one in factfor some years--seems to be established beyond doubt. It was alwaysreferred to in old times as 'Ye Coffee House. '" Carpenter owned also the Globe inn, which was separated from Ye coffeehouse by a public stairway running down from Front Street to WaterStreet, and, it is supposed, to Carpenter's Wharf. The exact location ofthe old house was recently established from the title to the originalpatentee, Samuel Carpenter, by a Philadelphia real-estatetitle-guarantee company, as being between Walnut and Chestnut Streets, and occupying six and a half feet of what is now No. 137 South FrontStreet and the whole of No. 139. How long Ye coffee house endured is uncertain. It was last mentioned incolonial records in a real estate conveyance from Carpenter to SamuelFinney, dated April 26, 1703. In that document it is described as "Thatbrick Messuage, or Tenement, called Ye Coffee House, in the possessionof Henry Flower, and situate, lying and being upon or before the bank ofthe Delaware River, containing in length about thirty feet and inbreadth about twenty-four. " The Henry Flower mentioned as the proprietor of Philadelphia's firstcoffee house, was postmaster of the province for a number of years, andit is believed that Ye coffee house also did duty as the post-office fora time. Benjamin Franklin's _Pennsylvania Gazette_, in an issuepublished in 1734, has this advertisement: _All persons who are indebted to Henry Flower, late postmaster of Pennsylvania, for Postage of Letters or otherwise, are desir'd to pay the same to him at the old Coffee House in Philadelphia. _ Flower's advertisement would indicate that Ye coffee house, thenvenerable enough to be designated as old, was still in existence, andthat Flower was to be found there. Franklin also seems to have been inthe coffee business, for in several issues of the _Gazette_ around theyear 1740 he advertised: "Very good coffee sold by the Printer. " _The First London Coffee House_ Philadelphia's second coffee house bore the name of the London coffeehouse, which title was later used for the resort William Bradford openedin 1754. The first house of this name was built in 1702, but there seemsto be some doubt about its location. Writing in the _American HistoricalRegister_, Charles H. Browning says: "William Rodney came toPhiladelphia with Penn in 1682, and resided in Kent County, where hedied in 1708; he built the old London coffee house at Front and MarketStreets in 1702. " Another chronicler gives its location as "above WalnutStreet, either on the east side of Water Street, or on Delaware Avenue, or, as the streets are very close together, it may have been on both. John Shewbert, its proprietor, was a parishioner of Christ Church, andhis establishment was largely patronized by Church of England people. "It was also the gathering place of the followers of Penn and theProprietary party, while their opponents, the political cohorts ofColonel Quarry, frequented Ye coffee house. The first London coffee house resembled a fashionable club house in itslater years, suitable for the "genteel" entertainments of the well-to-doPhiladelphians. Ye coffee house was more of a commercial or publicexchange. Evidence of the gentility of the London is given by JohnWilliam Wallace: The appointments of the London Coffee House, if we may infer what they were from the will of Mrs. Shubert [Shewbert] dated November 27, 1751, were genteel. By that instrument she makes bequest of two silver quart tankards; a silver cup; a silver porringer; a silver pepper pot; two sets of silver castors; a silver soup spoon; a silver sauce spoon, and numerous silver tablespoons and tea spoons, with a silver tea-pot. [Illustration: THE SECOND LONDON COFFEE HOUSE, OPENED IN 1754 BY WILLIAMBRADFORD, THE PRINTER Up to the outbreak of the American Revolution, it was more frequentedthan any other tavern in the Quaker city as a place of resort andentertainment, and was famous throughout the colonies] One of the many historic incidents connected with this old house was thevisit there by William Penn's eldest son, John, in 1733, when heentertained the General Assembly of the province on one day and on thenext feasted the City Corporation. _Roberts' Coffee House_ Another house with some fame in the middle of the eighteenth century wasRoberts' coffee house, which stood in Front Street near the first Londonhouse. Though its opening date is unknown, it is believed to have comeinto existence about 1740. In 1744 a British army officer recruitingtroops for service in Jamaica advertised in the newspaper of the daythat he could be seen at the Widow Roberts' coffee house. During theFrench and Indian War, when Philadelphia was in grave danger of attackby French and Spanish privateers, the citizens felt so great relief whenthe British ship Otter came to the rescue, that they proposed a publicbanquet in honor of the Otter's captain to be held at Roberts' coffeehouse. For some unrecorded reason the entertainment was not given;probably because the house was too small to accommodate all the citizensdesiring to attend. Widow Roberts retired in 1754. _The James Coffee House_ Contemporary with Roberts' coffee house was the resort run first byWidow James, and later by her son, James James. It was established in1744, and occupied a large wooden building on the northwest corner ofFront and Walnut Streets. It was patronized by Governor Thomas and manyof his political followers, and its name frequently appeared in the newsand advertising columns of the _Pennsylvania Gazette_. _The Second London Coffee House_ Probably the most celebrated coffee house in Penn's city was the oneestablished by William Bradford, printer of the _Pennsylvania Journal_. It was on the southwest corner of Second and Market Streets, and wasnamed the London coffee house, the second house in Philadelphia to bearthat title. The building had stood since 1702, when Charles Reed, latermayor of the city, put it up on land which he bought from Letitia Penn, daughter of William Penn, the founder. Bradford was the first to use thestructure for coffee-house purposes, and he tells his reason forentering upon the business in his petition to the governor for alicense: "Having been advised to keep a Coffee House for the benefit ofmerchants and traders, and as some people may at times be desirous to befurnished with other liquors besides coffee, your petitioner apprehendsit is necessary to have the Governor's license. " This would indicatethat in that day coffee was drunk as a refreshment between meals, aswere spirituous liquors for so many years before, and thereafter up to1920. [Illustration: SELLING SLAVES AT THE OLD LONDON COFFEE HOUSE] Bradford's London coffee house seems to have been a joint-stockenterprise, for in his _Journal_ of April 11, 1754, appeared thisnotice: "Subscribers to a public coffee house are invited to meet at theCourthouse on Friday, the 19th instant, at 3 o'clock, to choose trusteesagreeably to the plan of subscription. " The building was a three-story wooden structure, with an attic that somehistorians count as the fourth story. There was a wooden awningone-story high extending out to cover the sidewalk before the coffeehouse. The entrance was on Market (then known as High) Street. The London coffee house was "the pulsating heart of excitement, enterprise, and patriotism" of the early city. The most active citizenscongregated there--merchants, shipmasters, travelers from other coloniesand countries, crown and provincial officers. The governor and personsof equal note went there at certain hours "to sip their coffee from thehissing urn, and some of those stately visitors had their own stalls. "It had also the character of a mercantile exchange--carriages, horses, foodstuffs, and the like being sold there at auction. It is furtherrelated that the early slave-holding Philadelphians sold negro men, women, and children at vendue, exhibiting the slaves on a platform setup in the street before the coffee house. The resort was the barometer of public sentiment. It was in the streetbefore this house that a newspaper published in Barbados, bearing astamp in accordance with the provisions of the stamp act, was publiclyburned in 1765, amid the cheers of bystanders. It was here that CaptainWise of the brig Minerva, from Pool, England, who brought news of therepeal of the act, was enthusiastically greeted by the crowd in May, 1766. Here, too, for several years the fishermen set up May poles. Bradford gave up the coffee house when he joined the newly formedRevolutionary army as major, later becoming a colonel. When the Britishentered the city in September, 1777, the officers resorted to the Londoncoffee house, which was much frequented by Tory sympathizers. After theBritish had evacuated the city, Colonel Bradford resumed proprietorship;but he found a change in the public's attitude toward the old resort, and thereafter its fortunes began to decline, probably hastened by thekeen competition offered by the City tavern, which had been opened a fewyears before. Bradford gave up the lease in 1780, transferring the property to JohnPemberton, who leased it to Gifford Dally. Pemberton was a Friend, andhis scruples about gambling and other sins are well exhibited in theterms of the lease in which said Dally "covenants and agrees andpromises that he will exert his endeavors as a Christian to preservedecency and order in said house, and to discourage the profanation ofthe sacred name of God Almighty by cursing, swearing, etc. , and that thehouse on the first day of the week shall always be kept closed frompublic use. " It is further covenanted that "under a penalty of £100 hewill not allow or suffer any person to use, or play at, or divertthemselves with cards, dice, backgammon, or any other unlawful game. " [Illustration: THE CITY TAVERN, BUILT IN 1773, AND KNOWN AS THEMERCHANTS COFFEE HOUSE The tavern (at the left) was regarded as the largest inn of the coloniesand stood next to the Bank of Pennsylvania (center). From a print madefrom a rare Birch engraving] It would seem from the terms of the lease that what Pemberton thoughtwere ungodly things, were countenanced in other coffee houses of theday. Perhaps the regulations were too strict; for a few years later thehouse had passed into the hands of John Stokes, who used it as dwellingand a store. _City Tavern or Merchants Coffee House_ The last of the celebrated coffee houses in Philadelphia was built in1773 under the name of the City tavern, which later became known as theMerchants coffee house, possibly after the house of the same name thatwas then famous in New York. It stood in Second Street near WalnutStreet, and in some respects was even more noted than Bradford's Londoncoffee house, with which it had to compete in its early days. The City tavern was patterned after the best London coffee houses; andwhen opened, it was looked upon as the finest and largest of its kind inAmerica. It was three stories high, built of brick, and had severallarge club rooms, two of which were connected by a wide doorway that, when open, made a large dining room fifty feet long. Daniel Smith was the first proprietor, and he opened it to the publicearly in 1774. Before the Revolution, Smith had a hard struggle tryingto win patronage from Bradford's London coffee house, standing only afew blocks away. But during and after the war, the City tavern graduallytook the lead, and for more than a quarter of a century was theprincipal gathering place of the city. At first, the house had variousnames in the public mind, some calling it by its proper title, the Citytavern, others attaching the name of the proprietor and designating itas Smith's tavern, while still others used the title, the New tavern. The gentlefolk of the city resorted to the City tavern after theRevolution as they had to Bradford's coffee house before. However, before reaching this high estate, it once was near destruction at thehands of the Tories, who threatened to tear it down. That was when itwas proposed to hold a banquet there in honor of Mrs. George Washington, who had stopped in the city in 1776 while on the way to meet herdistinguished husband, then at Cambridge in Massachusetts, taking overcommand of the American army. Trouble was averted by Mrs. Washingtontactfully declining to appear at the tavern. After peace came, the house was the scene of many of the fashionableentertainments of the period. Here met the City Dancing Assembly, andhere was held the brilliant fête given by M. Gerard, first accreditedrepresentative from France to the United States, in honor of Louis XVI'sbirthday. Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton, and other leaders of publicthought were more or less frequent visitors when in Philadelphia. The exact date when the City tavern became the Merchants coffee house isunknown. When James Kitchen became proprietor, at the beginning of thenineteenth century, it was so called. In 1806 Kitchen turned the houseinto a bourse, or mercantile exchange. By that time clubs and hotels hadcome into fashion, and the coffee-house idea was losing caste with theélite of the city. In the year 1806 William Renshaw planned to open the Exchange coffeehouse in the Bingham mansion on Third Street. He even solicitedsubscriptions to the enterprise, saying that he proposed to keep amarine diary and a registry of vessels for sale, to receive and toforward ships' letter bags, and to have accommodations for holdingauctions. But he was persuaded from the idea, partly by the fact thatthe Merchants coffee house seemed to be satisfactorily filling thatparticular niche in the city life, and partly because the hotel businessoffered better inducements. He abandoned the plan, and opened theMansion House hotel in the Bingham residence in 1807. [Illustration: EXCHANGE COFFEE HOUSE SCENE IN "HAMILTON" In this setting for the first act of the play by Mary P. Hamlin andGeorge Arliss, produced in 1918, the scenic artist aimed to give a truehistorical background, and combined the features of several inns andcoffee houses in Philadelphia, Virginia, and New England as they existedin Washington's first administration] CHAPTER XV THE BOTANY OF THE COFFEE PLANT _Its complete classification by class, sub-class, order, family, genus, and species--How the Coffea arabica grows, flowers, and bears--Other species and hybrids described--Natural caffein-free coffee--Fungoid diseases of coffee_ The coffee tree, scientifically known as _Coffea arabica_, is native toAbyssinia and Ethiopia, but grows well in Java, Sumatra, and otherislands of the Dutch East Indies; in India, Arabia, equatorial Africa, the islands of the Pacific, in Mexico, Central and South America, andthe West Indies. The plant belongs to the large sub-kingdom of plantsknown scientifically as the Angiosperms, or _Angiospermæ_, which meansthat the plant reproduces by seeds which are enclosed in a box-likecompartment, known as the ovary, at the base of the flower. The wordAngiosperm is derived from two Greek words, _sperma_, a seed, and_aggeion_, pronounced angeion, a box, the box referred to being theovary. This large sub-kingdom is subdivided into two classes. The basis forthis division is the number of leaves in the little plant which developsfrom the seed. The coffee plant, as it develops from the seed, has twolittle leaves, and therefore belongs to the class _Dicotyledoneæ_. Thisword _dicotyledoneæ_ is made up of the two Greek words, _di(s)_, two, and _kotyledon_, cavity or socket. It is not necessary to see the youngplant that develops from the seed in order to know that it had two seedleaves; because the mature plant always shows certain characteristicsthat accompany this condition of the seed. In every plant having two seed leaves, the mature leaves arenetted-veined, which is a condition easily recognized even by thelayman; also the parts of the flowers are in circles containing two orfive parts, but never in threes or sixes. The stems of plants of thisclass always increase in thickness by means of a layer of cells known asa cambium, which is a tissue that continues to divide throughout itswhole existence. The fact that this cambium divides as long as it lives, gives rise to a peculiar appearance in woody stems by which we can, onlooking at the stem of a tree of this type when it has been sawedacross, tell the age of the tree. In the spring the cambium produces large open cells through which largequantities of sap can run; in the fall it produces very thick-walledcells, as there is not so much sap to be carried. Because thesethin-walled open cells of one spring are next to the thick-walled cellsof the last autumn, it is very easy to distinguish one year's growthfrom the next; the marks so produced are called annual rings. We have now classified coffee as far as the class; and so far we couldgo if we had only the leaves and stem of the coffee plant. In order toproceed farther, we must have the flowers of the plant, as botanicalclassification goes from this point on the basis of the flowers. Theclass _Dicotyledoneæ_ is separated into sub-classes according to whetherthe flower's corolla (the showy part of the flower which ordinarilygives it its color) is all in one piece, or is divided into a number ofparts. The coffee flower is arranged with its corolla all in one piece, forming a tube-shaped arrangement, and accordingly the coffee plantbelongs to the sub-class _Sympetalæ_, or _Metachlamydeæ_, which meansthat its petals are united. [Illustration: THE COFFEE TREE, SHOWING DETAILS OF FLOWERS AND FRUIT From a drawing by Ch. Emonts in Jardin's _Le Caféier et Le Café_] The next step in classification is to place the plant in the properdivision under the sub-class, which is the order. Plants are separatedinto orders according to their varied characteristics. The coffee plantbelongs to an order known as _Rubiales_. These orders are again dividedinto families. Coffee is placed in the family _Rubiaceæ_, or MadderFamily, in which we find herbs, shrubs or trees, represented by a fewAmerican plants, such as bluets, or Quaker ladies, small blue springflowers, common to open meadows in northern United States; and partridgeberries (_Mitchella repens_). The Madder Family has more foreign representatives than native genera, among which are _Coffea_, _Cinchona_, and _Ipecacuanha_ (_Uragoga_), allof which are of economic importance. The members of this family arenoted for their action on the nervous system. Coffee, as is well known, contains an active principle known as caffein which acts as a stimulantto the nervous system and in small quantities is very beneficial. _Cinchona_ supplies us with quinine, while _Ipecacuanha_ producesipecac, which is an emetic and purgative. The families are divided into smaller sections known as genera, and tothe genus _Coffea_ belongs the coffee plant. Under this genus _Coffea_are several sub-genera, and to the sub-genus _Eucoffea_ belongs ourcommon coffee, _Coffea arabica_. _Coffea arabica_ is the original orcommon Java coffee of commerce. The term "common" coffee may seemunnecessary, but there are many other species of coffee besides_arabica_. These species have not been described very frequently;because their native haunts are the tropics, and the tropics do notalways offer favorable conditions for the study of their plants. All botanists do not agree in their classification of the species andvarieties of the _coffea_ genus. M. E. De Wildman, curator of the royalbotanical gardens at Brussels, in his _Les Plantes Tropicales de GrandeCulture_, says the systematic division of this interesting genus is farfrom finished; in fact, it may be said hardly to be begun. _Coffea arabica_ we know best because of the important rôle it plays incommerce. COMPLETE CLASSIFICATION OF COFFEE Kingdom _Vegetable_Sub-Kingdom _Angiospermæ_Class _Dicotyledoneæ_Sub-class _Sympetalæ or Metachlamydeæ_Order _Rubiales_Family _Rubiaceæ_Genus _Coffea_Sub-genus _Eucoffea_Species _C. Arabica_ The coffee plant most cultivated for its berries is, as already stated, _Coffea arabica_, which is found in tropical regions, although it cangrow in temperate climates. Unlike most plants that grow best in thetropics, it can stand low temperatures. It requires shade when it growsin hot, low-lying districts; but when it grows on elevated land, itthrives without such protection. Freeman[94] says there are about eightrecognized species of _coffea_. [Illustration: DETAILS OF THE GERMINATION OF THE COFFEE PLANT From a drawing by Ch. Emonts in Jardin's _Le Caféier et Le Café_] _Coffea Arabica_ _Coffea arabica_ is a shrub with evergreen leaves, and reaches a heightof fourteen to twenty feet when fully grown. The shrub producesdimorphic branches, _i. E. _, branches of two forms, known as uprights andlaterals. When young, the plants have a main stem, the upright, which, however, eventually sends out side shoots, the laterals. The lateralsmay send out other laterals, known as secondary laterals; but no lateralcan ever produce an upright. The laterals are produced in pairs and areopposite, the pairs being borne in whorls around the stem. The lateralsare produced only while the joint of the upright, to which they areattached, is young; and if they are broken off at that point, theupright has no power to reproduce them. The upright can produce newuprights also; but if an upright is cut off, the laterals at thatposition tend to thicken up. This is very desirable, as the lateralsproduce the flowers, which seldom appear on the uprights. This fact isutilized in pruning the coffee tree, the uprights being cut back, thelaterals then becoming more productive. Planters generally keep theirtrees pruned down to about six feet. The leaves are lanceolate, or lance-shaped, being borne in pairsopposite each other. They are three to six inches in length, with anacuminate apex, somewhat attenuate at the base, with very short petioleswhich are united with the short interpetiolar stipules at the base. Thecoffee leaves are thin, but of firm texture, slightly coriaceous. Theyare very dark green on the upper surface, but much lighter underneath. The margin of the leaf is entire and wavy. In some tropical countriesthe natives brew a coffee tea from the leaves of the coffee tree. [Illustration: BRAZIL COFFEE PLANTATION IN FLOWER] The coffee flowers are small, white, and very fragrant, having adelicate characteristic odor. They are borne in the axils of the leavesin clusters, and several crops are produced in one season, depending onthe conditions of heat and moisture that prevail in the particularseason. The different blossomings are classed as main blossoming andsmaller blossomings. In semi-dry high districts, as in Costa Rica orGuatemala, there is one blossoming season, about March, and flowers andfruit are not found together, as a rule, on the trees. But in lowlandplantations where rain is perennial, blooming and fruiting continuepractically all the year; and ripe fruits, green fruits, open flowers, and flower buds are to be found at the same time on the same branchlet, not mixed together, but in the order indicated. [Illustration: COFFEA ARABICA--PORTO RICO] The flowers are also tubular, the tube of the corolla dividing into fivewhite segments. Dr. P. J. S. Cramer, chief of the division of plantbreeding, Department of Agriculture, Netherlands India, says the numberof petals is not at all constant, not even for flowers of the same tree. The corolla segments are about one-half inch in length, while the tubeitself is about three-eighths of an inch long. The anthers of thestamens, which are five in number, protrude from the top of the corollatube, together with the top of the two-cleft pistil. The calyx, which isso small as to escape notice unless one is aware of its existence, isannular, with small, tooth-like indentations. While the usual color of the coffee flower is white, the fresh stamensand pistils may have a greenish tinge, and in some cultivated speciesthe corolla is pale pink. The size and condition of the flowers are entirely dependent on theweather. The flowers are sometimes very small, very fragrant, and verynumerous; while at other times, when the weather is not hot and dry, they are very large, but not so numerous. Both sets of flowers mentionedabove "set fruit, " as it is called; but at times, especially in a verydry season, they bear flowers that are few in number, small, andimperfectly formed, the petals frequently being green instead of white. These flowers do not set fruit. The flowers that open on a dry sunny dayshow a greater yield of fruit than those that open on a wet day, as thefirst mentioned have a better chance of being pollinated by the insectsand the wind. The beauty of a coffee estate in flower is of a veryfleeting character. One day it is a snowy expanse of fragrant whiteblossoms for miles and miles, as far as the eye can see, and two dayslater it reminds one of the lines from Villon's _Des Dames du TempsJadis_. Where are the snows of yesterday?The winter winds have blown them all away. [Illustration: COFFEA ARABICA, FLOWER AND FRUIT--COSTA RICA] But here, the winter winds are not to blame: the soft, gentle breezes ofthe perpetual summer have wrought the havoc, leaving, however, a notunpleasing picture of dark, cool, mossy green foliage. The flowers are beautiful, but the eye of the planter sees in them notalone beauty and fragrance. He looks far beyond, and in his mind's eyehe sees bags and bags of green coffee, representing to him the goal andreward of all his toil. After the flowers droop, there appear what arecommercially known as the coffee berries. Botanically speaking, "berry"is a misnomer. These little fruits are not berries, such as are wellrepresented by the grape; but are drupes, which are better exemplifiedby the cherry and the peach. In the course of six or seven months, thesecoffee drupes develop into little red balls about the size of anordinary cherry; but, instead of being round, they are somewhatellipsoidal, having at the outer end a small umbilicus. The drupe of thecoffee usually has two locules, each containing a little "stone" (theseed and its parchment covering) from which the coffee bean (seed) isobtained. Some few drupes contain three, while others, at the outer endsof the branches, contain only one round bean, known as the peaberry. Thenumber of pickings corresponds to the different blossomings in the sameseason; and one tree of the species _arabica_ may yield from one totwelve pounds a year. [Illustration: YOUNG COFFEA ARABICA TREE AT KONA, HAWAII] In countries like India and Africa, the birds and monkeys eat the ripecoffee berries. The so-called "monkey coffee" of India, according toArnold, is the undigested coffee beans passed through the alimentarycanal of the animal. [Illustration: SURVIVORS OF THE FIRST LIBERIAN COFFEE TREES INTRODUCEDINTO JAVA IN 1876] The pulp surrounding the coffee beans is at present of no commercialimportance. Although efforts have been made at various times by nativesto use it as a food, its flavor has not gained any great popularity, andthe birds are permitted a monopoly of the pulp as a food. From the humanstandpoint the pulp, or sarcocarp, as it is scientifically called, israther an annoyance, as it must be removed in order to procure thebeans. This is done in one of two ways. The first is known as the drymethod, in which the entire fruit is allowed to dry, and is then crackedopen. The second way is called the wet method; the sarcocarp is removedby machine, and two wet, slimy seed packets are obtained. These packets, which look for all the world like seeds, are allowed to dry in such away that fermentation takes place. This rids them of all the slime; and, after they are thoroughly dry, the endocarp, the so-called parchmentcovering, is easily cracked open and removed. At the same time that theparchment is removed, a thin silvery membrane, the silver skin, beneaththe parchment, comes off, too. There are always small fragments of thissilver skin to be found in the groove of the coffee bean containedwithin the parchment packet. [Illustration: COFFEA ARABICA IN FLOWER ON A JAVA ESTATE From a photograph made at Dramaga, Preanger, Java, in 1907] [Illustration: LIBERIAN COFFEE TREE AT LAMOA, P. I. ] We have said that the coffee tree yields from one to twelve pounds ayear, but of course this varies with the individual tree and also withthe region. In some countries the whole year's yield is less than 200pounds per acre, while there is on record a patch in Brazil which yieldsabout seventeen pounds to the tree, bringing the yield per acre muchhigher. The beans do not retain their vitality for planting for any considerablelength of time; and, if they are thoroughly dried, or are kept forlonger than three or four months, they are useless for that purpose. Ittakes the seed about six weeks to germinate and to appear above ground. Trees raised from seed begin to blossom in about three years; but a goodcrop can not be expected of them for the first five or six years. Theirusefulness, save in exceptional cases, is ended in about thirty years. The coffee tree can be propagated in a way other than by seeds. Theupright branches can be used as slips, which, after taking root, willproduce seed-bearing laterals. The laterals themselves can not be usedas slips. In Central America the natives sometimes use coffee uprightsfor fences and it is no uncommon sight to see the fence posts "growing. " The wood of the coffee tree is used also for cabinet work, as it is muchstronger than many of the native woods, weighing about forty-threepounds to the cubic foot, having a crushing strength of 5, 800 pounds persquare inch, and a breaking strength of 10, 900 pounds per square inch. The propagation of the coffee plant by cutting has two distinctadvantages over propagation by seed, in that it spares the expense ofseed production, which is enormous, and it gives also a method ofhybridization, which, if used, might lead not only to very interestingbut also to very profitable results. [Illustration: TWO-AND-ONE-HALF-YEAR-OLD C. CONGENSIS] The hybridization of the coffee plant was taken up in a thoroughlyscientific manner by the Dutch government at the experimental gardenestablished at Bangelan, Java, in 1900. In his studies, twelve varietiesof _Coffea arabica_ are recognized by Dr. P. J. S. Cramer[95], namely: _Laurina_, a hybrid of _Coffea arabica_ with C. _mauritiana_, having small narrow leaves, stiff, dense branches, young leaves almost white, berry long and narrow, and beans narrow and oblong. _Murta_, having small leaves, dense branches, beans as in the typical _Coffea arabica_, and the plant able to stand bitter cold. _Menosperma_, a distinct type, with narrow leaves and bent-down branches resembling a willow, the berries seldom containing more than one seed. [Illustration: A HEAVY FLOWERING OF FIVE-YEAR-OLD COFFEA EXCELSA This is a comparatively new species, discovered in the Tchad Lakedistrict of West Africa in 1905. It is a small-beaned variety of _Coffealiberica_] [Illustration: BRANCHES OF COFFEA EXCELSA GROWN AT THE LAMAO EXPERIMENTSTATION, P. I. ] _Mokka_ (_Coffea Mokkæ_), having small leaves, dense foliage, small round berries, small round beans resembling split peas, and possessed of a stronger flavor than _Coffea arabica_. _Purpurescens_, a red-leaved variety, comparable with the red-leaved hazel and copper beech, a little less productive than the _Coffea arabica_. _Variegata_, having variegated leaves striped and spotted with white. _Amarella_, having yellow berries, comparable with the white-fruited variety of the strawberry, raspberry, etc. _Bullata_, having broad, curled leaves; stiff, thick, fragile branches, and round, fleshy berries containing a high percentage of empty beans. _Angustifolia_, a narrow-leaved variety, with berries somewhat more oblong and, like the foregoing, a poor producer. _Erecta_, a variety that is sturdier than the typical _arabica_, better suited to windy places, and having a production as in the common _arabica_. _Maragogipe_, a well-defined variety with light green leaves having colored edges: berries large, broad, sometimes narrower in the middle; a light bearer, the whole crop sometimes being reduced to a couple of berries per tree. [96] [Illustration: C. STENOPHYLLA, FROM WHICH IS OBTAINED THE HIGHLANDCOFFEE OF SIERRA LEONE] _Columnaris_, a vigorous variety, sometimes reaching a height of 25 feet, having leaves rounded at the base and rather broad, but a shy bearer, recommended for dry climates. _Coffea Stenophylla_ _Coffea arabica_ has a formidable rival in the species _stenophylla_. The flavor of this variety is pronounced by some as surpassing that of_arabica_. The great disadvantage of this plant is the fact that itrequires so long a time before a yield of any value can be secured. Although the time required for the maturing of the crop is so long, whenonce the plantation begins to yield, the crop is as large as that of_Coffea arabica_, and occasionally somewhat larger. The leaves aresmaller than any of the species described, and the flowers bear theirparts in numbers varying from six to nine. The tree is a native ofSierra Leone, where it grows wild. [Illustration: Copyright, 1909, by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal NEAR VIEW OF COFFEE BERRIES OF COFFEA ARABICA] _Coffea Liberica_ The bean of _Coffea arabica_, although the principal bean used incommerce, is not the only one; and it may not be out of place here todescribe briefly some of the other varieties that are producedcommercially. _Coffea liberica_ is one of these plants. The quality ofthe beverage made from its berries is inferior to that of _Coffeaarabica_, but the plant itself offers distinct advantages in its hardygrowing qualities. This makes it attractive for hybridization. [Illustration: WILD "CAFFEIN-FREE" COFFEE TREE _Mantsaka_ or _Café Sauvage_--Madagascar] The _Coffea liberica_ tree is much larger and sturdier than the _Coffeaarabica_, and in its native haunts it reaches a height of 30 feet. Itwill grow in a much more torrid climate and can stand exposure to strongsunlight. The leaves are about twice as long as those of _arabica_, being six to twelve inches in length, and are very thick, tough, andleathery. The apex of the leaf is acute. The flowers are larger thanthose of _arabica_, and are borne in dense clusters. At any time duringthe season, the same tree may bear flowers, white or pinkish, andfragrant, or even green, together with fruits, some green, some ripe andof a brilliant red. The corolla has been known to have seven segments, though as a rule it has five. The fruits are large, round, and dull red;the pulps are not juicy, and are somewhat bitter. Unlike _Coffeaarabica_, the ripened drupes do not fall from the trees, and so thepicking can be delayed at the planter's convenience. [Illustration: DIFFERENTIATING CHARACTERISTICS OF COFFEE BEANS, INCROSS-SECTION Col. I. Mature bean. Col. II. Embryo. _A. Coffea arabica, R. Coffea robusta, L. Coffea liberica_] Among the allied Liberian species Dr. Cramer recognizes: _Abeokutæ_, having small leaves of a bright green, flower buds often pink just before opening (in Liberian coffee never), fruit smaller with sharply striped red and yellow shiny skin, and producing somewhat smaller beans than Liberian coffee, but beans whose flavor and taste are praised by brokers; _Dewevrei_, having curled edged leaves, stiff branches, thick-skinned berries, sometimes pink flowers, beans generally smaller than in _C. Liberica_, but of little interest to the trade; _Arnoldiana_, a species near to _Coffea Abeokutæ_ having darker foliage and the even colored small berries; _Laurentii Gillet_, a species not to be confused with the _C. Laurentii_ belonging to the _robusta_ coffee, but standing near to _C. Liberica_, characterized by oblong rather than thin-skinned berries; _Excelsa_, a vigorous, disease-resisting species discovered in 1905 by Aug. Chevalier in West Africa, in the region of the Chari River, not far from Lake Tchad. The broad, dark-green leaves have an under side of light green with a bluish tinge; the flowers are large and white, borne in axillary clusters of one to five; the berries are short and broad, in color crimson, the bean smaller than _robusta_, very like _Mocha_, but in color a bright yellow like _liberica_. The caffein content of the coffee is high, and the aroma is very pronounced; _Dybowskii_, another disease-resisting variety similar to _excelsa_, but having different leaf and fruit characteristics; _Lamboray_, having bent gutter-like leaves, and soft-skinned, oblong fruit; _Wanni Rukula_, having large leaves, a vigorous growth, and small berries; _Coffea aruwimensis_, being a mixture of different types. [Illustration: COFFEA ARABICA BERRIES GROWN IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS] The last three types were received by Dr. Cramer at Bangelan from FrèreGillet in the Belgian Congo, and were still under trial in Java in 1919. _Coffea Robusta_ Emil Laurent, in 1898, discovered a species of coffee growing wild inCongo. This was taken up by a horticultural firm of Brussels, andcultivated for the market. This firm gave to the coffee the name _Coffearobusta_, although it had already been given the name of the discoverer, being known as _Coffea Laurentii_. The plant differs widely from both_arabica_ and _liberica_, being considerably larger than either. Thetree is umbrella-shaped, due to the fact that its branches are very longand bend toward the ground. The leaves of _robusta_ are much thinner than those of _liberica_, though not as thin as those of _arabica_. The tree, as a whole, is avery hardy variety and even bears blossoms when it is less than a yearold. It blossoms throughout the entire year, the flowers havingsix-parted corollas. The drupes are smaller than those of _liberica;_but are much thinner skinned, so that the coffee bean is actually notany smaller. The drupes mature in ten months. Although the plants bearas early as the first year, the yield for the first two years is of noaccount; but by the fourth year the crop is large. [Illustration: ROBUSTA COFFEE IN FLOWER, PREANGER, JAVA] [Illustration: COFFEE ESTATE IN THE LUQUILLO MOUNTAINS, PORTO RICO] [Illustration: JAPANESE LABORERS PICKING COFFEE ON KONA SIDE, ISLAND OFHAWAII] [Illustration: COFFEE UNDER THE STARS AND STRIPES] Arno Viehoever, pharmacognosist in charge of the pharmacognosylaboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department ofAgriculture, has recently announced findings confirming Hartwich whichappear to permit of differentiation between _robusta, arabica_, and_liberica_. [97] These are mainly the peculiar folding of the endosperm, showing quite generally a distinct hook in the case of the _robusta_coffee bean. The size of the embryo, and especially the relation of therootlet to hypercotyl, will be found useful in the differentiation ofthe species _Coffea arabica, liberica_, and _robusta_ (see cut, page142). [Illustration: ONE-YEAR-OLD ROBUSTA ESTATE, ON SUMATRA'S WEST COAST] Viehoever and Lepper carried on a series of cup tests of _robusta_, theresults as to taste and flavor being distinctly favorable. Theysummarized their studies and tests as follows: The time when coffee could be limited to beans obtained from plants of _Coffea arabica_ and _Coffea liberica_ has passed. Other species, with qualities which make them desirable, even in preference to the well reputed named ones, have been discovered and cultivated. Among them, the species or group of _Coffea robusta_ has attained a great economic significance, and is grown in increasing amounts. While it has, as reports seem to indicate, not as yet been possible to obtain a strain that would be as desirable in flavor as the old "standard" _Coffea_ _arabica_, well known as Java or "Fancy Java" coffee, its merits have been established. The botanical origin is not quite cleared up, and the classification of the varieties belonging to the _robusta_ group deserves further study. Anatomical means of differentiating _robusta_ coffee from other species or groups, may be applied as distinctly helpful.... As is usual in most of the coffee species, caffein is present. The amount appears to be, on an average, somewhat larger (even exceeding 2. 0 percent) than in the South American coffee species. In no instance, however, did the amount exceed the maximum limits observed in coffee in general.... Due to its rapid growth, early and prolific yield, resistance to coffee blight, and many other desirable qualities, _Coffea robusta_ has established "its own". In the writers' judgment, _robusta_ coffee deserves consideration and recognition. Among the _robusta_ varieties, _Coffea canephora_ is a distinct species, well characterized by growth, leaves, and berries. The branches areslender and thinner than _robusta_; the leaves are dark green andnarrower; the flowers are often tinged with red; the unripe berries arepurple, the ripe berries bright red and oblong. The produce is like_robusta_, only the shape of the bean, somewhat narrower and moreoblong, makes it look more attractive. _Coffea canephora_, like _C. Robusta_, seems better fitted to higher altitudes. Other _canephora_ varieties include: _Madagascar_, having small, slightly striped, bright red berries andsmall round beans; _Quillouensis_, having dark green foliage and reddish brown youngleaves; and, _Stenophylla Paris_, with purplish young berries. These last two named were under test at the Bangelan gardens in 1919. Among other allied _robusta_ species are: _Ugandæ_:, whose produce is said to possess a better flavor than_robusta_; _Bukobensis_, different from _Ugandæ_ in the color of its berries, whichare a dark red; and _Quillou_, having bright red fruit, a copper-colored silver skin, threepounds of fruit producing one pound of market coffee. Some people prefer_Quillou_ to _robusta_ because of the difference in the taste of theroasted bean. _Some Interesting Hybrids_ The most popular hybrid belongs to a crossing of _liberica_ and_arabica_. Cramer states that the beans of this hybrid make an excellentcoffee combining the strong taste of the _liberica_ with the fine flavorof the old Government Java _(arabica_), adding: The hybrids are not only of value to the roaster, but also to the planter. They are vigorous trees, practically free from leaf disease; they stand drought well and also heavy rains; they are not particular in regard to shade and upkeep; never fail to give a fair and often a rather heavy crop. The fruit ripens all the year around, and does not fall so easily as in the case of _arabica_. Among other hybrids (many were still under trial in 1919) may bementioned: _Coffea excelsia x liberica_; _C. Abeokutæ x liberica_; _C. Dybowskii x excelsa_; _C. Stenophylla x Abeokutæ_; _C. Congensis xUgandæ_; _C. Ugandæ x congensis_; and _C. Robusta x Maragogipe_. There are many species of _Coffea_ that stand quite apart from the maingroups, _arabica, robusta_ and _liberica_; but while some are ofcommercial value, most of them are interesting only from the scientificpoint of view. Among the latter may be mentioned: _Coffea bengalensis_, _C. Perieri_, _C. Mauritiana_, _C. Macrocarpa_, _C. Madagascariensis_, and _C. Schumanniana_. [Illustration: COFFEA QUILLOU FLOWERS IN FULL BLOOM] M. Teyssonnier, of the experimental garden at Camayenne, French Guinea, West Africa, has produced a promising species of coffee known as_affinis_. It is a hybrid of _C. Stenophylla_ with a species of_liberica_. Among other promising species recognized by Dr. Cramer are: _Coffea congensis_, whose berry resembles that of _C. Arabica_, whenwell prepared for the market being green or bluish; and _Coffea congensis var. Chalotii_, probably a hybrid of _C. Congensis_with _C. Canephora_. _Caffein-free Coffee_ Certain trees growing wild in the Comoro Islands and Madagascar areknown as caffein-free coffee trees. Just whether they are entitled tothis classification or not is a question. Some of the French and Germaninvestigators have reported coffee from these regions that wasabsolutely devoid of caffein. It was thought at first that they mustrepresent an entirely new genus; but upon investigation, it was foundthat they belonged to the genus _Coffea_, to which all our commoncoffees belong. Professor Dubard, of the French National Museum andColonial Garden, studied these trees botanically and classified them as_C. Gallienii_, _C. Bonnieri_, _C. Mogeneti_, and _C. Augagneuri_. Thebeans of berries from these trees were analyzed by Professor Bertrandand pronounced caffein-free; but Labroy, in writing of the same coffee, states that, while the bean is caffein-free, it contains a very bittersubstance, cafamarine, which makes the infusion unfit for use. Dr. O. W. Willcox[98], in examining some specimens of wild coffee from Madagascar, found that the bean was not caffein-free; and though the caffein contentwas low, it was no lower than in some of the Porto Rican varieties. Hartwich[99] reports that Hanausek found no caffein in _C. Mauritiana_, _C. Humboltiana_, _C. Gallienii_, _C. Bonnerii_, and _C. Mogeneti_. _Fungoid Disease of Coffee_ The coffee tree, like every other living thing, has specific diseasesand enemies, the most common of which are certain fungoid diseases wherethe mycelium of the fungus grows into the tissue and spots the leaves, eventually causing them to fall, thus robbing the plant of its onlymeans of elaborating food. Its most deadly enemy in the insect world isa small insect of the lepidopterous variety, which is known as thecoffee-leaf miner. It is closely related to the clothes moth and, likethe moth, bores in its larval stage, feeding on the mesophyl of theleaves. This gives the leaves an appearance of being shriveled or driedby heat. [Illustration: AN EIGHTEEN-MONTHS'-OLD COFFEA QUILLOU TREE IN BLOSSOM] There are three principal diseases, due to fungi, from which the coffeeplants suffer. The most common is known as the leaf-blight fungus, _Pellicularia tokeroga_, which is a slow-spreading disease, but one thatcauses great loss. Although the fungus does not produce spores, theleaves die and dry, and are blown away, carrying with them the driedmycelium of the fungus. This mycelium will start to grow as soon as itis supplied with a new moist coffee leaf to nourish it. The method ofgetting rid of this disease is to spray the trees in seasons of drought. It was a fungoid disease known as the _Hemileia vastatrix_ that attackedCeylon's coffee industry in 1869, and eventually destroyed it. It is amicroscopic fungus whose spores, carried by the wind, adhere to andgerminate upon the leaves of the coffee tree[100]. Another common disease is known as the root disease, which eventuallykills the tree by girdling it below the soil. It spreads slowly, butseems to be favored by collections of decaying matter around the base ofthe tree. Sometimes the digging of ditches around the roots issufficient to protect it. The other common disease is due to _Stilbiumflavidum_, and is found only in regions of great humidity. It affectsboth the leaf and the fruit and is known as the spot of leaf and fruit. [Illustration: COFFEA UGANDÆ BENT OVER BY A HEAVY CROP] CHAPTER XVI THE MICROSCOPY OF THE COFFEE FRUIT _How the beans may be examined under the microscope, and what is revealed--Structure of the berry, the green, and the roasted bean--The coffee leaf disease under the microscope--Value of microscopic analysis in detecting adulteration_ The microscopy of coffee is, on the whole, more important to the planterthan to the consumer and the dealer; while, on the other hand, themicroscopy is of paramount importance to the consumer and the dealer asfurnishing the best means of determining whether the product offered isadulterated or not. Also, from this standpoint, the microscopy of theplant is less important than that of the bean. [Illustration: Fig. 331. Coffee (_Coffea arabica_). I--Cross-section ofberry, natural size; _Pk_, outer pericarp; _Mk_, endocarp; _Ek_, spermoderm; _Sa_, hard endosperm; Sp, soft endosperm. II--Longitudinalsection of berry, natural size; _Dis_, bordered disk; _Se_, remains ofsepals; _Em_, embryo. III--Embryo, enlarged; _cot_, cotyledon; _rad_, radicle. (Tschirch and Oesterle. )] _The Fruit and the Bean_ The fruit, as stated in chapter XV, consists of two parts, each onecontaining a single seed, or bean. These beans are flattened laterally, so as to fit together, except in the following instances: in thepeaberry, where one of the ovules never develops, the single ovule, having no pressure upon it, is spherical; in the rare instances wherethree seeds are found, the grains are angular. The coffee bean with which the consumer is familiar is only a small partof the fruit. The fruit, which is the size of a small cherry, has, likethe cherry, an outer fleshy portion called the pericarp. Beneath this isa part like tissue paper, spoken of technically as the parchment, butknown scientifically as the endocarp. Next in position to this, andcovering the seed, is the so-called spermoderm, which means the seedskin, referred to in the trade as the silver skin. Small portions ofthis silver skin are always to be found in the cleft of the coffee bean. The coffee bean is the embryo and its food supply; the embryo is thatpart of the seed which, when supplied with food and moisture, developsinto a new plant. The embryo of the coffee is very minute (Fig. 331, II, _Em_)[101]; and the greater part of the seed is taken up by the foodsupply, consisting of hard and soft endosperm (Fig. 331, I and II, _Sa_, _Sp_). The minute embryo consists of two small thick leaves, thecotyledons (Fig. 331, III, _cot_), a short stem, invisible in theundissected embryo, and a small root, the radicle (Fig. 331, III, _rad_). [Illustration: Fig. 332. Coffee. Cross section of bean showing foldedendosperm with hard and soft tissues. X6. (Moeller)] _Fruit Structure_ In order to examine the structure of these layers of the fruit under themicroscope, it is necessary to use the pericarp dry, as it is not easilyobtainable in its natural condition. If desired, an alcoholic specimenmay be used, but it has been found that the dry method gives moresatisfactory results. The dried pericarp is about 0. 5 mm thick. Greatdifficulty is experienced in cutting microtome sections of pericarp whenthe specimen is embedded in paraffin, because the outer layers are softand the endocarp is hard, and the two parts of the section separate atthis point. To overcome this, the sections might also be embedded incelloidin. When the sections are satisfactory, they may be stained withany of the double stains ordinarily used in the study of planthistology. [Illustration: Fig. 333. Coffee. Cross section of hull and bean. Pericarp consists of: 1, epicarp; 2-3, layers of mesocarp, with 4, fibro-vascular bundle; 5, palisade layer; and 6, endocarp; _ss_, spermoderm, consists of 8, sclerenchyma, and 9, parenchyma; _End_, endosperm (Tschirch and Oesterle)] A section cut crosswise through the entire fruit would present theappearance shown in Fig. 333. The cells of the epicarp are broad andpolygonal, sometimes regularly four-sided, about 15-35 µ broad. Atintervals along the surface of the epicarp are stomata, or breathingpores, surrounded by guard cells. The next layer of the pericarp is themesocarp (Figs. 333, 334, 335), the cells of which are larger and moreregular in outline than the epicarp. The cells of the mesocarp become aslarge as 100 µ broad, but in the inner parts of the layer they becomevery much flattened. Fibrovascular bundles are scattered through thecompressed cells of the mesocarp. The cell walls are thick; and large, amorphous, brown masses are found within the cell; occasionally, largecrystals are found in the outer part of the layer. The fibro-vascularbundles consist mainly of bast and wood fibers and vessels. The bastfibers are as large as 1 mm long and 25 µ broad, with thick walls andvery small _lumina_. Spiral and pitted vessels are also present. [Illustration: Fig. 334. Coffee. Surface view of _ep_, epicarp, and _p_, outer parenchyma of mesocarp. X160. (Moeller)] The layer next to this is a soft tissue, parenchyma (Fig. 333, 5; Fig. 334, _p_). The parenchyma, or palisade cells as they are called, is athin-walled tissue in which the cells are elongated, from which factthey receive their name. The walls of these cells, though very thin, aremucilaginous, and capable of taking up large amounts of water. Theystain well with the aniline stains. The endocarp (Fig. 336) is closely connected with the palisade layer andhas thin-walled cells that closely resemble, in all respects, theendocarp of the apple. The outer layer consists of thick-walled fibers, which are remarkably porous (Fig. 333, 6; Fig. 336) while the fibers ofthe inner layer are thin-walled and run in the transverse direction. _The Bean Structure_ Spermoderm, or silver skin, is not difficult to secure for microscopicanalysis; because shreds of it remain in the groove of the berry, andthese shreds are ample for examination. It can readily be removedwithout tearing, if soaked in water for a few hours. The spermoderm isthin enough not to need sectioning. It consists of twoelements--sclerenchyma and parenchyma cells. (Figs. 333, 337, _st_, _p_). [Illustration: Fig. 335. Coffee. Elements of pericarp in surface view. _p_, parenchyma; _bp_, parenchyma of fibro-vascular bundle; _b_, bastfiber; _sp_, spiral vessel. X160. (Moeller)] Sclerenchyma forms an uninterrupted covering in the early stages of theseed; but as the seed develops, surrounding tissues grow more rapidlythan the sclerenchyma, and the cells are pushed apart and scattered. Thecells occurring in the cleft of the berry are straight, narrow, andlong, becoming as long as 1 mm, and resemble bast fibers somewhat. Onthe surface of the berry, and sometimes in the cleft, there are foundsmaller, thicker cells, which are irregular in outline, club-shaped andvermiform types predominating. Parenchyma cells form the remainder of the spermoderm; and these arepartially obliterated, so that the structure is not easily seen, appearing almost like a solid membrane. The raphe runs through theparenchyma found in the cleft of the berry. The endosperm (Figs. 333; 338) consist of small cells in the outer part, and large cells, frequently as thick as 100 µ, in the inner part. Thecell walls are thickened and knotted. Certain of the inner cells havemucilaginous walls which when treated with water disappear, leaving onlythe middle lamellae, which gives the section a peculiar appearance. Thecells contain no starch, the reserve food supply being stored cellulose, protein, and aleurone grains. Various investigators report the presenceof sugar, tannin, iron, salts, and caffein. The embryo (Fig. 331, III) may be obtained by soaking the bean in waterfor several hours, cutting through the cleft and carefully breakingapart the endosperm. If it is now soaked in diluted alkali, the embryoprotrudes through the lower end of the endosperm. It is then cleared inalkali, or in chloral hydrate. The cotyledons shown have three pairs ofveins, which are slightly netted. The radicle is blunt and is about 3/4mm in length, while the cotyledons are 1/2 mm long. [Illustration: Fig. 336. Coffee. Sclerenchyma fibers of endocarp. X160. (Moeller)] _The Coffee-Leaf Disease_ The coffee tree has many pests and diseases; but the disease most fearedby planters is that generally referred to as the coffee-leaf disease, and by this is meant the fungoid _Hemileia vastatrix_, which as told inchapter XV, destroyed Ceylon's once prosperous coffee industry. As ithas since been found in nearly all coffee-producing countries, it hasbecome a nightmare in the dreams of all coffee planters. The microscopeshows how the spores of this dreaded fungus, carried by the winds upon aleaf of the coffee tree, proceed to germinate at the expense of theleaf; robbing it of its nourishment, and causing it to droop and to die. A mixture of powdered lime and sulphur has been found to be an effectivegermicide, if used in time and diligently applied. [Illustration: Fig. 337. Coffee. Spermoderm in surface view. _st. _sclerenchyma; _p_, compressed parenchyma. X160. (Moeller)] [Illustration: Fig. 338. Coffee. Cross-section of outer layers ofendosperm, showing knotty thickenings of cell walls. X160. (Moeller)] [Illustration: Fig. 339. Coffee. Tissues of embryo in section. X160. (Moeller)] _Value of Microscopic Analysis_ The value of the microscopic analysis of coffee may not be apparent atfirst sight; but when one realizes that in many cases the microscopicexamination is the only way to detect adulteration in coffee, itsimportance at once becomes apparent. In many instances the chemicalanalysis fails to get at the root of the trouble, and then the onlymethod to which the tester has recourse is the examination of thesuspected material under the scope. The mixing of chicory with coffeehas in the past been one of the commonest forms of adulteration. Themicroscopic examination in this connection is the most reliable. Thecoffee grain will have the appearance already described. Microscopically, chicory shows numerous thin-walled parenchymatouscells, lactiferous vessels, and sieve tubes with transverse plates. There are also present large vessels with huge, well-defined pits. [Illustration: COFFEE LEAF DISEASE (HEMILEIA VASTATRIX) 1. Under surface of affected leaf, x 1/2; 2, section through sameshowing mycelium, haustoria, and a spore-cluster; 3, a spore-clusterseen from below; 4, a uredospore; 5, germinating uredospore; 6, appressorial swellings at tips of germ-tubes; 7, infection through stomaof leaf; 8, teleutospores; 9, teleutospore germinating with promyceliumand sporidia; 10, sporidia and their germination (2 after Zimmermann, 3after Delacroix, 4-10 after Ward)] Roasted date stones have been used as adulterants, and these can bedetected quite readily with the aid of the microscope, as they have avery characteristic microscopic appearance. The epidermal cells arealmost oblong, while the parenchymatous cells are large, irregular andcontain large quantities of tannin. Adulteration and adulterants are considered more fully in chapter XVII. [Illustration: GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE UNDER THE MICROSCOPE Green bean, showing the size and form of the cells as well as the dropsof oil contained within their cavities. Drawn with the camera lucida, and magnified 140 diameters. A fragment of roasted coffee under the microscope. Drawn with the cameralucida, and magnified 140 diameters. ] [Illustration: BOGOTA, GREEN Longitudinal--Magnified 200 diameters] [Illustration: BOGOTA, GREEN Cross Section--Magnified 200 diameters] [Illustration: BOGOTA, GREEN Tangential--Magnified 200 diameters] [Illustration: BOGOTA, ROASTED Tangential--Magnified 200 diameters] [Illustration: GREEN AND ROASTED BOGOTA COFFEE UNDER THE MICROSCOPE These pictures serve to demonstrate that the coffee bean is made up ofminute cells that are not broken down to any extent by the roastingprocess. Note that the oil globules are more prominent in the green thanin the roasted product] CHAPTER XVII THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COFFEE BEAN _Chemistry of the preparation and treatment of the green bean--Artificial aging--Renovating damaged coffees--Extracts--"Caffetannic acid"--Caffein, caffein-free coffee--Caffeol--Fats and oils--Carbohydrates--Roasting--Scientific aspects of grinding and packaging--The coffee brew--Soluble coffee--Adulterants and substitutes--Official methods of analysis_ By Charles W. Trigg Industrial Fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, 1916-1920 When the vast extent of the coffee business is considered, together withthe intimate connection which coffee has with the daily life of theaverage human, the relatively small amount of accurate knowledge whichwe possess regarding the chemical constituents and the physiologicalaction of coffee is productive of amazement. True, a painstaking compilation of all the scientific andsemi-scientific work done upon coffee furnishes quite a compendium ofdata, the value of which is not commensurate with its quantity, becauseof the spasmodic nature of the investigations and the non-conclusivecharacter of the results so far obtained. The following general surveyof the field argues in favor of the promulgation of well-ordered andsystematic research, of the type now in progress at several places inthe United States, into the chemical behavior of coffee throughout thevarious processes to which it is subjected in the course of itspreparation for human consumption. _Green Coffee_ One of the few chemical investigations of the growing tree is theexamination by Graf of flowers from 20-year-old coffee trees, in whichhe found 0. 9 percent caffein, a reducing sugar, caffetannic acid, andphytosterol. Power and Chestnut[102] found 0. 82 percent caffein inair-dried coffee leaves, but only 0. 087 percent of the alkaloid in thestems of the plant separated from the leaves. In the course of astudy[103] instituted for the purpose of determining the bestfertilizers for coffee trees, it developed that the cherries indifferent stages of growth show a preponderance of potash throughout, while the proportion of P_2_O_5 attains a maximum in the fourth monthand then steadily declines. Experiments are still in progress to ascertain the precise mineralrequirements of the crop as well as the most suitable stage at which toapply them. During the first five months the moisture content undergoesa steady decrease, from 87. 13 percent to 65. 77 percent, but during thefinal ripening stage in the last month there is a rise of nearly 1percent. This may explain the premature falling and failure to ripen ofthe crop on certain soils, especially in years of low rainfall. Malnutrition of the trees may result also in the production of oilybeans. [104] The coffee berry comprises about 68 percent pulp, 6 percent parchment, and 26 percent clean coffee beans. The pulp is easily removed bymechanical means; but in order to separate the soft, glutinous, saccharine parchment, it is necessary to resort to fermentation, whichloosens the skin so that it may be removed easily, after which thecoffee is properly dried and aged. There is first a yeast fermentationproducing alcohol; and then a bacterial action giving mainly inactivelactic acid, which is the main factor in loosening the parchment. Forthe production of the best coffee, acetic acid fermentation (whichchanges the color of the bean) and temperature above 60° should beavoided, as these inhibit subsequent enzymatic action. [105] Various schemes have been proposed for utilizing the large amount ofpulp so obtained in preparing coffee for market. Most of these dependupon using the pulp as fertilizer, since fresh pulp contains 2. 61percent nitrogen, 0. 81 percent P_2_O_5, 2. 38 percent potassium, and0. 57 percent calcium. One procedure[106] in particular is to mix pulpwith sawdust, urine, and a little lime, and then to leave this mixturecovered in a pit for a year before using. In addition to these mineralmatters, the pulp also contains about 0. 88 percent of caffein and 18 to37 percent sugars. Accordingly, it has been proposed[107] to extract thecaffein with chloroform, and the sugars with acidulated water. Theaqueous solution so obtained is then fermented to alcohol. The insolubleportion left after extraction can be used as fuel, and the resulting ashas fertilizer. The pulp has been dried and roasted for use in place of the berry, andhas been imported to England for this purpose. It is stated that theArabs in the vicinity of Jiddah discard the kernel of the coffee berriesand make an infusion of the husk. [108] Quality of green coffee is largely dependent upon the methods used andthe care taken in curing it, and upon the conditions obtaining inshipment and storage. True, the soil and climatic conditions play adeterminative rôle in the creation of the characteristics of coffee, butthese do not offer any greater opportunity for constructive research andremunerative improvement than does the development of methods andcontrol in the processes employed in the preparation of green coffee forthe market. [Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF THE ENDOSPERM OR HARD STRUCTURE OF THEGREEN BEAN] Storage prior and subsequent to shipment, and circumstances existingduring transportation, are not to be disregarded as factors contributoryto the final quality of the coffee. The sweating of mules carrying bagsof poorly packed coffee, and the absorption of strong foreign aromas andflavors from odoriferous substances stored in too close proximity to thecoffee beans, are classic examples of damage that bear iterativemention. Damage by sea water, due more to the excessive moisture than tothe salt, is not so common an occurrence now as heretofore. However, acheap and thoroughly effective means of ethically renovating coffeewhich has been damaged in this manner would not go begging forcommercial application. That green coffee improves with age, is a tenet generally accepted bythe trade. Shipments long in transit, subjected to the effects oftropical heat under closely battened hatches in poorly ventilated holds, have developed into much-prized yellow matured coffee. Were it not forthe large capital required and the attendant prohibitive carryingcharges, many roasters would permit their coffees to age more thoroughlybefore roasting. In fact, some roasters do indulge this desire in regardto a portion of their stock. But were it feasible to treat and holdcoffees long enough to develop their attributes to a maximum, still theexact conditions which would favor such development are not definitelyknown. What are the optimum temperature and the correct humidity tomaintain, and should the green coffee be well ventilated or not while instorage? How long should coffee be stored under the most favorableconditions best to develop it? Aging for too long a period will developflavor at the expense of body; and the general cup efficiency of somecoffees will suffer if they be kept too long. [Illustration: PORTION OF THE INVESTING MEMBRANE, SHOWING ITS STRUCTURE Drawn with the camera lucida, and magnified 140 diameters] The exact reason for improvement upon aging is in no wise certain, butit is highly probable that the changes ensuing are somewhat analogous tothose occurring in the aging of grain. Primarily an undefined enzymaticand mold action most likely occurs, the nature of the enzymes and moldsbeing largely dependent upon the previous treatment of the coffee. Alongwith this are a loss of moisture and an oxidation, all three actionshaving more evident effects with the passage of time. _Artificial Aging_ In consideration of the higher prices which aged products demand, attempts have naturally been made to shorten by artificial means thetime necessary for their natural production. Some of these methodsdepend upon obtaining the most favorable conditions for acceleration ofthe enzyme action; others, upon the effects of micro-organisms; andstill others, upon direct chemical reaction or physical alteration ofthe green bean. One of the first efforts toward artificial maturing was that ofAshcroft[109], who argued from the improved nature of coffee which hadexperienced a delayed voyage. His method consisted of inclosing thecoffee in sweat-boxes having perforated bottoms and subjecting it to thesweating action of steam, the boxes being enclosed in an oven or roommaintained at the temperature of steam. [Illustration: STRUCTURE OF THE GREEN BEAN Showing thick-walled cells enclosing drops of oil] Timby[110] claimed to remove dusts, foreign odors, and impurities, whileattaining in a few hours or days a ripening effect normally secured onlyin several seasons. In this process, the bagged coffee is placed inautoclaves and subjected to the action of air at a pressure of 2 to 3atmospheres and a temperature of 40° to 100° F. The temperature shouldseldom be allowed to rise above 150° F. The pressure is then allowed toescape and a partial vacuum created in the apparatus. This alteration ofpressure and vacuum is continued until the desired maturation isobtained. Desvignes[111] employs a similar procedure, although heaccomplishes seasoning by treating the coffee also with oxygen orozone. [112] First the coffee is rendered porous by storage in a hotchamber, which is then exhausted prior to admission of the oxygen. Theoxygen can be ozonized in the closed vessel while in contact with thecoffee. Complete aging in a few days is claimed. Weitzmann[113] adopts a novel operation, by exposing bags of raw coffeeto the action of a powerful magnetic field, obtained with two adjustableelectro-magnets. The claim that a maturation naturally produced inseveral years is thus obtained in 1/2 to 2 hours is open to considerabledoubt. A process that is probably attended with more commercial successis that of Gram[114] in which the coffee is treated with gaseousnitrogen dioxid. By far the most notable progress in this field, both scientifically andcommercially, has been made by Robison[115] with his "culturing" method. Here the green coffee is washed with water, and then inoculated withselected strains of micro-organisms, such as _Ochraeceus_ or_Aspergillus Wintii_. Incubation is then conducted for 6 to 7 days at90° F. And 85 percent relative humidity. Subsequent to this incubation, the coffee is stored in bins for about ten days; after which it istumbled and scoured. With this process it is possible to improve thecupping qualities of a coffee to a surprising degree. _Renovating Damaged Coffees_ Sophistication has often been resorted to in order ostensibly to improvedamaged or cheap coffee. Glazing, coloring, and polishing of the greenbeans was openly and covertly practised until restricted by law. Thesteps employed did not actually improve the coffee by any means, butmerely put it into condition for more ready sale. An apparently sincereendeavor to renovate damaged coffee was made by Evans[116] when hetreated it with an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid having a densityof 10. 5° Baumé. After agitation in this solution, the beans were washedfree from acid and dried. In this manner discolorations and impuritieswere removed and the beans given a fuller appearance. The addition of glucose, sucrose, lactose, or dextrin to green coffeesis practised by von Niessen[117] and by Winter[118], with the object ofgiving a mild taste and strong aroma to "hard" coffees. The addition isaccomplished by impregnating, with or without the aid of vacuum, thebeans with a moderately concentrated solution of the sugar, the liquidbeing of insufficient quantity to effect extraction. When the solutionhas completely disseminated through the kernels, they are removed anddried. Upon subsequent roasting, a decided amelioration of flavor issecured. Another method developed by von Niessen[119] comprises the softening ofthe outer layers of the beans by steam, cold or warm water, or brine, and then surrounding them with an absorbent paste or powder, such aschina clay, to which a neutralizing agent such as magnesium oxid may beadded. After drying, the clay can be removed by brushing or by causingthe beans to travel between oppositely reciprocated wet cloths. In thedevelopment of this process, von Niessen evidently argued that theso-called "caffetannic acid" is the "harmful" substance in coffee, andthat it is concentrated in the outer layers of the coffee beans. Ifthese be his precepts, the question of their correctness and of theefficiency of his process becomes a moot one. A procedure which aims at cleaning and refining raw coffee, and whichhas been the subject of much polemical discussion, is that of Thum[120]. It entails the placing of the green beans in a perforated drum; justcovering them with water, or a solution of sodium chloride or sodiumcarbonate, at 65° to 70° C. ; and subjecting them to a vigorous brushingfor from 1 to 5 minutes, according to the grade of coffee being treated. The value of this method is somewhat doubtful, as it would not seem toaccomplish any more than simple washing. In fact, if anything, theprocess is undesirable; as some of the extractive matters present in thecoffee, and particularly caffein, will be lost. Both Freund[121] andHarnack[122] hold briefs for the product produced by this method, andthe latter endeavors analytically to prove its merits; but as hisexperimental data are questionable, his conclusions do not carry muchweight. _The Acids of Coffee_ The study of the acids of coffee has been productive of much controversyand many contradictory results, few of which possess any value. The acidof coffee is generally spoken of as "caffetannic acid. " Quite a fewattempts have been made to determine the composition and structure ofthis compound and to assign it a formula. Among them may be noted thoseof Allen, [123] who gives it the empirical formula C_14_H_16_O_7;Hlasiwetz, [124] who represents it as C_15_H_18_O_8; Richter, asC_30_H_18_O_16; Griebel, [125] as C_18_H_24_O_10, and Cazeneuveand Haddon, [126] as C_21_H_28_O_14. It is variously supposed toexist in coffee as the potassium, calcium, or magnesium salt. In regardto the physical appearance of the isolated substance there is also somedoubt, Thorpe[127] describing it as an amorphous powder, and Howard[128]as a brownish, syrup-like mass, having a slight acid and astringenttaste. The chemical reactions of "caffetannic acid" are generally agreed upon. A dark green coloration is given with ferric chloride; and upon boilingit with alkalies or dilute acids, caffeic acid and glucose are formed. Fusion with alkali produces protocatechuic acid. K. Gorter[129] has made an extensive and accurate investigation into thematter, and in reporting upon the same has made some very pertinentobservations. His claim is that the name "caffetannic acid" is amisnomer and should be abandoned. The so-called "caffetannic acid" isreally a mixture which has among its constituents chlorogenic acid(C_32_H_38_O_19), which is not a tannic acid, and coffalic acid. Tatlock and Thompson[130] have expressed the opinion that roasted coffeecontains no tannin, and that the lead precipitate contains mostlycoloring matter. They found only 4. 5 percent of tannin (precipitable bygelatin or alkaloids) in raw coffee. Hanausek[131] demonstrated the presence of oxalic acid in unripe beans, and citric acid has been isolated from Liberian coffee. It also has beenclaimed that viridic acid, C_14_H_20_O_11, is present in coffee. Inaddition to these, the fat of coffee contains a certain percentage offree fatty acids. It is thus apparent that even in green coffee there is no definitecompound "caffetannic acid, " and there is even less likelihood of itsbeing present in roasted coffee. The conditions, high heat andoxidation, to which coffee is subjected in roasting would suffice todecompose this hypothetical acid if it were present. In the method of analysis for caffetannic acid (No. 24) given at the endof this chapter, there are many chances of error, although thisprocedure is the best yet devised. Lead acetate forms three differentcompounds with "caffetannic acid, " so that this reagent must be addedwith extreme care in order to precipitate the compound desired. Theprecipitate, upon forming, mechanically carries down with it any fatswhich may be present, and which are removed from it only withdifficulty. The majority of the mineral salts in the solution will comedown simultaneously. All of the above-mentioned organic acids forminsoluble salts with lead acetate, and there will also be a tendencytoward precipitation of certain of the components of caramel, the acidicpolymerization products of acrolein, glycerol, etc. , and of the proteinsand their decomposition products. In view of this condition of uncertainty in composition, necessity forgreat care in manipulation, and ever-present danger of contamination, the significance of "caffetannic acid analysis" fades. It is highlydesirable that the nomenclature relevant to this analytical procedure bechanged to one, such as "lead number, " which will be more trulyindicative of its significance. _The Alkaloids of Coffee_ In addition to caffein, the main alkaloid of coffee, trigonellin--themethylbetaine of nicotinic acid--sometimes known as caffearine, has beenisolated from coffee. [132] This alkaloid, having the formulaC_14_H_16_O_4_N_2, is also found in fenugreek, _Trigonellafoenum-græcum_, in various leguminous plants, and in the seeds ofstrophanthus. When pure it forms colorless needles melting at 140° C. , and, as with all alkaloids, gives a weak basic reaction. It is verysoluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, and only very slightlysoluble in ether, chloroform or benzol, so that it does not contaminatethe caffein in the determination of the latter. Its effects on the bodyhave not been studied, but they are probably not very great, asPolstorff obtained only 0. 23 percent from the coffee which he examined. Caffein, thein, trimethylxanthin, or C_5_H(CH_3)_3_N_4_O_2, inaddition to being in the coffee bean is also found in guarana leaves, the kola nut, maté, or Paraguay tea, and, in small quantities, in cocoa. It is also found in other parts of these plants besides those commonlyused for food purposes. A neat test for detecting the presence of caffein is that of A. Viehoever, [133] in which the caffein is sublimed directly from the planttissue in a special apparatus. The presence of caffein in the sublimateis verified by observing its melting point, determined on a specialheating stage used in connection with a microscope. The chief commercial source of this alkaloid is waste and damaged tea, from which it is prepared by extraction with boiling water, the tanninprecipitated from the solution with litharge, and the solution thenconcentrated to crystallize out the caffein. It is further purified bysublimation or recrystallization from water. Coffee chaff androaster-flue dust have been proposed as sources for medicinal caffein, but the extraction of the alkaloid from the former has not proven to bea commercial success. Several manufacturers of pharmaceuticals are nowextracting caffein from roaster-flue dust, probably by an adaptation ofthe Faunce[134] process. The recovery of caffein from roaster-flue gasesmay be facilitated and increased by the use of a condenser such asproposed Ewé. [135] Pure caffein forms long, white, silky, flexible needles, which readilyfelt together to form light, fleecy masses. It melts at 235-7° C. Andsublimes completely at 178° C. , though the sublimation starts at 120°. Salts of an unstable nature are formed with caffein by most acids. Thesolubility of caffein as determined by Seidell[136] is given in Table I. TABLE I--THE SOLUBILITY OF CAFFEIN Solubility: Grm. Caffein per 100 Grm. Of Sp. Gr. Of Sp. Gr. Of Temperature Saturated SaturatedSolvent Solvent of Solution Solution Solution Water 0. 997 25 2. 14Ether 0. 716 25 0. 27Chloroform 1. 476 25 11. 0Acetone 0. 809 30-1 2. 18 0. 832Benzene 0. 872 30-1 1. 22 0. 875Benzaldehyde 1. 055 30-1 11. 62 1. 087Amylacetate 0. 860 30-1 0. 72 0. 862Aniline 1. 02 30-1 22. 89 1. 080Amyl alcohol 0. 814 25 0. 49 0. 810Acetic acid 1. 055 21. 5 2. 44Xylene 0. 847 32. 5 1. 11 0. 847Toluene 0. 862 25 0. 57 0. 861 The similarity between caffein and theobromin (the chief alkaloid ofcocoa), xanthin (one of the constituents of meat), and uric acid, isshown by the accompanying structural formulæ. These formulæ show merely the relative position occupied by caffein inthe purin group, and do not in any wise indicate, because of itssimilarity of structure to the other compounds, that it has the samephysiological action. The presence and position of the methyl groups(CH_3) in caffein is probably the controlling factor which makes itsaction differ from the behavior of other members of the series. Thestructure of these compounds was established, and their synthesesaccomplished, in the course of various classic researches by EmilFischer. [137] [Illustration: FORMULA FOR CAFFEIN, SHOWING ITS RELATION TO THE PURINGROUP] Gorter states that caffein exists in coffee in combination withchlorogenic acid as a potassium chlorogenate, C_32_H_36_O_19, K_2(C_8_H_10_O_2_N_4)_2·2H_2_O, which he isolated in colorlessprisms. This compound is water-soluble, but caffein can not be extractedfrom the crystals with anhydrous solvents. To this behavior can probablybe attributed the difficulty experienced in extracting caffein fromcoffee with dry organic solvents. However, the fact that a smallpercentage can be extracted from the green bean in this manner indicatesthat some of the caffein content exists therein in a free state. Thisacid compound of caffein will be largely decomposed during the processof torrefaction, so that in roasted coffee a larger percentage will bepresent in the free state. Microscopical examination of the roasted beanlends verisimilitude to this contention. [Illustration: PLANTER'S BUNGALOW WITH COFFEE TREES IN FLOWER, MYSORE] [Illustration: COOLIES BAGGING COFFEE ON THE DRYING GROUNDS] [Illustration: COFFEE SCENES IN BRITISH INDIA] TABLE II--COFFEE ANALYSES Santos Green | Santos Roasted | | Padang Green | | | Padang Roasted | | | | Guatemala Green | | | | | Guatemala Roasted | | | | | | Mocha Green | | | | | | | Mocha | | | | | | | Roasted | | | | | | | |Moisture 8. 75 3. 75 8. 78 2. 72 9. 59 3. 40 9. 06 3. 36 April 20thMoisture September 20th 8. 12 6. 45 8. 05 6. 03 8. 68 6. 92 8. 15 7. 10Ash 4. 41 4. 49 4. 23 4. 70 3. 93 4. 48 4. 20 4. 43Oil 12. 96 13. 76 12. 28 13. 33 12. 42 13. 07 14. 04 14. 18Caffein 1. 87 1. 81 1. 56 1. 47 1. 26 1. 22 1. 31 1. 28Caffein, dry basis 2. 03 .... 1. 69 .... 1. 39 .... 1. 44 .... Crude fiber 20. 70 14. 75 21. 92 14. 95 22. 23 15. 23 22. 46 15. 41Protein 9. 50 12. 93 12. 62 14. 75 10. 43 11. 69 8. 56 9. 57Protein, dry basis 10. 41 .... 13. 68 .... 11. 53 .... 9. 41 .... Water extract 31. 11 30. 30 30. 83 30. 21 31. 04 30. 47 31. 27 30. 44Specific gravity, 10 percent extract 1. 0109 1. 0101 1. 0107 1. 0104 1. 0105 1. 0104 1. 0108 1. 0108Bushelweight 47. 0 28. 2 45. 2 27. 8 52. 2 27. 2 48. 8 30. 21, 000 kernel weight 130. 60 120. 20 167. 30 151. 35 189. 20 165. 80 119. 52 100. 001, 000 kernel weight, dry basis 119. 1 115. 7 154. 1 147. 2 171. 0 160. 1 108. 6 96. 6Dextrose .... 0. 72 .... 0. 81 .... 0. 54 .... 0. 46Caffetannic acid 15. 58 17. 44 15. 37 16. 93 16. 27 17. 13 15. 61 16. 89Acidity by titration apparent 1. 50 2. 08 1. 47 2. 00 1. 39 2. 13 1. 11 1. 87 As may be seen in Table II, [138] the caffein content of coffee varieswith the different kinds, a fair average of the caffein content beingabout 1. 5 percent for _C. Arabica_, to which class most of our coffeesbelong. However, aside from these may be mentioned _C. Canephora_, whichyields 1. 97 percent caffein; _C. Mauritiana_, which contains 0. 07percent of the alkaloid (less than the average "caffein-free coffee");and _C. Humboltiana_, which contains no caffein, but a bitter principle, cafemarin. Neither do the berries of _C. Gallienii_, _C. Bonnieri_, or_C. Mogeneti_ contain any caffein; and there has also been reported[139]a "Congo coffee" which contained no crystallizable alkaloid whatever. Apparently the variation in caffein content is largely due to the genusof the tree from which the berry comes, but it is also quite probablethat the nature of the soil and climatic conditions play an importantpart. In the light of what has been accomplished in the field ofagricultural research, it does not seem improbable that a man ofBurbank's ability and foresight could successfully develop a series ofcoffees possessed of all the cup qualities inherent in those now used, but totally devoid of caffein. Whether this is desirable or not is aquestion to be considered in an entirely different light from thepossibility of its accomplishment. TABLE III--CAFFEIN IN DIFFERENT ROASTS Rio Santos Guatemala Green 1. 68% 1. 85% 1. 82%Cinnamon 1. 70 1. 72 1. 80Medium 1. 66 1. 66 1. 56City 1. 36 1. 66 1. 46 The variation in the caffein content of coffee at different intensitiesof roasting, as shown in Table III[140] is, of course, primarilydependent upon the original content of the green. A considerable portionof the caffein is sublimed off during roasting, thus decreasing theamount in the bean. The higher the roast is carried, the greater theshrinkage; but, as the analyses in the above table show, the loss ofcaffein proceeds out of proportion to the shrinkage, for the percentageof caffein constantly decreases with the increase in color. If the roastbe carried almost to the point of carbonization, as in the case of the"Italian roast, " the caffein content will be almost nil. This is not asuitable coffee for one desiring an almost caffein-free drink, for theempyreumatic products produced by this excessive roasting will be moretoxic by far than the caffein itself would have been. _Caffein-free Coffee_ The demand for a caffein-free coffee may be attributed to two causes, namely: the objectionable effect which caffein has upon neurasthenics;and the questionable advertising of the "coffee-substitute" dealers, whohave by this means persuaded many normal persons into believing thatthey are decidedly sub-normal. As a result of this demand, a variety ofdecaffeinated coffees have been placed on the market. Just why thecoffee men have not taken advantage of naturally caffein-free coffees, or of the possibility of obtaining coffees low in caffein content bychemical selection from the lines now used, is a difficult question toanswer. In the endeavor to develop a commercial decaffeinated coffee the firstmethod of procedure was to extract the caffein from roasted coffee. Thismethod had its advantages and its disadvantages, of which the latterpredominated. The caffein in the roasted coffee is not as tightly boundchemically as in the green coffee, and is, therefore, more easilyextracted. Also, the structure of the roasted bean renders it morereadily penetrable by solvents than does that of the green bean. However, the great objection to this method arises from the fact that atthe same time as the caffein is extracted, the volatile aromatic andflavoring constituents of the coffee are removed also. These substances, which are essential for the maintenance of quality by the coffee, thoughreadily separated from the caffein, can not be returned to the roastedbean with any degree of certainty. This virtually insurmountableobstacle forced the abandonment of this mode of attack. In order to avoid this action, the attention of investigators wasdirected to extraction of the alkaloid in question from the green bean. Because of the difficulty of causing the solvent to penetrate the bean, recourse to grinding resulted. This greatly facilitated the desiredextraction, but a difficulty was encountered when the subsequentroasting was attempted. The irregular and broken character of the groundgreen beans resisted all attempts to produce practically a uniformlyroasted, highly aromatic product from the ground material. Avoidance of this lack of uniformity in the product, and the greatdesirability to duplicate the normal bean as far as possible, necessitated the development of a method of extraction of the caffeinfrom the whole raw bean without a permanent alteration of the shapethereof. The close structure of the green bean, and its consequentresistance to penetration by solvents, and the existence of the caffeinin the bean as an acid salt, which is not easily soluble, offeredresistance to successful extraction. As a means of overcoming the difficulty of structure, the beans wereallowed to stand in water in order to swell, or the cells were expandedby treatment with steam, or the beans were subjected to the action ofsome "cellulose-softening acids, " such as acetic acid or sulphur dioxid. As a method of facilitating the mechanical side of extraction withoutdeleterious effects, the treatment of the coffee with steam underpressure, as utilized in the patented process of Myer, Roselius, andWimmer, [141] is probably the safest. Many ingenious methods have been devised for the ready removal of thecaffein from this point on. Several processes employ an alkali, such asammonium hydroxid, to free the caffein from the acid; or an acid, suchas acetic, hydrochloric, or sulphurous, is used to form a more solublesalt of caffein. Other procedures effect the dissociation of thecaffein-acid salt by dampening or immersion in a liquid and subjectingthe mass to the action of an electric current. The caffein is usually extracted from the beans by benzol or chloroform, but a variety of solvents may be employed, such as petrolic ether, water, alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, ethylene chloride, acetone, ethylether, or mixtures or emulsions of these. After extraction, the beansmay be steam distilled to remove and to recover any residual traces ofsolvent, and then dried and roasted. It is said[142] that by heating thebeans before bringing them into contact with steam, not only is aneconomy of steam effected, but the quality of the resultant product isimproved. One clever but expensive method[143] of preparing caffein-free coffeeconsists in heating the beans under pressure, with some substance, suchas sodium salicylate, with the resultant formation of a more soluble andmore easily steam-distillable compound of caffein. The beans are thensteam distilled to remove the caffein, dried, and roasted. Another process of peculiar interest is that of Hubner, [144] in whichthe coffee beans are well washed and then spread in layers and keptcovered with water at 15° C. Until limited germination has taken place, whereupon the beans are removed and the caffein extracted with water at50° C. It is claimed by the inventor that sprouting serves to removesome of the caffein, but it is quite probable that the process doesnothing more than accomplish simple aqueous extraction. In the majority of these processes the flavor of the resultant productshould be very similar to natural roasted coffee. However, in the caseswhere aqueous extraction is employed, other substances besides caffeinare removed that are replaced in the bean only with difficulty. Theresultant product accordingly is very likely to have a flavor notentirely natural. On the other hand, beans from which the caffein isextracted with volatile solvents, if the operation be conductedcarefully, should give a natural-tasting roast. Any residual traces ofthe solvent left in the bean are volatilized upon roasting. Some of the caffein-free coffees on the market show upon analysis almostas much caffein as the natural bean. Those manufactured by reliableconcerns, however, are virtually caffein-free, their content of thealkaloid varying from 0. 3 to 0. 07 percent as opposed to 1. 5 percent inthe untreated coffee. Thus, although actually only caffein-poor, inorder to get the reaction of one cup of ordinary coffee one would haveto drink an unusual amount of the brew made from these coffees. _The Aromatic Principles of Coffee_ To ascertain just what substance or substances give the pleasing andcharacteristic aroma to coffee has long been the great desire of bothpractical and scientific men interested in the coffee business. Thiselusive material has been variously called caffeol, caffeone, "theessential oil of coffee, " etc. , the terms having acquired an ambiguousand incorrect significance. It is now generally agreed that the aromaticconstituent of coffee is not an essential oil, but a complex ofcompounds which usage has caused to be collectively called "caffeol. " These substances are not present in the green bean, but are producedduring the process of roasting. Attempts at identification and locationof origin have been numerous; and although not conclusive, still havenot proven entirely futile. One of the first observations along thisline was that of Benjamin Thompson in 1812. "This fragrance of coffee iscertainly owing to the escape of a volatile aromatic substance which didnot originally exist as such in the grain, but which is formed in theprocess of roasting it. " Later, Graham, Stenhouse, and Campbell startedon the way to the identification of this aroma by noting that "in commonwith all the valuable constituents of coffee, caffeone is found to comefrom the soluble portion of the roasted seed. "[145] Comparison of the aroma given off by coffee during the roasting processwith that of fresh-ground roasted coffee shows that the two aromas, although somewhat different, may be attributed to the same substancespresent in different proportions in the two cases. Recovery andidentification of the aromatic principles escaping from the roasterwould go far toward answering the question regarding the nature of thearoma. Bernheimer[146] reported water, caffein, caffeol, acetic acid, quinol, methylamin, acetone, fatty acids and pyrrol in the distillatecoming from roasting coffee. The caffeol obtained by Bernheimer in thiswork was believed by him to be a methyl derivative of saligenin. Jaeckle[147] examined a similar product and found considerablequantities of caffein, furfurol, and acetic acid, together with smallamounts of acetone, ammonia, trimethylamin, and formic acid. The caffeolof Bernheimer could not be detected. Another substance was separatedalso, but in too small a quantity to permit complete identification. This substance consisted of colorless crystals, which readily sublimed, melted at 115° to 117° C. , and contained sulphur. The crystals wereinsoluble in water, almost insoluble in alcohol, but readily soluble inether. By distilling roasted coffee with superheated steam, Erdmann[148]obtained an oil consisting of an indifferent portion of 58 percent andan acid portion of 42 percent, consisting mainly of a valeric acid, probably alphamethylbutyric acid. The indifferent portion was found tocontain about 50 percent furfuryl alcohol, together with a number ofphenols. The fraction containing the characteristic odorous constituentof coffee boiled at 93° C. Under 13 mm. Pressure. The yield of thislatter principle was extremely small, only about 0. 89 gram beingprocured from 65 kilos of coffee. Pyridin was also shown to be present in coffee by Betrand andWeisweiller[149] and by Sayre. [150] As high as 200 to 500 milligrams ofthis toxic compound have been obtained from 1 kilogram of freshlyroasted coffee. As stated above, the empyreumatic volatile aromatic constituents of thecoffee are without question formed during and by the roasting process. According to Thorpe, [151] the most favorable temperature for developmentof coffee odor and flavor is about 200° C. Erdmann claimed to haveproduced caffeol by gently heating together caffetannic acid, caffein, and cane sugar. Other investigators have been unable to duplicate thiswork. Another authority, [152] giving it the empirical formulaC_8_H_10_O_2, states that it is produced during roasting, probablyat the expense of a portion of the caffein. These conceptions are in themain incomplete and inaccurate. By means of careful work, Grafe[153] came closer to ascertaining theorigin of the fugacious aromatic materials. His work with normal, caffein-free coffee and with Thum's purified coffee led him to statethat a part of these substances was derived from the crude fiber, probably from the hemi-cellulose of the thick endosperm cells. Sayre[154] makes the most plausible proposal regarding the origin ofcaffeol. He considers the roasting of coffee as a destructivedistillation process, summarizing the results, briefly, as theproduction of furfuraldehyde from the carbohydrates, acrolein from thefats, catechol and pyrogallol from the tannins, and ammonia, amins, andpyrrols from the proteins. The products of roasting inter-react toproduce many compounds of varying degrees of complexity and toxicity. The great difficulty which arises in the attempt to identify thearomatic constituents of coffee is that the caffeols of no two coffeesmay be said to be the same. The reason for this is apparent; for thegreen coffees themselves vary in composition, and those of the sameconstitution are not roasted under identical conditions. Therefore, itis not to be expected that the decomposition products formed by theaction of the different greens would be the same. Also, these volatileproducts occur in the roasted coffee in such a small amount that theascertaining of their percentage relationship and the recognition of allthat are present are not possible with the methods of analysis atpresent at our disposal. Until better analytical procedures have beendeveloped we can not hope to establish a chemical basis for the gradingof coffees from this standpoint. _Coffee Oil and Fat_ It is well to distinguish between the "coffee oils, " as they are termedby the trade, and true coffee oil. In speaking of the qualities ofcoffee, connoisseurs frequently use erroneous terms, particularly whenthey designate certain of the flavoring and aromatic constituents ofcoffee as "oils" or "essential oils. " Coffee does not contain anyessential oils, the aromatic constituent corresponding to essential oilin coffee being caffeol, a complex which is water-soluble, a propertynot possessed by any true oil. True, the oil when isolated from roastedcoffee does possess, before purification, considerable of the aromaticand flavoring constituents of coffee. They are, however, no part of thecoffee fat, but are held in it no doubt by an enfleurage action in muchthe same way that perfumes of roses, etc. , are absorbed and retained byfats and oils in the commercial preparation of pomades and perfumes. This affinity of the coffee oil for caffeol assists in the retention ofaromatic substances by the whole roasted bean. However, upon extractionof ground roasted coffee with water, the caffeol shows a preferentialsolubility in water, and is dissolved out from the oil, going into thebrew. The true oil of coffee has been investigated to a fair degree and hasbeen found to be inodorous when purified. Analysis of green and roastedcoffees shows them to possess between 12 percent and 20 percent fat. Warnier[155] extracted ground unroasted coffee with petroleum ether, washed the extract with water, and distilled off the solvent, obtaininga yellow-brownish oil possessing a sharp taste. From his examination ofthis oil he reported these constants: d_24-5, 0. 942; refraction at25°, 81. 5; solidifying point, 6° to 5°; melting point, 8° to 9°;saponification number, 177. 5; esterification number, 166. 7; acid number, 6. 2; acetyl number, 0; iodin number, 84. 5 to 86. 3. Meyer and Eckert[156]carefully purified coffee oil and saponified it with Li_2_O in alcohol. In the saponifiable portion, glycerol was the only alcohol present, theacids being carnaubic, 10 percent; daturinic acid, 1 to 1. 5 percent;palmitic acid, 25 to 28 percent; capric acid, 0. 5 percent; oleic acid, 2 percent, and linoleic acid, 50 percent. The unsaponifiable waxamounted to 21. 2 percent, was nitrogen-free, gave a phytostearinreaction, and saponification and oxidation indicated that it wasprobably a tannol carnaubate. Von-Bitto[157] examined the fat extractedfrom the inner husk of the coffee berry and found it to be faint yellowin color, and to solidify only gradually after melting. Upon analysis, it showed: saponification value, 141. 2; palmitic acid, 37. 84 percent, and glycerids as tripalmitin, 28. 03 percent. _Carbohydrates of the Coffee Berry_ There has been considerable diversity of opinion regarding the sugar ofcoffee. Bell believed the sugar to be of a peculiar species allied tomelezitose, but Ewell, [158] G. L. Spencer, and others definitely provedthe presence of sucrose in coffee. In fat-free coffee 6 percent ofsucrose was found extractable by 70 percent alcohol. Baker[159] claimedthat manno-arabinose, or manno-xylose, formed one of the most importantconstituents of the coffee-berry substance and yielded mannose onhydrolysis. Schultze and Maxwell state that raw coffee containsgalactan, mannan, and pentosans, the latter present to the extent of 5percent in raw and 3 percent in roasted coffee. By distilling coffeewith hydrochloric acid Ewell obtained furfurol equivalent to 9 percentpentose. He also obtained a gummy substance which, on hydrolysis, gaverise to a reducing sugar; and as it gave mucic acid and furfurol onoxidation, he concluded that it was a compound of pentose and galactose. In undressed Mysore coffee Commaille[160] found 2. 6 percent of glucoseand no dextrin. This claim of the presence of glucose in coffee wassubstantiated by the work of Hlasiwetz, [161] who resolved a caffetannicacid, which he had isolated, into glucose and a peculiar crystallizableacid, C_8_H_8_O_4, which he named caffeic acid. The starch content of coffee is very low. Cereals may readily bedetected and identified in coffee mixtures by the presence andcharacteristics of their starch, in view of the fact that coffee(chicory, too) is practically free from starch. On this score it isinadvisable for diabetics to use any of the many cereal substitutes forcoffee. It is pertinent to note in this connection that personssuffering from diabetes may sweeten their coffee with saccharin (1/2 to1 grain per cup) or glycerol, thus obtaining perfect satisfactionwithout endangering their health. The cellulose in coffee is of a very hard and horny character in thegreen bean, but it is made softer and more brittle during the process ofroasting. It is rather difficult to define under the microscope, particularly after roasting, even though the chief characteristics ofthe cellular tissue are more or less retained. Coffee cellulose gives ablue color with sulphuric acid and iodin, and is dissolved by anammoniacal solution of copper oxid. Even after roasting, remnants of thesilver skin are always present, the structure of which, a thin membranewith adherent, thick-walled, spindle-shaped, hollow cells, is peculiarto coffee. _The Chemistry of Roasting_ The effect of the heat in the roasting of coffee is largely evidenced asa destructive distillation and also as a partial dehydration. At thesame time, oxidizing and reducing reactions probably occur within thebean, as well as some polymerization and inter-reactions. A loss of water is to be expected as the natural outcome of theapplication of heat; and analyses show that the moisture content of rawcoffee varies from 8 to 14 percent, while after roasting it rarelyexceeds 3 percent, and frequently falls as low as 0. 5 percent. The lossof the original water content of the green bean is not the only moistureloss; for many of the constituents of coffee, notably the carbohydrates, are decomposed upon heating to give off water, so that analysis beforeand after roasting is no direct indication of the exact amount of waterdriven off in the process. If it be desired to ascertain this quantityaccurately, catching of the products which are driven off anddetermination of their water content becomes necessary. The carbohydrates both dehydrate and decompose. The result of thedehydration is the formation of caramel and related products, whichcomprise the principal coloring matters in coffee infusion. That portionof the carbohydrates known as pentosans gives rise to furfuraldehyde, one of the important components of caffeol. The effect of roasting upon the fat content of the beans is to reduceits actual weight, but not to change appreciably the percentagepresent, since the decrease in quantity keeps pace fairly well with theshrinkage. Some of the more volatile fatty acids are driven off, and thefats break down to give a larger percentage of free fatty acids, somelight esters, acrolein, and formic acid. If the roast be a very heavyone, or is brought up too rapidly, the fat will come to the surface, through breaking of the fat cells, with a decided alteration in thechemical nature of the fat and with pronounced expansion and cracking. Decomposition of the caffein acid-salt and considerable sublimation ofthe caffein also occur. The majority of the caffein undergoes thisvolatilization unchanged, but a portion of it is probably oxidized withthe formation of ammonia, methylamin, di-methylparabanic acid, andcarbon dioxid. This reaction partly explains why the amount of caffeinrecovered from the roaster flues is not commensurate with the amountlost from the roasting coffee; although incomplete condensation is alsoan important factor. Microscopic examination of the roasted beans willshow occasional small crystals of caffein in the indentations on thesurface, where they have been deposited during the cooling process. The compound, or compounds, known as "caffetannic acid" are probably thesource of catechol, as the proteins are of ammonia, amins, and pyrrols. The crude fiber and other unnamed constituents of the raw beans reactanalogously to similar compounds in the destructive distillation ofwood, giving rise to acetone, various fatty acids, carbon dioxid andother uncondensable gases, and many compounds of unknown identity. During the course of roasting and subsequent cooling these decompositionproducts probably interact and polymerize to form aromatic tar-likematerials and other complexes which play an important rôle among thedelicate flavors of coffee. In fact, it is not unlikely that thesereactions continue throughout the storage time after roasting, and thatupon them the deterioration of roasted coffee is largely dependent. Speculation upon what complex compounds are thus formed offers muchattraction. A notable one by Sayre[162] postulates the reaction betweenacrolein and ammonia to give methyl pyridin, which in turn with furfurolforms furfurol vinyl pyridin. This upon reduction would produce thealkaloid, conin, traces of which have been found in coffee. Although furfuraldehyde is the natural decomposition product ofpentosans, furfuryl alcohol is the main furane body of coffee aroma. This would indicate that active reducing conditions prevail within thebean during roasting; and the further fact that carbon monoxid is givenoff during roasting makes this seem quite probable. If one admits thatcaffetannic acid exists in the green bean; that upon oxidation it givesviridic acid; and that it is concentrated in the outer layers of thebean, as certain investigators have claimed, then there is chemicalproof of the existence of oxidizing conditions about the exterior of thebean. In any event, however, the fact that oxidizing conditionspredominate on the external portion of the bean is obvious. Accordingly, our meager knowledge of the chemistry of roasting indicates that whilethe external layers of the roasting beans are subjected to oxidizingconditions, reducing ones exist in the interior. Future experimentationwill, no doubt, prove this to be the case. Attempts have been made to retain in the beans the volatile products, which normally escape, both by coating previous to roasting[163] and byconducting the process under pressure. [164] However, the results soobtained were not practical, since the cup values were decreased in themajority of cases, and the physiological effects produced wereundesirable. In cases where the quality was improved, the gain was notsufficient to recompense the roaster for the additional expense anddifficulty of operation. Various persons have essayed to control the roasting processautomatically; but the extreme variance in composition of differentcoffees, the effect of changing atmospheric conditions, and the lack ofconstancy in the calorific power of fuels have conspired to defeat theautomatic roasting machine. [165] It is even doubtful whether DeMattia's[166] process for roasting until the vapors evolved produce aviolet color when passed into a solution of fuchsin decolorized withsulphur dioxid is commercially reliable. Many patents have been granted for the treatment of coffees immediatelyprior to or during roasting with the object of thus improving theproduct. The majority of these depend upon adding solutions ofsugar, [167] calcium saccharate, [168] or other carbohydrates, [169] and inthe case of Eckhardt, [170] of small percentages of tannic acid and fat. In direct opposition to this latter practise, Jurgens and Westphal[171]apply alkali, ostensibly to lessen the "tannic acid" content. Brougier[172] sprays a solution containing caffein upon the roastingberries; and Potter[173] roasts the coffee together with chicory, effecting a separation at the end. [Illustration: GROUND COFFEE UNDER THE MICROSCOPE] The exact effect which roasting with sugars has upon the flavor is notwell understood; but it is known that it causes the beans to absorb moremoisture, due to the hygroscopicity of the caramel formed. For instance, berries roasted with the addition of glucose syrup hold an additional 7percent of water and give a darker infusion than normally roastedcoffee. When the green coffee is glazed with cane sugar prior toroasting, the losses during the process are much higher than ordinarily, on account of the higher temperature required to attain the desiredresults. Losses for ordinary coffee taken to a 16-percent roast are 9. 7percent of the original fat and 21. 1 percent of the original caffein;while for "sugar glazed" coffee the losses were 18. 3 percent of theoriginal fat and 44. 3 percent of the original caffein, using 8 to 9percent sugar with Java coffee. _Grinding and Packaging_ It is a curious fact that green coffee improves upon aging, whereasafter roasting it deteriorates with time. Even when packed in the bestcontainers, age shows to a disadvantage on the roasted bean. This is dueto a number of causes, among which are oxidation, volatilization of thearoma, absorption of moisture and consequent hydrolysis, and alterationin the character of the aromatic principles. Doolittle and Wright[174]in the course of some extensive experiments found that roasted coffeeshowed a continual gain in weight throughout 60 weeks, this gain beingmostly due to moisture absorption. An investigation by Gould[175] alsodemonstrated that roasted coffee gives off carbon dioxid and carbonmonoxid upon standing. The latter, apparently produced during roastingand retained by the cellular structure of the bean, diffuses therefrom;whereas the former comes from an ante-roasting decomposition of unstablecompounds present. [176] The surface of the whole bean forms a natural protection againstatmospheric influences, and as soon as this is broken, deteriorationsets in. On this account, coffee should be ground immediately beforeextraction if maximum efficiency is to be obtained. The cells of thebeans tend to retain the fugacious aromatic principles to a certainextent; so that the more of these which are broken in grinding, thegreater will be the initial loss and the more rapid the vitiation of thecoffee. It might, therefore, seem desirable to grind coarsely in orderto avoid this as much as possible. However, the coarser the grind, theslower and more incomplete will be the extraction. A patent[177] hasbeen granted for a grind which contains about 90 percent fine coffee and10 percent coarse, the patentee's claim being that in his "irregulargrind" the coarse coffee retains enough of the volatile constituents toflavor the beverage, while the fine coffee gives a very highextraction, thus giving an efficient brew without sacrificingindividuality. In packaging roasted coffee the whole bean is naturally the best form toemploy, but if the coffee is ground first, King[178] found thatdeterioration is most rapid with the coarse ground coffee, the speeddecreasing with the size of the ground particles. He explains this onthe ground of "ventilation"--the finer the grind, the closer theparticles pack together, the less the circulation of air through themass, and the smaller the amount of aroma which is carried away. He alsofound that glass makes the best container for coffee, with the tin can, and the foil-lined bag with an inner lining of glassine, not greatlyinferior. Considerable publicity has been given recently to the method of packingcoffee in a sealed tin under reduced pressure. While thus packing in apartial vacuum undoubtedly retards oxidation and precludes escape ofaroma from the original package, it would seem likely to hasten theinitial volatilizing of the aroma. Also, it would appear fromGould's[179] work that roasted coffee evolves carbon dioxid until acertain positive pressure is attained, regardless of the initialpressure in the container. Accordingly, vacuum-packing apparentlyenhances decomposition of certain constituents of coffee. Whether thisresult is beneficial or otherwise is not quite clear. _Brewing_ The old-time boiling method of making coffee has gone out of style, because the average consumer is becoming aware of the fact that it doesnot give a drink of maximum efficiency. Boiling the ground coffee withwater results in a large loss of aromatic principles by steamdistillation, a partial hydrolysis of insoluble portions of the grounds, and a subsequent extraction of the products thus formed, which give abitter flavor to the beverage. Also, the maintenance of a hightemperature by the direct application of heat has a deleterious effectupon the substances in solution. This is also true in the case of thepumping percolator, and any other device wherein the solution is causedto pass directly into steam at the point where heat is applied. Warm andcold water extract about the same amount of material from coffee; butwith different rates of speed, an increase in temperature decreasing thetime necessary to effect the desired result. It is a well known fact that re-warming a coffee brew has an undesirableeffect upon it. This is very probably due to the precipitation of someof the water-soluble proteins when the solution cools, and theirsubsequent decomposition when heat is applied directly to them inreheating the solution. The absorption of air by the solution uponcooling, with attendant oxidation, which is accentuated by theapplication of heat in re-warming, must also be considered. It islikewise probable that when an extract of coffee cools upon standing, some of the aromatic principles separate out and are lost byvolatilization. The method of extracting coffee which gives the most satisfaction ispractised by using a grind just coarse enough to retain theindividualistic flavoring components, retaining the ground coffee in afine cloth bag, as in the urn system, or on a filter paper, as in theTricolator, and pouring water at boiling temperature over the coffee. During the extraction, a top should be kept on the device to minimizevolatilization, and the temperature of the extract should be maintainedconstant at about 200° F. After being made. Whether a repouring isnecessary or not is dependent upon the speed with which the water passesthrough the coffee, which in turn is controlled by the fineness of thegrind and of the filtering medium. _The Water Extract_ Although many analyses of the whole coffee bean are available, butlittle work has been reported upon the aqueous extracts. The total waterextract of roasted coffee varies from 20 to 31 percent in differentkinds of coffee. The following analysis of the extract from a Santoscoffee may be taken as a fair average example of the water-solublematerial. [180] TABLE IV--ANALYSIS OF SANTOS COFFEE EXTRACT(DRY BASIS) Ether extract, fixed 1. 06%Total nitrogen 3. 40%Caffein 5. 42%Crude fiber 0. 25%Total ash 17. 43%Reducing sugar 2. 70%Caffetannic acid 15. 33%Protein 7. 71% It is difficult to make the trade terms, such as acidity, astringency, etc. , used in describing a cup of coffee, conform with the chemicalmeanings of the same terms. However, a fair explanation of the cause ofsome of these qualities can be made. Careful work by Warnier[181] showedthe actual acidities of some East India coffees to be: TABLE V--ACIDITY OF SOME EAST INDIA COFFEES Coffee from Acid Content Sindjai 0. 033% Timor 0. 028% Bauthain 0. 019% Boengei 0. 016% Loewae 0. 021% Waloe Pengenten 0. 018% Kawi Redjo 0. 015% Palman Tjiasem 0. 022% Malang 0. 013% These figures may be taken as reliable examples of the true acid contentof coffee; and though they seem very low, it is not at allincomprehensible that the acids which they indicate produce the acidityin a cup of coffee. They probably are mainly volatile organic acids, together with other acidic-natured products of roasting. We know thatvery small quantities of acids are readily detected in fruit juices andbeer, and that variation in their percentage is quickly noticed, whilethe neutralization of this small amount of acidity leaves an insipiddrink. Hence, it seems quite likely that this small acid content givesto the coffee brew its essential acidity. A few minor experiments onneutralization have proven that a very insipid beverage is produced bythus treating a coffee infusion. The body, or what might be called the licorice-like character, ofcoffee, is due conceivably to the presence of bodies of a glucosidicnature and to caramel. Astringency, or bitterness, is dependent upon thedecomposition products of crude fiber and chlorogenic acid, and upon thesoluble mineral content of the bean. The degree to which a coffee issweet-tasting or not is, of course, dependent upon its othercharacteristics, but probably varies with the reducing sugar content. Aside from the effects of these constituents upon cup quality, theinfluence of volatile aromatic and flavoring constituents is alwaysevident in the cup valuation, and introduces a controlling factor in theproduction of an individualistic drink. _Coffee Extracts_ The uncertainty of the quality of coffee brews as made from day to day, the inconvenience to the housewife of conducting the extraction, and theinevitable trend of the human race toward labor-saving devices, havecombined their influences to produce a demand for a substance which willgive a good cup of coffee when added to water. This gave rise to anumber of concentrated liquid and solid "extracts of coffee, " which, because of their general poor quality, soon brought this type of productinto disrepute. This is not surprising; for these preparations weremainly mixtures of caramel and carelessly prepared extracts of chicory, roasted cereals, and cheap coffee. Liquid extracts of coffee galore have appeared on the market only soonto disappear. Difficulty is experienced in having them maintain theirquality over a protracted period of time, primarily due to thehydrolyzing action of water on the dissolved substances. They alsoferment readily, although a small percentage of preservative, such asbenzoate of soda, will halt spoilage. [182] So much trouble is not encountered with coffee-extract powders--theso-called "soluble" or "instant" coffees. The majority of these powdereddry extracts do, however, show great affinity for atmospheric moisture. Their hygroscopicity necessitates packing and keeping them in air-tightcontainers to prevent them running into a solid, slowly soluble mass. The general method of procedure employed in the preparation of thesepowders is to extract ground roasted coffee with water, and to evaporatethe aqueous solution to dryness with great care. The major difficultywhich seems to arise is that the heat needed to effect evaporationchanges the character of the soluble material, at the same time drivingoff some volatile constituents which are essential to a natural flavor. Many complex and clever processes have been developed for avoiding thesedifficulties, and quite a number of patents on processes, and several onthe resultant product, have been allowed; but the commercial productionof a soluble coffee of freshly-brewed-coffee-duplicating-power is yet tobe accomplished. However, there are now on the market severalcoffee-extract powders which dissolve readily in water, giving quite afair approximation of freshly brewed coffee. The improvement shownsince they first appeared augurs well for the eventual attainment oftheir ultimate goal. _Adulterants and Substitutes_ There would appear to be three reasons why substitutes for coffee aresought--the high cost, or absence, of the real product; the acquiring ofa preferential taste, by the consumer, for the substitute; and theinjurious effects of coffee when used to excess. Makers of coffeesubstitutes usually emphasize the latter reason; but many substitutes, which are, or have been, on the market, seem to depend for theirexistence on the other two. Properly speaking, there are scarcely anyreal substitutes for coffee. The substances used to replace it aremostly like it only in appearance, and barely simulate it in taste. Besides, many of them are not used alone, but are mixed with real coffeeas adulterants. The two main coffee substitutes are chicory and cereals. Chicory, succory, _Cichorium Intybus_, is a perennial plant, growing to a heightof about three feet, bearing blue flowers, having a long tap root, andpossessing a foliage which is sometimes used as cattle food. The plantis cultivated generally for the sake of its root, which is cut intoslices, kiln-dried, and then roasted in the same manner as coffee, usually with the addition of a small proportion of some kind of fat. Thepreparation and use of roasted chicory originated in Holland, about1750. Fresh chicory[183] contains about 77 percent water, 7. 5 gummymatter, 1. 1 of glucose, 4. 0 of bitter extractive, 0. 6 fat, 9. 0cellulose, inulin and fiber, and 0. 8 ash. Pure roasted chicory[184]contains 74. 2 percent water-soluble material, comprised of 16. 3 percentwater, 26. 1 glucose, 9. 6 dextrin and inulin, 3. 2 protein, 16. 4 coloringmatter, and 2. 6 ash; and 25. 8 percent insoluble substances, namely, 3. 2percent protein, 5. 7 fat, 12. 3 cellulose, and 4. 6 ash. The effect ofroasting upon chicory is to drive off a large percentage of water, increasing the reducing sugars, changing a large proportion of thebitter extractives and inulin, and forming dextrin and caramel as wellas the characteristic chicory flavor. The cereal substitutes contain almost every type of grain, mainly wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, and bran. They are prepared in two general ways, by roasting the grains, or the mixtures of grains, with or without theaddition of such substances as sugar, molasses, tannin, citric acid, etc. , or by first making the floured grains into a dough, and thenbaking, grinding, and roasting. Prior to these treatments, the grainsmay be subjected to a variety of other treatments, such as impregnationwith various compounds, or germination. The effect of roasting on thesegrains and other substitutes is the production of a destructivedistillation, as in the case of coffee; the crude fiber, starches, andother carbohydrates, etc. , being decomposed, with the production of aflavor and an aroma faintly suggesting coffee. The number, of other substitutes and imitations which have been employedare too numerous to warrant their complete description; but it willprove interesting to enumerate a few of the more important ones, such asmalt, starch, acorns, soya beans, beet roots, figs, prunes, date stones, ivory nuts, sweet potatoes, beets, carrots, peas, and other vegetables, bananas, dried pears, grape seeds, dandelion roots, rinds of citrusfruits, lupine seeds, whey, peanuts, juniper berries, rice, the fruit ofthe wax palm, cola nuts, chick peas, cassia seeds, and the seeds of anytrees and plants indigenous to the country in which the substitute isproduced. Aside from adulteration by mixing substitutes with ground coffee, and anoccasional case of factitious molded berries, the main sophisticationsof coffee comprise coating and coloring the whole beans. Coloring ofgreen and roasted coffees is practised to conceal damaged and inferiorbeans. Lead and zinc chromates, Prussian blue, ferric oxid, coal-tarcolors, and other substances of a harmful nature, have been employed forthis purpose, being made to adhere to the beans with adhesives. Asglazes and coatings, a variety of substances have been employed, such asbutter, margarin, vegetable oils, paraffin, vaseline, gums, dextrin, gelatin, resins, glue, milk, glycerin, salt, sodium bicarbonate, vinegar, Irish moss, isinglass, albumen, etc. It is usually claimed thatcoating is applied to retain aroma and to act as a clarifying agent; butthe real reasons are usually to increase weight through absorption ofwater, to render low-grade coffees more attractive, to eliminateby-products, and to assist in advertising. METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF COFFEES[185] (_Official and Tentative_) (Sole responsibility for any errors in compilation or printing of these methods is assumed by the author. ) GREEN COFFEE 1. _Macroscopic Examination--Tentative_ A macroscopic examination is usually sufficient to show the presence ofexcessive amounts of black and blighted coffee beans, coffee hulls, stones, and other foreign matter. These can be separated by hand-pickingand determined gravi-metrically. 2. _Coloring Matters--Tentative_ Shake vigorously 100 grams or more of the sample with cold water or 70percent alcohol by volume. Strain through a coarse sieve and allow tosettle. Identify soluble colors in the solution and insoluble pigmentsin the sediment. ROASTED COFFEE 3. _Macroscopic Examination--Tentative_ Artificial coffee beans are apparent from their exact regularity ofform. Roasted legumes and lumps of chicory, when present in wholeroasted coffee, can be picked out and identified microscopically. In thecase of ground coffee, sprinkle some of the sample on cold water andstir lightly. Fragments of pure coffee, if not over-roasted, will float;while fragments of chicory, legumes, cereals, etc. , will sinkimmediately, chicory coloring the water a decided brown. In all casesidentify the particles that sink by microscopical examination. 4. _Preparation of Sample--Official_ Grind the sample to pass through a sieve having holes 0. 5 mm. Indiameter and preserve in a tightly stoppered bottle. 5. _Moisture--Tentative_ Dry 5 grams of the sample at 105°--110°C. For 5 hours and subsequentperiods of an hour each until constant weight is obtained. The sameprocedure may be used, drying _in vacuo_ at the temperature of boilingwater. In the case of whole coffee, grind rapidly to a coarse powder andweigh at once portions for the determination without sifting and withoutunnecessary exposure to the air. 6. _Soluble Solids--Tentative_ Place 4 grams of the sample in a 200-cc. Flask, add water to the mark, and allow the mass to infuse for eight hours, with occasional shaking;let stand 16 hours longer without shaking, filter, evaporate 50 cc. Offiltrate to dryness in a flat-bottomed dish, dry at 100° C. , cool andweigh. 7. _Ash--Official_ Char a quantity of the substance, representing about 2 grams of the drymaterial, and burn until free of carbon at a low heat, not to exceeddull redness. If a carbon-free ash can not be obtained in this manner, exhaust the charred mass with hot water, collect the insoluble residueon a filter, burn till the ash is white or nearly so, and then add thefiltrate to the ash and evaporate to dryness. Heat to low redness, untilash is white or grayish white, and weigh. 8. _Ash Insoluble in Acid--Official_ Boil the water-insoluble residue, obtained as directed under 9, or thetotal ash obtained as directed under 7, with 25 cc. Of 10-percenthydrochloric acid (sp. Gr. 1. 050) for 5 minutes, collect the insolublematter on a Gooch crucible or an ashless filter, wash with hot water, ignite and weigh. 9. _Soluble and Insoluble Ash--Official_ Heat 5 to 10 grams of the sample in a platinum dish of from 50 to 100cc. Capacity at 100° C. Until the water is expelled, and add a few dropsof pure olive oil and heat slowly over a flame until swelling ceases. Then place the dish in a muffle and heat at low redness until a whiteash is obtained. Add water to the ash, in the platinum dish, heat nearlyto boiling, filter through ash-free filter paper, and wash with hotwater until the combined filtrate and washings measure to about 60 cc. Return the filter and contents to the platinum dish, carefully ignite, cool and weigh. Compute percentages of water-insoluble ash andwater-soluble ash. 10. _Alkalinity of the Soluble Ash--Official_ Cool the filtrate from 9 and titrate with N/10 hydrochloric acid, usingmethyl orange as an indicator. Express the alkalinity in terms of the number of cc. Of N/10 acid per 1gram of the sample. 11. _Soluble Phosphoric Acid in the Ash--Official_ Acidify the solution of soluble ash, obtained in 9, with dilute nitricacid and determine phosphoric acid (P_2_O_5). For percentages up to 5use an aliquot corresponding to 0. 4 gram of substance, for percentagesbetween 5 and 20 use an aliquot corresponding to 0. 2 gram of substance, and for percentages above 20 use an aliquot corresponding to 0. 1 gram ofsubstance. Dilute to 75-100 cc. , heat in a water-bath to 60°-65° C. , andfor percentages below 5 add 20-25 cc. Of freshly filtered molybdatesolution. For percentages between 5 and 20 add 30-35 cc. Of molybdatesolution. For percentages greater than 20 add sufficient molybdatesolution to insure complete precipitation. Stir, let stand in the bathfor about 15 minutes, filter _at once_, wash once or twice with water bydecantation, using 25-30 cc. Each time, agitate the precipitatethoroughly and allow to settle; transfer to the filter and wash withcold water until the filtrate from two fillings of the filter yields apink color upon the addition of phenolphthalein and one drop of thestandard alkali. Transfer the precipitate and filter to the beaker, orprecipitating vessel, dissolve the precipitate in a small excess of thestandard alkali, add a few drops of phenolphthalein solution, andtitrate with the standard acid. 12. _Insoluble Phosphoric Acid in the Ash--Official_ Determine phosphoric acid (P_2_O_5) in the Insoluble ash by theforegoing method. 13. _Chlorides--Official_ Moisten 5 grams of the substance in a platinum dish with 20 cc. Of a5-percent solution of sodium carbonate, evaporate to dryness and igniteas thoroughly as possible at a temperature not exceeding dull redness. Extract with hot water, filter and wash. Return the residue to theplatinum dish and ignite to an ash; dissolve in nitric acid, and addthis solution to the water extract. Add a known volume of N/10 silvernitrate in slight excess to the combined solutions. Stir well, filterand wash the silver chloride precipitate thoroughly. To the filtrate andwashings add 5 cc. Of a saturated solution of ferric alum and a few cc. Of nitric acid. Titrate the excess silver with N/10 ammonium orpotassium thiocyanate until a permanent light brown color appears. Calculate the amount of chlorin. 14. _Caffein--The Fendler and Stüber Method--Tentative_ Pulverize the coffee to pass without residue through a sieve havingcircular openings 1 mm. In diameter. Treat a 10-gram sample with 10grams of 10-percent ammonium hydroxid and 200 grams of chloroform in aglass-stoppered bottle and shake continuously by machine or hand forone-half hour. Pour the entire contents of the bottle on a 12. 5-cm. Folded filter, covering with a watch glass. Weigh 150 grams of thefiltrate into a 250-cc. Flask and evaporate on the steam bath, removingthe last chloroform with a blast of air. Digest the residue with 80 cc. Of hot water for ten minutes on a steam bath with frequent shaking, andlet cool. Treat the solution with 20 cc. (for roasted coffee) or 10 cc. (for unroasted coffee) of 1-percent potassium permanganate and let standfor 15 minutes at room temperature. Add 2 cc. Of 3-percent hydrogenperoxid (containing 1 cc. Of glacial acetic acid in 100 cc. ). If theliquid is still red or reddish, add hydrogen peroxid, 1 cc. At a time, until the excess of potassium permanganate is destroyed. Place the flaskon the steam bath for 15 minutes, adding hydrogen peroxid in 0. 5-cc. Portions until the liquid becomes no lighter in color. Cool and filterinto a separatory funnel, washing with cold water. Extract four timeswith 25 cc. Of chloroform. Evaporate the chloroform extract from aweighed flask with aid of an air blast and dry at 100° C. To constantweight (one-half hour is usually sufficient). Weigh the residue ascaffein and calculate on 7. 5 grams of coffee. Test the purity of theresidue by determining nitrogen and multiplying by 3. 464 to obtaincaffein. 15. _Caffein--Power-Chestnut Method--Official_ Moisten 10 grams of the finely powdered sample with alcohol, transfer toa Soxhlet, or similar extraction apparatus, and extract with alcohol for8 hours. (Care should be exercised to assure complete extraction. )Transfer the extract with the aid of hot water to a porcelain dishcontaining 10 grams of heavy magnesium oxid in suspension in 100 cc. Ofwater. (This reagent should meet the U. S. P. Requirements. ) Evaporateslowly on the steam bath with frequent stirring to a dry, powdery mass. Rub the residue with a pestle into a paste with boiling water. Transferwith hot water to a smooth filter, cleaning the dish with arubber-tipped glass rod. Collect the filtrate in a liter flask marked at250 cc. And wash with boiling water until the filtrate reaches the mark. Add 10 cc. Of 10-percent sulphuric acid and boil gently for 30 minuteswith a funnel in the neck of the flask. Cool and filter through amoistened double paper into a separatory funnel and wash with smallportions of 0. 5-percent sulphuric acid. Extract with six successive25-cc. Portions of chloroform. Wash the combined chloroform extracts ina separatory funnel with 5 cc. Of 1-percent potassium hydroxid solution. Filter the chloroform into an Erlenmeyer flask. Wash the potassiumhydroxid with 2 portions of chloroform of 10 cc. Each, adding them tothe flask together with the chloroform washings of the filter paper. Evaporate or distil on the steam bath to a small volume (10-15 cc. ), transfer with chloroform to a tared beaker, evaporate carefully, dry for30 minutes in a water oven, and weigh. The purity of the residue can betested by determining nitrogen and multiplying by the factor 3. 464. 16. _Crude Fiber--Official_ Prepare solutions of sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxid of exactly1. 25-percent strength, determined by titration. Extract a quantity ofthe substance representing about 2 grams of the dry material withordinary ether, or use residue from the determination of the etherextract. To this residue in a 500-cc. Flask add 200 cc. Of boiling1. 25-percent sulphuric acid; connect the flask with a reflux condenser, the tube of which passes only a short distance beyond the rubber stopperinto the flask, or simply cover a tall conical flask, which is wellsuited for this determination, with a watch glass or short stemmedfunnel. Boil at once and continue boiling gently for thirty minutes. Ablast of air conducted into the flask may serve to reduce the frothingof the liquid. Filter through linen, and wash with boiling water untilthe washings are no longer acid; rinse the substance back into the flaskwith 200 cc. Of the boiling 1. 25-percent solution of sodium hydroxidfree, or nearly so, of sodium carbonate; boil at once and continueboiling gently for thirty minutes in the same manner as directed abovefor the treatment with acid. Filter at once rapidly, wash with boilingwater until the washings are neutral. The last filtration may beperformed upon a Gooch crucible, a linen filter, or a tared filterpaper. If a linen filter is used, rinse the crude fiber, after washingis completed, into a flat-bottomed platinum dish by means of a jet ofwater; evaporate to dryness on a steam bath, dry to constant weight at110° C. , weigh, incinerate completely, and weigh again. The loss inweight is considered to be crude fiber. If a tared filter paper is used, weigh in a weighing bottle. In any case, the crude fiber after drying toconstant weight at 110° C. , must be incinerated and the amount of theash deducted from the original weight. 17. _Starch--Tentative_ Extract 5 grams of the finely pulverized sample on a hardened filterwith five successive portions (10 cc. Each) of ether, wash with smallportions of 95-percent alcohol by volume until a total of 200 cc. Havepassed through, place the residue in a beaker with 50 cc. Of water, immerse the beaker in boiling water and stir constantly for 15 minutesor until all the starch is gelatinized; cool to 55° C. , add 20 cc. Ofmalt extract and maintain at this temperature for an hour. Heat again toboiling for a few minutes, cool to 55° C. , add 20 cc. Of malt extractand maintain at this temperature for an hour or until the residuetreated with iodin shows no blue color upon microscopic examination. Cool, make up directly to 250 cc. , and filter. Place 200 cc. Of thefiltrate in a flask with 20 cc. Of hydrochloric acid (sp. Gr. 1. 125);connect with a reflux condenser and heat in a boiling water bath for 2. 5hours. Cool, nearly neutralize with sodium hydroxid solution, and makeup to 500 cc. Mix the solution well, pour through a dry filter anddetermine the dextrose in an aliquot. Conduct a blank determination uponthe same volume of the malt extract as used upon the sample, and correctthe weight of reduced copper accordingly. The weight of the dextroseobtained multiplied by 0. 90 gives the weight of starch. 18. _Sugars--Tentative_ See original. [186] 19. _Petroleum Ether Extract--Official_ Dry 2 grams of coffee at 100° C. , extract with petroleum ether (boilingpoint 35° to 50° C. ) for 16 hours, evaporate the solvent, dry theresidue at 100° C. , cool, and weigh. 20. _Total Acidity--Tentative_ Treat 10 grams of the sample, prepared as directed under 4, with 75 cc. Of 80-percent alcohol by volume in an Erlenmeyer flask, stopper, andallow to stand 16 hours, shaking occasionally. Filter and transfer analiquot of the filtrate (25 cc. In the case of green coffee, 10 cc. Inthe case of roasted coffee) to a beaker, dilute to about 100 cc. Withwater and titrate with N/10 alkali, using phenolphthalein as anindicator. Express the result as the number of cc. Of N/10 alkalirequired to neutralize the acidity of 100 grams of the sample. 21. _Volatile Acidity--Tentative_ Into a volatile acid apparatus introduce a few glass beads, and overthese place 20 grams of the unground sample. Add 100 cc. Of recentlyboiled water to the sample, place a sufficient quantity of recentlyboiled water in the outer flask and distil until the distillate is nolonger acid to litmus paper. Usually 100 cc. Of distillate will becollected. Titrate the distillate with N/10 alkali, usingphenolphthalein as an indicator. Express the result as the number of cc. Of N/10 alkali required to neutralize the acidity of 100 grams of thesample. UNOFFICIAL METHODS 22. _Protein_ Determine nitrogen in 3 grams of the sample by the Kjeldahl or Gunningmethod. This gives the total nitrogen due to both the proteids and thecaffein. To obtain the protein nitrogen, subtract from the totalnitrogen the nitrogen due to caffein, obtained by direct determinationon the separated caffein or by calculation (caffein divided by 3. 464gives nitrogen). Multiply by 6. 25 to obtain the amount of protein. 23. _Ten Percent Extract--McGill Method_ Weigh into a tared flask the equivalent of 10 grains of the driedsubstance, add water until the contents of the flask weigh 110 grams, connect with a reflux condenser and heat, beginning the boiling in 10 to15 minutes. Boil for 1 hour, cool for 15 minutes, weigh again, making upany loss by the addition of water, filter, and take the specific gravityof the filtrate at 15° C. According to McGill, a 10-percent extract of pure coffee has a specificgravity of 1. 00986 at 15° C. , and under the same treatment chicory givesan extract with a specific gravity of 1. 02821. In mixtures of coffee andchicory the approximate percentage of chicory may be calculated by thefollowing formula: (1. 02821 - sp. Gr. )Percent of chicory = 100 ------------------ 0. 01835 The index of refraction of the above solution may be taken with theZeiss immersion refractometer or with the Abbe refractometer. With a 10-percent coffee extract, n_d 20° = 1. 3377. With a 10-percent chicory extract, n_d 20° = 1. 3448. Determinations of the solids, ash, sugar, nitrogen, etc. , may be made inthe 10-percent extract, if desired. 24. _Caffetannic Acid--Krug's Method_[187] Treat 2 grains of the coffee with 10 cc. Of water and digest for 36hours; add 25 cc. Of 90-percent alcohol and digest 24 hours more, filter, and wash with 90-percent alcohol. The filtrate contains tannin, caffein, color, and fat. Heat the filtrate to the boiling point and adda saturated solution of lead acetate. If this is carefully done, acaffetannate of lead will be precipitated containing 49 percent of lead. As soon as the precipitate has become flocculent, collect on a taredfilter, wash with 90-percent alcohol until free from lead, wash withether, dry and weigh. The precipitate multiplied by 0. 51597 gives theweight of the caffetannic acid. [Illustration] CHAPTER XVIII PHARMACOLOGY OF THE COFFEE DRINK _General physiological action--Effect on children--Effect on longevity--Behavior in the alimentary régime--Place in dietary--Action on bacteria--Use in medicine--Physiological action of "caffetannic acid"--Of caffeol--Of caffein--Effect of caffein on mental and motor efficiency--Conclusions_ By Charles W. Trigg Industrial Fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, 1916-1920 The published information regarding the effects of coffee drinking onthe human system is so contradictory in its nature that it is hazardousto make many generalizations about the physiological behavior of coffee. Most of the investigations that have been conducted to date have beencharacterized by incompleteness and a failure to be sufficientlycomprehensive to eliminate the element of individual idiosyncrasy fromthe results obtained. Accordingly, it is possible to select statementsfrom literature to the effect either that coffee is an "elixir of life, "or even a poison. This is a deplorable state of affairs, not calculated to promote thedissemination of accurate knowledge among the consuming public, but itmay be partly excused upon the grounds that experimental apparatus hasnot always been at the level of perfection that it now occupies. Also, to do justice to some of the able men who have interested themselves inthis problem, it should be said that some of their results were obtainedin researches, distinguished by painstaking accuracy, which haveeffected the establishment of the major reactions of ingested coffee. _The Physiological Action of Coffee_ Drinking of coffee by mankind may be attributed to three causes: thedemand for, and the pleasing effects of, a hot drink (a very smallpercentage of the coffee consumed is taken cold), the pleasing reactionwhich its flavors excite on the gustatory nerve, and the stimulatingeffect which it has upon the body. The flavor is due largely to thevolatile aromatic constituents, "caffeol, " which, when isolated, have ageneral depressant action on the system; and the stimulation is causedby the caffein. The general and specific actions of these individualcomponents, together with that of the hypothetical "caffetannic acid, "are considered under separate headings. Coffee may be considered a member of the general class of adjuvant, orauxiliary, foods to which other beverages and condiments of negligibleinherent food value belong. Its position on the average menu may beattributed largely to its palatability and comforting effects. However, the medicinal value of coffee in the dietary and _per se_ must not beoverlooked. The ingestion of coffee infusion is always followed by evidences ofstimulation. It acts upon the nervous system as a powerfulcerebro-spinal stimulant, increasing mental activity and quickening thepower of perception, thus making the thoughts more precise and clear, and intellectual work easier without any evident subsequent depression. The muscles are caused to contract more vigorously, increasing theirworking power without there being any secondary reaction leading to adiminished capacity for work. Its action upon the circulation issomewhat antagonistic; for while it tends to increase the rate of theheart by acting directly on the heart muscle, it tends to decrease it bystimulating the inhibitory center in the medulla. [188] The effect on the kidneys is more marked, the diuretic effect beingshown by an increase in water, soluble solids, and of uric acid directlyattributable to the caffein content of the coffee taken. In thealimentary tract coffee seems to stimulate the oxyntic cells andslightly to increase the secretion of hydrochloric acid, as well as tofavor intestinal peristalsis. It is difficult to accept reports ofcoffee accomplishing both a decrease in metabolism and an increase inbody heat; but if the production of heat by the demethylation of caffeinto form uric acid and a possible repression of perspiration by coffee beconsidered, the simultaneous occurrence of these two physiologicalreactions may be credited. The disagreement of medical authorities over the physiological effectsof coffee is quite pronounced. This may be observed by a careful perusalof the following statements made by these men. It will be noticed thatthe majority opinion is that coffee in moderation is not harmful. Justhow much coffee a person may drink, and still remain within the limitsof moderation and temperance, is dependent solely upon the individualconstitution, and should be decided from personal experience rather thanby accepting an arbitrary standard set by some one who professes to bean authority on the matter. A writer in the _British Homeopathic Review_[189] says that "theexciting effects of coffee upon the nervous system exhibit themselves inall its departments as a temporary exaltation. The emotions are raisedin pitch, the fancies are lively and vivid, benevolence is excited, thereligious sense is stimulated, there is great loquacity.... Theintellectual powers are stimulated, both memory and judgment arerendered more keen and unusual vivacity of verbal expression rules for ashort time. " He continues: Hahnemann gives a characteristically careful account of the coffee headache. If the quantity of coffee taken be immoderately great and the body be very excitable and quite unused to coffee, there occurs a semilateral headache from the upper part of the parietal bone to the base of the brain. The cerebral membranes of this side also seem to be painfully sensitive, the hands and feet becoming cold, and sweat appears on the brows and palms. The disposition becomes irritable and intolerant, anxiety, trembling and restlessness are apparent.... I have met with headaches of this type which yielded readily to coffee and with many more in which the indicated remedy failed to act until the use of coffee as a beverage was abandoned. The eyes and ears suffer alike from the super-excitation of coffee. There is a characteristic toothache associated with coffee. In apparent contradiction of this opinion, Dr. Valentin Nalpasse, [190]of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, states: When coffee is properly made and taken in moderation, it is a most valuable drink. It facilitates the digestion because it produces a local excitement. Its principal action gives clear and stable imaginative power to the brain. By doing that, it makes intellectual work easy, and, to a certain extent, regulates the functions of the brain. The thoughts become more precise and clear, and mental combinations are formed with much greater rapidity. Under the influence of coffee, the memory is sometimes surprisingly active, and ideas and words flow with ease and elegance.... Many people abuse coffee without feeling any bad effect. Discussing the use and abuse of coffee, I. N. Love[191] says: The world has in the infusion of coffee one of its most valuable beverages. It is a prompt diffusible stimulant, antiseptic and encourager of elimination. In season it supports, tides over danger, helps the appropriate powers of the system, whips up the flagging energies, enhances the endurance; but it is in no sense a food, and for this reason it should be used temperately. Also Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson[192] makes the following weightypronouncement: In reference to my suggestion to give children tea and coffee. I may explain that it is done advisedly. There is probably no objection to their use even at early ages. They arouse the dull, calm the excitable, prevent headaches, and fit the brain for work. They preserve the teeth, keep them tight in their place, strengthen the vocal chords, and prevent sore throat. To stigmatize these invaluable articles of diet as "nerve stimulants" is an erroneous expression, for they undoubtedly have a right to rank as nerve nutrients. But Dr. Harvey Wiley[193] comes forth with evidence on the other side, saying: The effects of the excessive use of coffee, tea, and other natural caffein beverages is well known. Although the caffein is combined in these beverages naturally, and they are as a rule taken at meal times, which mitigates the effects of the caffein, they are recognized by every one as tending to produce sleeplessness, and often indigestion, stomach disorders, and a condition which, for lack of a better term, is described as nervousness.... The excessive drinking of tea and coffee is acknowledged to be injurious by practically all specialists. Dr. V. C. Vaughn, [194] of the University of Michigan, speaking of tea andcoffee, expresses this opinion: I believe that caffein used as a beverage and in moderation not only is harmless to the majority of adults, but is beneficial. This verdict is upheld by the results of a symposium[195] conducted bythe _Medical Times_, in which a large majority of the medical expertsparticipating, among whom may be enumerated Drs. Lockwood, Wood, Hollingworth, Robinson, and Barnes, agreed that the drinking of coffeeis not harmful _per se_, but that over-indulgence is the real cause ofany ill effects. This is also true of any ingested material. Insomnia is a condition frequently attributed to coffee, but that theauthorities disagree on this ground is shown by Wiley's[196] contention, "We know beyond doubt that the caffein (in coffee) makes a direct attackon the nerves and causes insomnia. " While Woods Hutchinson[197]observes: Oddly enough, a cup of hot, weak tea or coffee, with plenty of cream and sugar, will often help you to sleep, for the grateful warmth and stimulus to the lining of the stomach, drawing the blood into it and away from the head, will produce more soothing effects than the small amount of caffein will produce stimulating and wakeful ones. The writer has often had people remark to him that while black coffeesometimes kept them awake, coffee with cream or sugar or both made themdrowsy. In the course of experiments conducted by Montuori and Pollitzer[198] itwas found that coffee prepared by hot infusion when given by mouth orhypodermically with the addition of a small dose of alcohol proved anefficient means of combating the pernicious effects of low temperatures. Coffee prepared by boiling, and tea, showed negative effects. The value of coffee as a strength-conserver, and its function ofincreasing endurance, morale, and healthfulness, was demonstrated by thegreat stress which the military authorities, in the late and in previouswars, placed upon furnishing the soldiers with plenty of good coffee, particularly at times when they were under the greatest strain. Variousarticles[199] record this fact; and these statements are further borneout by the data given below in the discussion of the physiologicaleffects of caffein, to which the majority of the stimulating effects ofcoffee may be attributed. According to Fauvel, [200] with a healthy patient on a vegetable diet, chocolate and coffee increase the excretion of purins, diminishing theexcretion of uric acid and apparently hindering the precipitation ofuric acid in the organism. This diminution, however, was not due toretention of uric acid in the organism. "Habit-forming" is one of the adjectives often used in describingcoffee, but it is a fact that coffee is much less likely than alcoholicliquors to cause ill effects. A man rarely becomes a slave of coffee;and excessive drinking of this beverage never produces a state of moralirresponsibility or leads to the commission of crime. Dr. J. W. Mallet, [201] in testimony given before a Federal Court, stated thatcaffein and coffee were not habit-forming in the correct sense of theterm. His definition of the expression is that the habit formed must bea detrimental and injurious one--one which becomes so firmly fixed upona person forming it that it is thrown off with great difficulty and withconsiderable suffering, continuous exercise of the habit increasing thedemand for the habit-forming drug. It is well known that the desireceases in a very short period of time after cessation of use ofcaffein-containing beverages, so that in that sense, coffee is nothabit-forming. [Illustration: MEN AND WOMEN LABORERS PICKING COFFEE ON A SÃO PAULOESTATE] [Illustration: SACKING COFFEE IN A WAREHOUSE AT THE PORT OF SANTOS] [Illustration: PICKING AND SACKING COFFEE IN BRAZIL] It has been shown by Gourewitsch[202] that the daily administration ofcoffee produces a certain degree of tolerance, and that the doses mustbe increased to obtain toxic results. Harkness[203] has been quoted asstating that "taken in moderation; coffee is one of the most wholesomebeverages known. It assists digestion, exhilarates the spirits, andcounteracts the tendency to sleep. " Carl V. Voit, [204] the Germanphysiological chemist, says this about coffee: The effect of coffee is that we are bothered less by unpleasant experiences and become more able to conquer difficulties; therefore, for the feasting rich, it makes intestinal work after a meal less evident and drives away the deadly ennui; for the student it is a means to keep wide awake and fresh; for the worker it makes the day's fatigue more bearable. Dr. Brady[205] believes that the so-called harmfulness of coffee ismainly psychological, as evidenced by his expression, "Most of theprejudice which exists against coffee as a beverage is based uponnothing more than morbid fancy. People of dyspeptic or neurotictemperament are fond of assuming that coffee must be bad because it isso good, and accordingly, denying themselves the pleasure of drinkingit. " The recounting of evidence, both _pro_ and _con_, relevant to thegeneral effects of coffee could continue almost _ad infinitum_, but thefairest unification of the various opinions is best quoted from WoodsHutchinson[206]: Somewhere from 1 to 3 percent of the community are distinctly injured or poisoned by tea or coffee, even small amounts producing burning of the stomach, palpitation of the heart, headache, eruptions of the skin, sensations of extreme nervousness, and so on; though the remaining 97 percent are not injured by them in any appreciable way if consumed in moderation. So, if one is personally satisfied that he belongs to the abnormalminority, and has not been argued by fallacious reasoning into hisbelief that coffee injures him, he should either reduce his consumptionof coffee or let it alone. Even those most vitally interested in thecommercial side of coffee will admit that this is the logical procedure. _Effects of Coffee on Children_ The same sort of controversy has raged around the question of theadvisability of giving coffee to children as has occurred regarding itsgeneral action. Dr. J. Hutchinson[207] advocates furnishing childrenwith coffee, while Dr. Charlotte Abbey[208] is strongly against such apractise, claiming that use of caffein-containing beverages before theattainment of full growth will weaken nerve power. Nalpasse[209]observes that until fully developed the young are immoderately excitedby coffee; and Hawk[210] is of the opinion that to give such a stimulantto an active school-child is both logically and dietetically incorrect. Dr. Vaughn[211] advances this scientific argument against the drinkingof coffee by children under seven years of age: In proportion to body weight the young contain more of the xanthin bases than adults. They are already laden with these physiological stimulants, and the additional dose given in tea or coffee may be harmful. In a study of the effects of coffee drinking upon 464 school children, C. K. Taylor[212] found a slight difference in mental ability andbehavior, unfavorable to coffee. About 29 percent of these childrendrank no coffee; 46 percent drank a cup a day; 12 percent, 2 cups; 8percent, 3 cups; and the remainder, 4 or more cups a day. Themeasurements of height, weight, and hand strength also showed a slightadvantage in favor of the non-coffee drinkers. If these results be takenas truly representative, their indication is obvious. However, it seemsdesirable to repeat these experiments upon other groups; at the sametime noting carefully the factors of environment, and other diet, beforeany criterion is made. As a refutation to this experimental evidence is the practicalexperience of the inhabitants of the Island of Groix, off the Brittanycoast, whose annual consumption of coffee is nearly 30 pounds percapita, being ingested both as the roasted bean and as an infusion. Itis reported that many of the children are nourished almost entirely oncoffee soup up to ten years of age, yet the mentality and physique ofthe populace does not fall below that of others of the same stock andeducational opportunities. [213] Pertinent in this connection is Hawk's[214] statement that young mothersshould refrain from the use of coffee, as caffein stimulates the actionof the kidneys and tends to bring about a loss from the body of some ofthe salts necessary to the development of the unborn child as well asfor the proper production of milk during the nursing period. The caffeinof coffee also increases the flow of milk, but the milk produced iscorrespondingly dilute and a later decreased secretion may be expected. Furthermore, some of the caffein of the coffee may pass into themother's milk, thus reaching the child, so that the use of coffee duringthe nursing period is undesirable on this ground also. Naturally, thequestion arises as to whether this arraignment is purely theoretical orbased upon analytical and clinical data. It is a difficult matter definitely to set an age below which coffeeshould not be drunk, as the time of reaching maturity varies withclimate and ancestral origin. Yet, from a theoretical standpoint, children before or during the adolescent period should be limited to theuse of a rather small amount of tea and coffee as beverages, as theirpoise and nerve control have not reached a stage of developmentsufficient to warrant the stimulation incident to the consumption of anappreciable quantity of caffein. _Coffee Drinking and Longevity_ There are many who would have us believe that the use of coffee is onlya means toward the end of quickly reaching the great beyond; but it isknown that the habitual coffee drinker generally enjoys good health, andsome of the longest-lived people have used it from their earliest youthwithout any apparent injury to their health. Nearly every one has anacquaintance who has lived to a ripe old age despite the use of coffee. Quoting Metchnikoff[215]: In some cases centenarians have been much addicted to the drinking of coffee. The reader will recall Voltaire's reply when his doctor described the grave harm that comes from the abuse of coffee, which acts as a real poison. "Well", said Voltaire, "I have been poisoning myself for nearly eighty years. " There are centenarians who have lived longer than Voltaire and have drunk still more coffee. Elizabeth Durieux, a native of Savoy, reached the age of 114. Her principal food was coffee, of which she took daily as many as forty small cups. She was jovial and a boon table companion, and used black coffee in quantities that would have surprised an Arab. Her coffee-pot was always on the fire, like the tea-pot in an English cottage (Lejoncourt, p. 84; Chemin, p. 147). The entire matter resolves itself into one of individual tolerance, resistivity, and constitution. Numerous examples of young abstainers whohave died and coffee drinkers who have still lived on can be found, and_vice versa_, the preponderance of instances being in neither direction. Bodies of persons killed by accident have been painstakingly examinedfor physiological changes attributable to coffee; but no differencebetween those of coffee and of non-coffee drinkers (ascertained bycareful investigation of their life history) could be discerned. [216] Inthe long run, it is safe to say that the effect of coffee drinking uponthe prolongation or shortening of life is neutral. _Coffee in the Alimentary Tract_ When coffee is taken _per os_ it passes directly to the stomach, whereits sole immediate action is to dilute the previous contents, just asother ingested liquids do. Eventually the caffein content is absorbed bythe system, and from thence on a stimulation is apparent. Considerableconjecture has occurred over the difference in the effects of tea andcoffee, the most feasible explanation advanced being one appearing inthe London _Lancet_. [217] The caffein tannate of tea is precipitated by weak acids, and the presumption is that it is precipitated by the gastric juice and, therefore, the caffein is probably not absorbed until it reaches the alkaline alimentary tract. In the case of coffee, however, in whatever form the caffein may be present, it is soluble in both alkaline and acid fluids, and, therefore, the absorption of the alkaloid probably takes place in the stomach. This theory, if true, goes far toward explaining the more rapidstimulation of coffee. The statement has sometimes been made that milk or cream causes thecoffee liquid to become coagulated when it comes into contact with theacids of the stomach. This is true, but does not carry with it theinference that indigestibility accompanies this coagulation. Milk andcream, upon reaching the stomach, are coagulated by the gastric juice;but the casein product formed is not indigestible. These liquids, whenadded to coffee, are partially acted upon by the small acid content ofthe brew, so that the gastric juice action is not so pronounced, for thecoagulation was started before ingestion, and the coagulableconstituent, casein, is more dilute in the cup as consumed than it is inmilk. Accordingly, the particles formed by it in the stomach will berelatively smaller and more quickly and easily digested than milk _perse_. It has been observed that coffee containing milk or cream is not asstimulating as black coffee. The writer believes that this is probablydue to mechanical inclusion of caffein in the casein and fat particles, and also to some adsorption of the alkaloid by them. This wouldmaterially retard the absorption of the caffein by the body, spread theaction over a longer period of time, and hence decrease the maximumstimulation attained. In a few instances, a small fraction of one percent of coffee users, there is a certain type of distress, localized chiefly in the alimentarytract, caused by coffee, which can not be blamed upon the much-malignedcaffein. The irritating elements may be generally classified ascompounds formed upon the addition of cream or milk to the coffeeliquor, volatile constituents, and products formed by hydrolysis of thefibrous part of the grounds. It may be generally postulated that themain causation of this discomfort is due to substances formed in theincorrect brewing of coffee, the effect of which is accentuated by theaddition of cream or milk, when the condition of individual idiosyncrasyis present. Without enlarging upon his reason, Lorand[218] concludes that neithertea nor coffee is advisable for weak stomachs. Nalpasse, [219] however, believes that coffee taken after meals makes the digestion more perfectand more rapid, augmenting the secretions, and that it agrees equallywell with people inclined to embonpoint and heavy eaters whose digestionis slow and difficult. Thompson[220] also observes that coffee drunk inmoderation is a mild stimulant to gastric digestion. Eder[221] reported, as the result of an inquiry into the action ofcoffee on the activity of the stomachs of ruminants, that coffeeinfusions produced a transitory increase in the number and intensity ofthe movements of the paunch, but that the influence exercised was veryirregular. An elaborate investigation of the action of tea and coffee on digestionin the stomach was made by Fraser, [222] in which he found that bothretard peptic digestion, the former to a greater degree than the latter. The digestion of white of egg, ham, salt beef, and roast beef was muchless affected than that of lamb, fowl, or bread. Coffee seemed actuallyto aid the digestion of egg and ham. He attributed the retarding effectto the tannic acid of the tea and the volatile constituents of thecoffee--the caffein itself favoring digestion rather than otherwise. Teaincreased the production of gas in all but salt foods, whereas coffeedid not. Coffee is, therefore, to be preferred in cases of flatulentdyspepsia. Hutchinson, in his _Food and Dietetics_, opines: As regards the practical inferences to be drawn from experiences and observations, it may be said that in health the disturbance of digestion produced by the infused beverages (tea and coffee) is negligible. Roberts, indeed, goes so far as to suggest that the slight slowing of digestion which they produce may be favored rather than otherwise, as tending to compensate for too rapid digestibility which refinements of manufacture and preparation have made characteristic of modern foods. Regarding increase in secretory activity, Moore and Allanston[223]report that in their experience meat extracts, tea, caffein solution, and coffee call forth a greater gastric secretion than does water, whilewith milk the flow of gastric juice seems to be retarded. Cushing[224]and others support this statement. This action is partially explained byVoit on the grounds that all tasty foods increase gastric secretion, theaction being partly psychological; but Cushing observed the same effectsupon introducing coffee directly into the stomachs of animals. In general, a moderate amount of coffee stimulates appetite, improvesdigestion and relieves the sense of plenitude in the stomach. Itincreases intestinal peristalsis, acts as a mild laxative, and slightlystimulates secretion of bile. Excessive use, however, profoundlydisturbs digestive function, and promotes constipation andhemorrhoids. [225] There is much evidence to support the view that"neither tea, coffee, nor chicory in dilute solutions has anydeleterious action on the digestive ferments, although in strongsolutions such an action may be manifest. "[226] After conductingexhaustive experiments with various types of coffee, Lehmann[227]concluded that ordinary coffee is without effect on the digestion of themajority of sound persons, and may be used with impunity. _Coffee in the Dietary--Food Value_ There are three things to be considered in deciding upon the inclusionof a substance in the dietary--palatability, digestibility withouttoxicity or disarrangement, and calorific value. Coffee is assatisfactory from these viewpoints as any other food product. The palatability of a well-made cup of good coffee needs no eulogizing;it speaks for itself. It adds enormously to the attractiveness of themeal, and to our ability to eat with relish and appetite large amountsof solid foods, without a subsequent uncomfortable feeling. Wiley[228]says that the feeling of drowsiness after a full meal is a naturalcondition incidental to the proper conduct of digestion, and that todrive away this natural feeling with coffee must be an interference withthe normal condition. However, if by so doing, we can increase ourover-all efficiency without material harm to our digestive organs (andwe can and do), the procedure has much in its favor both psychologicallyand dietetically. The fact that coffee favors digestion without eventual disarrangementhas been demonstrated above. On the subject of the relative agreementwith the constitution of foods of daily consumption, Dr. English[229]said: It is well known that there is no species of diet which invariably suits all constitutions, nor will that which is palatable and salutary at one time be equally palatable and salutary at another time to the same individual. I think the most natural food provided for us is milk; yet I will engage to show twenty instances where milk disagrees more than coffee. Further in this regard, Hutchinson[230] considers that ninety percent ofthe "dyspepsias" attributed to coffee are due to malnutrition, or tofood simultaneously ingested, no disease known to the medical professionbeing directly attributable to it. No one cognizant of the facts will contend that a cup of black coffeehas any direct food value; but not so with the roasted bean. This hasquite an appreciable content of protein and fat, both substances of highcalorific value. The inhabitants of the Island of Groix eat the wholeroasted coffee bean in considerable quantity, and seem to obtainconsiderable nourishment therefrom. Also, the Galla, a wandering tribeof Africa, make large use of food balls, about the size of billiardballs, consisting of pulverized coffee held in shape with fat. One ballis said to contain a day's ration; and, because of its food content andstimulating power, serves to sustain them on long marches of days'duration. When an infusion, or decoction, of roasted coffee is made, about 1. 25percent of the extracted matter is protein, it being accompanied bytraces of dextrin and sugar. The same dearth of extraction of foodmaterials occurs upon infusing coffee substitutes. This small amount canhave but little dietetic significance. However, upon addition of sugarand of milk or cream, with their content of protein, fat, and lactose, the calorific value of the cup of coffee rises. Lusk and Gephart[231]give the food value of an ordinary restaurant cup of coffee as 195. 5calories, and Locke[232] gives it as 156. Mattei[233] found that 8 cc. Of an infusion of roasted Mocha coffee offive-percent strength suppressed incipient polyneuritis in pigeonswithin a few hours' time. Their weight did not improve, but otherwisethey were completely restored to health. However, in from four to sixweeks after the apparent cure, the symptoms rapidly returned and thepigeons perished, with symptoms of paralysis and cerebral complications. The temporary cure was probably due to caffein stimulation and secondaryactions of the volatile constituents of coffee, which may be related tothe vitamines; for it is not likely that the vitamines would withstandthe heat of roasting. If B-vitamine does occur in roasted coffee, it ispresent only in traces. [234] The inclusion of coffee in the average dietary is warranted because ofits evident worth as an aid to digestion and for its assimilating power, thus earning its characterization as an "adjuvant food. " _Action of Coffee on Bacteria_ The employment of coffee as an aid to sanitation has been but littleconsidered. Coffee, when freshly roasted and ground, is deodorant, antiseptic, and germicidal, probably due to the empyreumatic productsdeveloped during the process of roasting. An infusion of 0. 5 percentinhibits the growth of many pathogenic organisms, and those of 10percent kill anthrax bacteria in three hours, cholera spirilla in fourhours, and many other bacteria, including those producing typhoid, intwo to six days. [235] The maintenance of a low rate of contraction of typhoid fever has oftenbeen attributed to drinking of coffee instead of water, the action ofthe coffee being partly due to the bactericidal effect of the caffeoland partly to the boiling of the water before infusion. The stimulatingtendency of the caffein to sustain and to "tide over" those of lowvitalities is also evidenced. _Use of Coffee in Medicine_ Coffee has been employed in medicinal practise as a direct specific, asa preventive, and as an antidote. The _United States Dispensatory_[236]summarizes the uses of caffein and coffee as follows: Caffein is a valuable remedy in practical medicine as a cerebral and cardiac stimulant and as a diuretic. In undue _somnolence_, in _nervous headache_, in _narcotism_, also, at times when the exigencies of life require excessively prolonged wakefulness, caffein may be used as the most powerful agent known for producing wakefulness. In a series of experiments, J. Hughes Bennett found that within narrow limits there is a direct physiological antagonism between caffein and morphine. Coffee and caffein in narcotic poisoning are of value as a means of keeping the patient awake, and of stimulating the respiratory centres. As a cardiac stimulant, caffein may be used in any form of heart failure; the indications for its use are those which call for the employment of digitalis. It is superior to digitalis in never disagreeing with the stomach, in having no distinctive cumulative tendency, and in the promptness of its action. It is pronouncedly inferior to digitalis in the power and certainty of its action, and in the permanence of its influence once asserted. As a diuretic it is superior; it is very valuable in the treatment of _cardiac dropsies_, and is often useful in _chronic Bright's disease_ when there is no irritation of the kidneys. On account of its tendency to produce wakefulness, it is usually better to mass the doses early in the day, at least six hours being left between the last dose and the ordinary time for sleep. From eight to fifteen grams (of caffein) may be given in the course of a day in severe cases. If tried, it would probably prove a useful drug in cases of _sudden collapse_ from various causes. Good effects of coffee are recounted by Thompson. [237] It removes the sensation of fatigue in the muscles, and increases their functional activity; it allays hunger to a limited extent; it strengthens the heart action; it acts as a diuretic, and increases the excretion of urea; it has a mildly sudorific influence; it counteracts nervous exhaustion and stimulates nerve centers. It is used sometimes as a nervine in cases of migraine, and there are many persons who can sustain prolonged mental fatigue and strain from anxiety and worry much better by the use of strong black coffee. In low delirium, or when the nervous system is overcome by the use of narcotics or by excessive hemorrhage, strong black coffee is serviceable to keep the patient from falling into the drowsiness which soon merges into coma. In such cases as much as half a pint of strong black coffee may be injected into the rectum. Strong coffee with a little lemon juice or brandy is often useful in overcoming a malarial chill or a paroxysm of asthma. It is a useful temporary cardiac stimulant for children suffering collapse. Dr. Restrepo, [238] of Medellin, Colombia, claims to have cured manycases of chronic malaria and related diseases with infusion of greencoffee, after quinine had failed. Wallace[239] states that tincture ofgreen coffee is a natural and efficacious specific for cholera, and thatshe knows of more than a thousand eases of cholera and diarrhea whichhave been treated with it without an isolated case of failure. Landanabileo has been quoted as using raw coffee infusion in hepatic andnephritic diseases, venal and hepatic colics, and in diabetes. In the Civil War, surgeons utilized coffee in allaying malarial feverand other maladies with which they had to contend, often under the mosttrying conditions, and with severely limited means of combatingdisease. [240] Its effect is to counteract the depressant action of lowand miasmatic atmospheres, opening the secretions which they havechecked. Travelers from the colder climes soon find that the fragrantcup of coffee is a corrective to derangements of the liver resultingfrom climatic conditions. [241] Dr. Guillasse, of the French Navy, in a paper on typhoid fever, says: Coffee has given us unhoped for satisfaction, and after having dispensed it we find, to our great surprise, that its action is as prompt as it is decisive. No sooner have our patients taken a few tablespoonfuls of it, than their features become relaxed and they come to their senses. The next day the improvement is such that we are tempted to look upon coffee as a specific against typhoid fever. Under its influence the stupor is dispelled, and the patient arouses from the state of somnolency in which he has been since the invasion of the disease. Soon all the functions take their natural course, and he enters upon convalescence. [242] Also it has been reported that in extreme cases of yellow fever, coffeehas been used most effectively by many physicians as the main relianceafter all other well known remedies have been administered and failed. According to Lorand, [243] the use of coffee in gout is strictlyprohibited by Umber and Schittenhelm; but he considered it a mistakeabsolutely to forbid coffee, as, when a person has good kidneys, thesmall amount of uric acid furnished by the caffein can readily beeliminated. A curious remedy for gout and rheumatism, the efficacy ofwhich the writer scouts, is said to be[244]--a pint of hot, strong, black coffee, which must be perfectly pure, and seasoned with ateaspoonful of pure black pepper, thoroughly mixed before drinking, andthe preparation taken just before going to bed. If this has any value, it is probably purely psychological in its function. Several writers[245] attribute amblyopia and other affections of thesight to coffee and chicory, without giving much conclusive experimentaldata. Beer, [246] a Vienna oculist, however, held that the vapor frompure, hot, freshly-made coffee is beneficial to the eyes. Coffee and caffein are physiologically antagonistic to the commonnarcotics, nicotine, morphine, opium, alcohol, etc. , and are frequentlyused as antidotes for these poisons. Binz found that dogs that have beenstupified with alcohol could be awakened with coffee. It may thus beprescribed for hard drinkers to counteract the baleful excitabilityproduced by alcohol; in fact, many topers taper off after a long debauchwith coffee containing small amounts of alcoholic beverages. Consideringits ability to counteract the slow intoxication of tobacco, it may beinferred that coffee is indispensable for hard smokers. In general, the medicinal value of coffee may be said to be directlyattributable to its caffein content, although its antiseptic propertiesare dependent upon the volatile aromatic constituents. Its function isto raise and to sustain vitalities which have been lowered by disease ordrugs. Although some of the cures attributed to it are probably purelytraditional; still, it must be admitted, that by utilizing itsstimulating qualities in many illnesses the patient may be carried pastthe danger point into convalescence. _Physiological Action of "Caffetannic Acid_" It has been demonstrated in chapter XVII that there is no definitecompound "caffetannic acid, " and that the heterogeneous materialdesignated by this name does not possess the properties of tanning. Further substantiation of this contention, and more evidence of theinnocuous character of the tannin-like compounds in coffee, arecontained in the testimony of Sollmann. [247] "Tannins precipitateproteins, gelatine, and connective tissue, and thus act as astringents, styptics, and antiseptics. The different tannins are not equivalent inthese respects. Some (which are perhaps misnamed) such as those ofcoffee and ipecac, are practically non-precipitant.... On the whole, onemay say that the small quantities of tannin ordinarily taken with thefood and drink are not injurious, but that large quantities (excessivetea drinking) are certainly deleterious. The tannin of coffee isscarcely astringent, and, therefore, lacks this action, " which is provenby the fact that it does not precipitate proteins. "It has been claimed that 'caffetannic acid' injures the stomach walls, but there is no evidence that this is so. "[248] Wiley, [249] in reportingsome of his experiments, says: "Apparently the efforts to saddle theinjurious effects of coffee-drinking upon caffetannic acid in any formin which it may exist in the coffee-extract are not supported by theserecent data. " The fact that tannins retard intestinal peristalsis, whereas coffee promotes this digestive action, lends further proof tothe non-existence of tannin in coffee. These statements by eminentauthorities may be consolidated into the verity that there is no tannin, in the true sense of the term, in coffee; and that the constituents ofthe coffee brew which have been so designated are physiologicallyharmless. _Physiological Action of Caffeol_ The evidence regarding the physiological action of caffeol iscontradictory in many cases. J. Lehmann found in 1853, that the"empyreumatic oil of coffee, _caffeone_, " is active; but more recentinvestigations have yielded results at variance with this. Hare andMarshall[250] believe that they proved it to be active. E. T. Reichert, [251] however, found it inactive in dogs, excepting in so farthat, when given intravenously, it mechanically interfered with thecirculation. With it Binz[252] was able to produce in man only feeblenervous excitement, with restlessness and increase in the rate and depthof respirations. The general effects, as summated by Sollmann[253] are, for _smalldoses_, pleasant stimulation; increased respiration; increased heartrate, but fall of blood pressure; muscular restlessness; insomnia;perspiration; congestion; for _large doses_, increased peristalsis anddefecation; depression of respiration and heart; fall of blood pressureand temperature; paralytic phenomena. It is doubtful whether thequantities taken in the beverage cause any direct central stimulation. Investigations have also been conducted with the various knownconstituents of this "coffee oil. " Erdmann[254] found that in doses ofbetween 0. 5 and 0. 6 gram per kilo of body weight, furane-alcohol kills arabbit by respiratory paralysis; and that the symptoms of poisoning area short primary excitement, salivation, diarrhea, respiratorydepression, continuous fall of the body temperature, and death fromcollapse with respiratory failure. In man, doses of from 0. 6 to 1 gramof furane-alcohol increased respiratory activity without producing othersymptoms. However, man is not as susceptible to these compounds as are the smalleranimals. But even if their relative susceptibility be assumed to be thesame, the lethal dose given the rabbit is equivalent to giving a140-pound man one dose containing the furane-alcohol content of over5, 000 cups of coffee. Thus, in view of the very apparent minuteness ofthe quantity of this compound present in one cup of coffee, togetherwith the fact that it is not cumulative in its physiological action, theimportance of its toxic properties becomes very inconsequential to eventhe most profuse and inveterate coffee drinkers. Burmann[255] reported the volatile principle to have a reducing actionon the hemoglobin; a depressing effect on the blood pressure; adepressant action on the central nervous system, disturbing the cardiacrhythm; and an action on the respiratory centers, causing dyspnea. Thereport of Sayre[256] regarding the minimum lethal dose of theconcentrated combined active principles of coffee obtained from drydistillation is, for frogs, administered intraperitoneally andsubcutaneously, 0. 03 cubic centimeters per gram of body weight; forguinea pigs per stomach, 7. 0 cc. Per kilogram of body weight, andadministered intravenously and intraperitoneally, about 1. 0 cc. Perkilogram. This evidence regarding the physiological action of caffeol can not inany wise be construed to indicate a harmfulness of coffee. Thepercentage of these volatile substances in a cup of coffee infusion isso low as to be relatively negligible in its action. And, again, thecaffein content of the brew, as will be seen, tends to counteract anypossible desultory effects of the caffeol. _General Physiological Action of Caffein_ More attention has been given to the study of the physiological actionof caffein than to that of the other individual constituents of coffee. Since certain of the effects of coffee drinking have been attributed tothis alkaloid, a brief presentment of the pharmacology of caffein willbe given as an exposition of the many statements made regarding it. According to the _British Pharmaceutical Codex_[257]: Caffein exerts three important actions: (1) on the central nervous system: (2) on muscles, including cardiac: and (3) on the kidney. The action on the central nervous system is mainly on that part of the brain connected with psychical functions. It produces a condition of wakefulness and increased mental activity. The interpretation of sensory impressions is more perfect and correct, and thought becomes clearer and quicker. With larger doses of caffein the action extends from the psychical areas to the motor area and to the cord, and the patient becomes at first restless and noisy, and later may show convulsive movements. Caffein facilitates the performance of all forms of physical work, and actually increases the total work which can be obtained from muscle. On the normal man, however, it is impossible to say how much of the action on the muscle is central and how much peripheral, but, as fatigue shows itself first by an action on the center, it is probable that the action of caffein in diminishing fatigue is mainly central. Caffein accelerates the pulse and slightly raises blood pressure. It has no action in any way resembling digitalis; by increasing the irritability of the cardiac muscle, its prolonged use rather tends to fatigue than to rest the heart. Caffein and its allies form a very important group of diuretics. The urine is generally of a lower specific gravity than normal, since it contains a lesser proportion of salt and urea; but the total excretion of solids, both as regards urea, uric acid, and salts, is increased. Caffein, by exciting the medulla, produces an initial vaso-constriction of the kidneys, which tends at first to retard the flow of urine. So in recent years, other drugs have been introduced, allies of caffein, which act like it on the kidneys, but are without the stimulant action on the brain. Theobromine is such a drug. Another authority states that[258]: One of the most constant symptoms produced in man by over-doses of caffein is excessive diuresis, and experiments made upon the lower animals show that caffein acts as a diuretic not only by influencing the circulation, but also by directly affecting the secreting cells, the probabilities being in favor of the first of these theories of action. According to Schroeder, not only the water but also the solids of the urine are increased. The question whether caffein has an influence upon tissue changes and the consequent nitrogenous elimination can not be considered as distinctly answered, though the most probable conclusion is that the action of caffein upon urea elimination and upon general nutrition is not direct or pronounced. While the therapeutic dose of caffein is broken up in the body with the formation of methylxanthin, which escapes with the urine, the toxic dose is at least in part eliminated by the kidney unchanged. The metabolism of the methyl purins, of which group caffein is a member, appears to vary with the quantity ingested. The manner in which themethyl group is liberated by the cell protoplasm is said[259] todetermine the amount of stimulus which the tissues receive from thesesubstances. The xanthin group is almost without any excitatory action, and its metabolic end products are constant. Perhaps the variation inthe excretions of unchanged methylpurins is dependent upon the amount oftotal reactive energy they invoke. Baldi[260] found that caffein in small doses increases muscularexcitability in dogs and frogs. The spinal and muscular hypericexcitability produced by caffein is, in his opinion, due to the methylgroups attached to the xanthin nucleus. Fredericq[261] states thatcaffein increases the irritability of the cardiac vagus and acceleratesthe appearance of pseudofatigue of the vagus which is produced byprolonged stimulation of the nerve. The action of caffein on themammalian heart has also been investigated by Pilcher, [262] who foundthat, following the rapid intravenous injection of caffein, there is anacute fall of blood pressure; and with a maximal quantity of caffein, 10milligrams per kilogram, the cardiac volume and the amplitude of theexcursions are usually unchanged. With larger quantities, the volumeprogressively increases and the amplitude of the excursion decreases. Salant[263] found that the intravenous injection of 15 to 25 milligramsof caffein per kilogram in animals was followed by a fall of bloodpressure amounting to 7 to 35 percent in most cases, which wastransitory, although in some animals it remained unchanged. A moderaterise was rarely observed. Caffein aids the action of nitrates, acetanilid, ethyl alcohol and amyl alcohol, and increases the toxicityof barium chloride. In a very thorough study of the toxicity of caffeinwhich he made with Reiger, [264] a greater toxicity of about 15 to 20percent by subcutaneous injection than by mouth, and but about one-halfthis when injected peritoneally, was found. Intramuscularly the toxicityis 30 percent greater than subcutaneously. In making the tests onanimals, they found that individuality, season, age, species, andcertain pathological conditions caused variation in the toxic effect ofthe administered caffein. Low protein diet tends to decrease resistanceto caffein in dogs, and a milk or meat diet does the same for growingdogs. Caffein is not cumulative for the rabbit or dog. As a result of experiments on the action of caffein on the bronchiospasmcaused by peptone (Witte), silk peptone, B-imidoazolyl-ethylamin, curare, vasodilation, and mucarin, Pal[265] concluded that caffeinstimulates certain branches of the peripheral sympathetic and is thusenabled to widen the bronchi or remove bronchiospasm. According to Lapicque[266], caffein produces a change in theexcitability of the medulla of the frog similar to that produced byraising the temperature of the nerve centers. Schürhoff[267] haspointed out that the continued use of large quantities of caffein willproduce cardiac irregularity and sleeplessness. Cochrane[268] cited three cases where caffein was hypodermicallyadministered in cases of acute indigestion, etc. , and concluded that thecases prove that caffein, or a compound containing it as a synergist, does indirectly make the injection of morphia a safe proceeding, anddirectly increases the force of the heart and arterial tension. However, Wood[269] found that medium doses of caffein do not produce any markedrise in blood pressure, and cause a reduction in pulse rate. Heattributes the contradictory results which prior investigations gave, toemployment of unusually large doses and to inaccurate experimentalmethods. Caffein was found by Nonnenbruch and Szyszka[270] to have a slightaction toward accelerating the coagulation time of the blood, beingactive over several hours. It inhibits coagulation _in vitrio_. Itsaction in the body apparently rests on an increase of the fibrinferment. There is no reason to believe that the behavior is dependent ona toxic action, but there is probably an action on the spleen; for inseveral rabbits from which the spleen was removed, no action wasobserved. Experiments conducted by Levinthal[271] gave no positive information asto the formation of uric acid from caffein in the human organism. Theelimination of caffein has also been studied by Salant and Reiger[272], who found that larger amounts of caffein are demethylated in carnivorathan in herbivora, and resistance to caffein is inversely asdemethylation, caffein being much more toxic in the former class. In asimilar investigation, Zenetz[273] observed that caffein is veryslightly eliminated from the system by the kidneys, and that its actionon the heart is cumulative; therefore he concludes that it iscontra-indicated in all renal diseases, in arterio-sclerosis, and incardiac affections secondary to them. The inaccuracy of theseconclusions regarding the non-elimination of caffein and those ofAlbanese, [274] Bondzynski and Gottlieb[275], Leven[276], Schurtzkwer[277], and Minkowski[278], has been shown by Mendel andWardell[279], who point out that many of these experimenters worked withdogs, in which the chief end-product of purin metabolism is not uricacid, but allantoin. They observe that the increase in excretion of uricacid after the addition of caffein to the diet seems to be proportionalto the quantity of caffein taken, and equivalent to from 10 to 15percent of the ingested caffein. The remainder of the caffein isprobably eliminated as mono-methylpurins. Regarding the alleged cumulative action of caffein, Pletzer[280], Liebreich, [281] Szekacs[282], Pawinski, [283] and Seifert[284] allconcluded from their investigations that the action of caffein isusually of brief duration, and does not have a cumulative effect, because of its rapid elimination; so that there is no danger ofintoxication. Dr. Oswald Schmiedeberg says: Caffein is a means of refreshing bodily and mental activity, so that this may be prolonged when the condition of fatigue has already begun to produce restraint, and to call for more severe exertion of the will, a state which, as is well known, is painful or disagreeable. This advantageous effect, in conditions of fatigue, of small quantities of caffein, as it is commonly taken in coffee or tea, might, however, by continued use become injurious, if it were in all cases necessarily exerted; that is to say, if by caffein the muscles and nerves were directly spurred on to increased activity. This is not the case, however, and just in this lies the peculiarity of the effect in question. The muscles and the simultaneously-acting nerves only under the influence of caffein respond more easily to the impulse of the will, but do not develop spontaneous activity; that is, without the co-operation of the will. The character of caffein action makes plain that these food materials do not injure the organism by their caffein content, and do not by continued use cause any chronic form of illness. According to Dr. Hollingworth's[285] deductions, caffein is the onlyknown stimulant that quickens the functions of the human body without asubsequent period of depression. His explanation for this behavior isthat "caffein acts as a lubricator for the nervous system, having anactual physical action whereby the nerves are enabled to do their workmore easily. Other stimulants act on the nerves themselves, causing awaste of energy, and consequently, according to nature's law, a periodof depression follows, and the whole process tends to injure the humanmachine. " In not a single instance during his experiments at ColumbiaUniversity did depression follow the use of caffein. Of course, caffein, like any other alkaloid, if used to excess willprove harmful, due to the over-stimulation induced by it. However, takenin moderate quantities, as in coffee and tea by normal persons, theconclusions of Hirsch[286] may be taken as correct, namely: caffein is amild stimulant, without direct effect on the muscles, the effectresulting from its own destruction and being temporary and transitory;it is not a depressant either initially or eventually; and is nothabit-forming but a true stimulant, as distinguished from sedatives andhabit-forming drugs. _Caffein and Mental and Motor Efficiency_ The literature on the influence of caffein on fatigue has beensummarized, and the older experiments clearly pointed out, byRivers[287]. A summary of the most important researches which have hadas their object the determination of the influence of caffein on mentaland motor processes has been made by Hollingworth[288], from whosemonograph much of the following material has been taken. Increase in the force of muscular contractions was demonstrated in 1892by De Sarlo and Barnardini[289] for caffein and by Kraepelin for tea. These investigators used the dynamometer as a measure of the force ofcontraction; however, most of the subsequent work on motor processes hasbeen by the ergographic method. Ugolino Mosso[290], Koch[291]. Rossi[292], Sobieranski[293], Hoch and Kraepelin, [294] Destrée, [295]Benedicenti, [296] Schumberg, [297] Hellsten, [298] and Joteyko, [299] haveall observed a stimulating effect of caffein on ergographic performance. Only one investigation of those reported by Rivers failed to find anappreciable effect, that of Oseretzkowsky and Kraepelin, [300] whileFeré[301] affirms that the effect is only an acceleration of fatigue. In spite of the general agreement as to the presence of stimulationthere is some dissension regarding whether only the height of thecontractions or their number or both are affected. As might be expectedfrom the great diversity of methods employed, the quantitative resultsalso have varied considerably. Carefully controlled experiments byRivers and Webber[302] "confirm in general the conclusion reached by allprevious workers that caffein stimulates the capacity for muscular work;and it is clear that this increase is not due to the various psychicalfactors of interest, sensory stimulation, and suggestion, which theexperiments were especially designed to exclude. The greatest increase... Falls, however, far short of that described by some previousworkers, such as Mosso; and it is probable that part of the effectdescribed by these workers was due to the factors in question. " Investigations of mental processes under the influence of caffein havebeen much less frequent, most notable among which are those of Dietl andVintschgau, [303] Dehio, [304] Kraepelin and Hoch, [305] Ach, [306]Langfeld, [307] and Rivers. [308] Kraepelin[309] observes: "We know thattea and coffee increase our mental efficiency in a definite way, and weuse these as a means of overcoming mental fatigue ... In the morningthese drinks remove the last traces of sleepiness and in the eveningwhen we still have intellectual tasks to dispose of they aid in keepingus awake. " Their use induces a greater briskness and clearness ofthought, after which secondary fatigue is either entirely absent or isvery slight. Tendency toward habituation of the pyschic functions to caffein has beenstudied by Wedemeyer[310], who found that in the regular administrationof it in the course of four to five weeks there is a measurableweakening of its action on psychic processes. Rivers[311], who seems to have been the first to appreciate fully thegenuine and practical importance of thoroughly controlling thepsychological factors that are likely to play a rôle in suchexperiments, concludes that "caffein increases the capacity for bothmuscular and mental work, this stimulating action persisting for aconsiderable time after the substance has been taken without there beingany evidence, with moderate doses, of reaction leading to diminishedcapacity for work, the substance thus really diminishing and not merelyobscuring the effects of fatigue. " EFFECT OF CAFFEIN ON MENTAL AND MOTOR PROCESSES Schematic Summary of All Results St. =Stimulation. 0=No effect. Ret. =Retardation. PRIMARY EFFECT Small Doses | Medium Doses | | Large Doses | | | Secondary Reaction | | | | Action Time Hrs. | | | | | Duration | | | | | in Hrs. Process Tests | | | | | |Motor speed 1. Tapping St. St. St. None . 75-1. 5 2-4Coordination 2. Three-hole St. 0 Ret. None 1-1. 5 3-4 3. Typewriting (a) Speed St. 0 Ret. None Results show (b) Errors Fewer for all None only in total doses days' workAssociation 4. Color-naming St. St. St. None 2-2. 5 3-4 5. Opposites St. St. St. None 2. 5-3 Next day 6. Calculation St. St. St. None 2. 5 Next dayChoice 7. Discrimination reaction time Ret. 0 St. None 2-4 Next day 8. Cancellation Ret. ? St. None 3-5 No data 9. S-W illusion 0 0 0General 10. Steadiness ? Unsteadiness None 1-3 3-4 11. Sleep quality Individual differences 12. Sleep quantity depending on body weight 2 ? 13. General health and conditions of administration Subsequent to these investigations was that of Hollingworth[312] whichis at once the most comprehensive, carefully conducted, andscientifically accurate one yet performed. He employed an ample numberof subjects in his experimentation; and both his subjects, and theassistants who recorded the observations, were in no wise cognizant ofthe character or quantity of the dose of caffein administered, the otherexperimental conditions being similarly rigorous and extensive. The purpose of his study was to determine both qualitatively andquantitatively the effect of caffein on a wide range of mental and motorprocesses, by studying the performance of a considerable number ofindividuals for a long period of time, under controlled conditions; tostudy the way in which this influence is modified by such factors as theage, sex, weight, idiosyncrasy, and previous caffein habits of thesubjects, and the degree to which it depends on the amount of the doseand the time and conditions of its administration; and to investigatethe influence of caffein on the general health, quality and amount ofsleep, and food habits of the individual tested. To obtain this information the chief tests employed were the steadiness, tapping, coordination, typewriting, color-naming, calculations, opposites, cancellation, and discrimination tests, the familiarsize-weight illusion, quality and amount of sleep, and general healthand feeling of well-being. A brief review of the results of these testsis given in the tabular summary. From these Hollingworth concluded that caffein influenced all the testsin a given group in much the same way. The effect on motor processescomes quickly and is transient, while the effect on higher mentalprocesses comes more slowly and is more persistent. Whether this resultis due to quicker reaction on the part of motor-nerve centers, orwhether it is due to a direct peripheral effect on the muscle tissue isuncertain, but the indications are that caffein has a direct action onthe muscle tissue, and that this effect is fairly rapid in appearance. The two principal factors which seem to modify the degree of caffeininfluence are _body weight_ and _presence of food_ in the stomach at thetime of ingestion of the caffein. In practically all of the tests themagnitude of the caffein influence varied inversely with the bodyweight, and was most marked when taken on an empty stomach or withoutfood substance. This variance in action was also true for both thequality and amount of sleep, and seemed to be accentuated when taken onsuccessive days; but it did not appear to depend on the age, sex, orprevious caffein habits of the individual. Those who had given up theuse of caffein-containing beverages during the experiment did not reportany craving for the drinks as such, but several expressed a feeling ofannoyance at not having some sort of a warm drink for breakfast. It is interesting to note that he also found a complete absence of anytrace of secondary depression or of any sort of secondary reactionconsequent upon the stimulation which was so strikingly present in manyof the tests. The production of an increased capacity for work wasclearly demonstrated, the same being a genuine drug effect, and notmerely the effect of excitement, interest, sensory stimulation, expectation, or suggestion. However, this study does not show whetherthis increased capacity comes from a new supply of energy introduced orrendered available by the drug action, or whether energy alreadyavailable comes to be employed more effectively, or whether fatiguesensations are weakened and the individual's standard of performancethereby raised. But they do show that from a standpoint of mental andproductive physical efficiency "the widespread consumption of caffeinicbeverages, even under circumstances in which and by individuals for whomthe use of other drugs is stringently prohibited or decried, isjustified. " _Conclusion_ Brief summarization of the information available on the pharmacology ofcoffee indicates that it should be used in moderation, particularly bychildren, the permissible quantity varying with the individual andascertainable only through personal observation. Used in moderation, itwill prove a valuable stimulant increasing personal efficiency in mentaland physical labor. Its action in the alimentary régime is that of anadjuvant food, aiding digestion, favoring increased flow of thedigestive juices, promoting intestinal peristalsis, and not tanning anyportion of the digestive organs. It reacts on the kidneys as a diuretic, and increases the excretion of uric acid, which, however, is not to betaken as evidence that it is harmful in gout. Coffee has been indicatedas a specific for various diseases, its functions therein being theraising and sustaining of low vitalities. Its effect upon longevity isvirtually _nil_. A small proportion of humans who are very nervous mayfind coffee undesirable; but sensible consumption of coffee by theaverage, normal, non-neurasthenic person will not prove harmful butbeneficial. [Illustration] CHAPTER XIX THE COMMERCIAL COFFEES OF THE WORLD _The geographical distribution of the coffees grown in North America, Central America, South America, the West India Islands, Asia, Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the East Indies--A statistical study of the distribution of the principal kinds--A commercial coffee chart of the world's leading growths, with market names and general trade characteristics_ A study of the geographical distribution of the coffee tree shows thatit is grown in well-defined tropical limits. The coffee belt of theworld lies between the tropic of cancer and the tropic of capricorn. Theprincipal coffee consuming countries are nearly all to be found in thenorth temperate zone, between the tropic of cancer and the arcticcircle. The leading commercial coffees of the world are listed in theaccompanying commercial coffee chart, which shows at a glance theirgeneral trade character. The cultural methods of the producing countriesare discussed in chapter XX; statistics in chapter XXII; and the tradecharacteristics, in detail, in chapter XXIV, which considers alsocountries and coffees not so important in a commercial sense. Mexico isthe principal producing country in the northern part of the westerncontinent, and Brazil in the southern part. In Africa, the eastern coastfurnishes the greater part of the supply; while in Asia, the NetherlandsIndies, British India, and Arabia lead. Within the last two decades there has been an expansion of theproduction areas in South America, Africa, and in southeastern Asia; anda contraction in British India and the Netherlands Indies. _The Shifting Coffee Currents of the World_ Seldom does the coffee drinker realize how the ends of the earth aredrawn upon to bring the perfected beverage to his lips. The trail thatends in his breakfast cup, if followed back, would be found to go adevious and winding way, soon splitting up into half-a-dozen or morestraggling branches that would lead to as many widely scattered regions. If he could mount to a point where he could enjoy a bird's-eye view ofthese and a hundred kindred trails, he would find an intricatecriss-cross of streamlets and rivers of coffee forming a tangled patternover the tropics and reaching out north and south to all civilizedcountries. This would be a picture of the coffee trade of the world. It would be a motion picture, with the rivulets swelling larger atcertain seasons, but seldom drying up entirely at any time. In the mainthe streamlets and rivers keep pretty much the same direction and volumeone year after another, but then there is also a quiet shifting of thesecurrents. Some grow larger, and others diminish gradually until theyfade out entirely. In one of the regions from which they take theirsource a tree disease may cause a decline; in another, a hurricane maylay the industry low at one quick stroke; and in still another, a rivalcrop may drain away the life-blood of capital. But for the most part, when times are normal, the shift is gradual; for international trade isconservative, and likes to run where it finds a well-worn channel. In recent times, of course, the big disturbing element in the coffeetrade was the World War. Whole countries were cut out of the market, shipping was drained away from every sea lane, stocks were piled high inexporting ports, prices were fixed, imports were sharply restricted, andthe whole business of coffee trading was thrown out of joint. To whatextent has the world returned to normal in this trade? Were thestoppages in trade merely temporary suspensions, or are they to provepermanent? How are the old, long-worn channels filling up again, nowthat the dams have been taken away? We are now far enough removed from the war to begin to answer thesequestions. We find our answer in the export figures of the chiefproducing countries, which for the most part are now available in detailfor one or two post-war years. These figures are given in the tablesbelow; and for comparison, there are also given figures showing thedistribution of exports in 1913 and in an earlier year near thebeginning of the century. These figures, of course, do not necessarilygive an accurate index to normal trade; as in any given year someabnormal happening, such as an exceptionally large crop or a revolution, may affect exports drastically as compared with years before and after. But normally the proportions of a country's exports going to its variouscustomers are fairly constant one year after another, and can be takenfor any given year as showing approximately the coffee currents of thatperiod. The figures following are for the calendar year unless the fiscal yearis indicated. Where figures could not be obtained from the originalstatistical publications, they have been supplied as far as possiblefrom consular reports. BRAZIL. The war naturally increased the dependence of Brazil on itschief customer, and the proportion of the total crop coming to thiscountry since the war has continued to be large. Shipments to UnitedStates ports in 1920 represented about fifty-four percent of the totalexports. Figures for that year indicate also that France and Belgiumwere working back to their normal trade; but that Spain, Great Britain, and the Netherlands were taking much less coffee than in the year justbefore the war. Germany was buying strongly again, her purchases of72, 000, 000 pounds being about half as much as in 1913. Shipments toItaly were four times as heavy as in 1913. The natural return to normalwas much interfered with by speculation and valorization. Brazil seemsto have come through the cataclysmic period of the war in better stylethan might have been expected. COFFEE EXPORTS FROM BRAZIL 1900 1913 1920 Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsUnited States 566, 686, 345 650, 071, 337 826, 425, 340France 78, 408, 862 244, 295, 282 203, 694, 212Great Britain 6, 442, 739 32, 559, 715 9, 597, 378Germany 235, 131, 881 246, 767, 144 72, 196, 934Aus. -Hungary 71, 696, 556 134, 495, 310Netherlands 102, 711, 887 196, 169, 240 49, 760, 767Italy 17, 559, 107 31, 364, 656 132, 543, 798Spain 868, 617 14, 407, 906 6, 057, 833Belgium 41, 500, 638 58, 858, 562 42, 309, 469Other countries 59, 432, 882 145, 896, 327 181, 796, 919 ------------- ------------- -------------Total 1, 180, 439, 514 1, 754, 885, 479 1, 524, 382, 650 The 1900 figures are for the ports of Rio, Santos, Bahia, and Victoria. "Other countries" in 1913 included Argentina, 32, 941, 182 pounds; Sweden, 28, 045, 737 pounds; Cape Colony, 15, 930, 731 pounds; Denmark, 6, 252, 931pounds. In 1920 they included Argentina, 37, 736, 498 pounds; Sweden, 51, 026, 591 pounds; Denmark, 18, 764, 483 pounds; Cape Colony, 26, 936, 653pounds. VENEZUELA. Venezuela's coffee trade was deeply affected by the war; bothbecause the Germans were prominent in the industry, and because theregular shipping service to Europe was discontinued. Large amounts ofcoffee were piled up at the ports and elsewhere; and when therestrictions were swept away in 1919, an abnormal exportation resulted. Although Germany had been one of the chief buyers before the war, Venezuela was by no means dependent on the German market. In fact, hercombined shipments to France and the United States, just before the war, were three times as great as her exports to Germany. These two countriestook two-thirds of her total exports in 1920. Spain and the Netherlandswere also prominent buyers. COFFEE EXPORTS FROM VENEZUELA 1906 1913 1920 Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsUnited States 35, 704, 398 45, 570, 268 43, 670, 191France 21, 748, 370 46, 413, 174 4, 647, 978Germany 5, 270, 814 32, 203, 972 546, 363Aus. -Hungary 289, 851 3, 015, 723Spain 3, 133, 012 7, 372, 839 15, 210, 756Netherlands 28, 549, 920 2, 903, 806 1, 836, 209Italy 315, 293 2, 805, 948 719, 850Great Britain 404, 720 98, 796 1, 518, 175Other countries 2, 663, 507 1, 631, 143 5, 577, 110 ------------- ------------- -------------Total 98, 079, 885 142, 015, 669 73, 726, 632 COMMERCIAL COFFEE CHART _The World's Leading Growths, with Market Names and GeneralTrade Characteristics_ --------------+-----------+---------+-----------+---------------------Grand Division| Country |Principal|Best Known |Trade Characteristics | | Shipping| Market | | | Ports | Names |--------------+-----------+---------+-----------+---------------------North |Mexico |Vera Cruz|Coatepec |Greenish to yellowAmerica | | |Huatusco |bean; mild flavor. | | |Orizaba |Central |Guatemala |Puerto |Cobán |Waxy, bluish bean;America | | Barrios |Antigua |mellow flavor. |Salvador |La |Santa Ana |Smooth, green bean; | |Libertad |Santa Tecla|neutral flavor. |Costa |Puerto |Costa Ricas|Blue-greenish bean; |Rica |Limon | |mild flavor. --------------+-----------+---------+-----------+---------------------West |Haiti |Cape |Haiti |Blue bean; rich, Indies | |Haitien | |fairly acid; sweet | | | |flavor. |Santo |Santo |Santo |Flat, greenish-yellow |Domingo |Domingo |Domingo |bean; strong flavor. |Jamaica |Kingston |Blue |Bluish-green bean; | | |Mountain |rich, full flavor. |Porto | Ponce |Porto |Gray-blue bean; |Rico | |Ricans |strong, heavy flavor. --------------+-----------+---------+-----------+---------------------South |Colombia |Savanilla|Medellin |Greenish-yellow bean;America | | |Manizales, |rich, mellow flavor. | | |Bogota | | | |Bucaramanga| |Venezuela |La Guaira|Merida |Greenish-yellow bean; | |Maracaibo|Cucuta |mild, mellow flavor. | | |Caracas | |Brazil |Santos |Santos |Small bean; mild | | | |flavor. | |Rio de |Rio |Large bean; strong | |Janeiro | |cup. --------------+-----------+---------+-----------+---------------------Asia |Arabia |Aden |Mocha |Small, short, green | | | |to yellow bean; | | | |unique, mild flavor. |India |Madras |Mysore |Small to large, | |Calicut |Coorg |blue-green bean; | | |(Kurg) |strong flavor. --------------+-----------+---------+-----------+---------------------East India |Malay |Penang |Straits |Liberian and RobustaIslands |States |(Geo't'n)| |growths from | |Singapore|Liberian, |Malaysia. | | |Robusta | |Sumatra |Padang |Mandheling |Large, yellow to | | |Ankola |brown bean; heavy | | |Ayer |body; exquisite | | |Bangies |flavor. |Java |Batavia |Preanger |Small, blue to | | |Cheribon, |yellow bean; | | |Kroe |light in cup. |Celebes |Menado |Minahassa |Large, yellow bean; | |Macassar | |aromatic cup. --------------+-----------+---------+-----------+---------------------Africa |Abyssinia |Jibuti |Harar |Large, blue to yellow | | |Abyssinia |bean; very like | | | |Mocha. Pacific |Hawaiian |Honolulu |Kona |Large, blue, flintyIslands |Islands | |Puna |bean; mildly acid. |Philippines|Manila |Manila |Yellow and brown large | | | |bean; mild cup. --------------+---------+-----------+-----------+--------------------- COLOMBIA. Colombian statistics of foreign trade are issued veryirregularly, and no figures are available to afford comparison betweenpre-war and post-war trade. The figures below, however, will show thecomparative amounts of coffee going to the chief buying countries atdifferent periods. From these it will be seen that the countries mainlyinterested in the trade in Colombian coffee are those prominent in thetrade in other tropical American sections. England, France, Germany, andthe United States took the great bulk of the exports. A consular reportwritten after the outbreak of the war says: Prior to the war the United States took about seventy percent of Colombia's coffee crop; the remainder being about equally divided between England, France, and Germany, with England taking the largest share. COFFEE EXPORTS FROM COLOMBIA[A](From Barranquilla only) 1899 1905 1916 Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsGreat Britain 22, 573, 828 7, 268, 429 442, 026France 6, 873, 722 496, 120 1, 685, 454Germany 9, 348, 028 8, 568, 131United States 17, 991, 500 43, 518, 704 134, 292, 858Other countries 7, 396, 385 23, 753, 678 ---------- ---------- -----------Total 56, 787, 078 67, 247, 769 160, 174, 016 [A] These figures are taken from a consular report, which gavestatistics only for the port of Barranquilla and did not include thetotal shipments from that port. Shipments from Cartagena, the only otherexporting port of any consequence, amounted to 7, 836, 505 pounds, destination not stated. The Barranquilla figures, in the absence ofofficial statistics, can be taken as fairly representative of the totaltrade so far as destination is concerned. They are for fiscal years, ending June 30. "Other countries" in 1916 included Italy, 1, 135, 137 pounds; Venezuela, 20, 564, 321 pounds; Dutch West Indies, 400, 132 pounds. CENTRAL AMERICA. The three largest producing countries of CentralAmerica, Guatemala, Salvador, and Costa Rica, were all closely linked toGermany by the coffee trade before the war. German capital was heavilyinvested in coffee plantations; German houses had branches in theprincipal cities; and German ships regularly served the chief ports. Accordingly, when the blockade became effective, these countries wereplaced in a difficult position. But fortunately for them, a specialeffort had been made shortly before by Pacific-coast interests in theUnited States to divert a part of the coffee trade to San Francisco[313]The market to the east being shut off, these countries turned naturallyto the north. This trade with the United States has apparently beenfirmly established, and there has not yet been much of a return toGerman ports. GUATEMALA. Of the three countries named, Guatemala was the most heavilyinvolved in German trade. In 1913 she sent to Germany 53, 000, 000 poundsof coffee, a fifth more than in 1900. Her shipments of more than10, 000, 000 pounds to the United Kingdom were about the same as at thebeginning of the century. The war turned both these currents into UnitedStates ports, and they continued to flow in that direction through 1920. The figures follow: COFFEE EXPORTS FROM GUATEMALA 1900 1913 1920 Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsGermany 44, 416, 064 53, 232, 910 452, 206United States 14, 057, 120 21, 188, 444 78, 226, 508United Kingdom 11, 467, 680 10, 666, 604 2, 341, 217Other countries 3, 041, 584 6, 641, 936 13, 185, 638 ---------- ---------- ----------Total 72, 982, 448 91, 729, 894 94, 205, 569 "Other countries" in 1913 included Austria-Hungary, 4, 205, 400 pounds;Netherlands, 407, 900 pounds. In 1920, they included Netherlands, 10, 355, 625 pounds; Sweden, 422, 421 pounds; Norway, 57, 408 pounds; Spain, 97, 519 pounds; France, 27, 956 pounds. SALVADOR. Salvador is one of the countries in which the publication offoreign-trade statistics has been irregular in the past, and none isavailable to show the full trade in coffee at the beginning of thecentury. A consular report gives figures for the first half of 1900. Themost recent statistics show that the United States still holds much ofthe trade gained during the war, although Salvador is sending toScandinavian countries many millions of pounds of her coffee that cameto the United States in war-time. COFFEE EXPORTS FROM SALVADOR 1900 (1st 6 mos. ) 1913 1920 Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsUnited States 6, 700, 101 10, 779, 655 46, 262, 256France 22, 948, 712 15, 955, 920 6, 686, 714Germany 6, 607, 892 12, 120, 133 813, 166Great Britain 4, 396, 465 3, 415, 187 4, 226, 061Italy 4, 322, 003 9, 538, 976Aus. -Hungary 1, 335, 626 3, 557, 482Belgium 210, 834 5, 508 3, 104Spain 24, 799 377, 729 364, 296Other countries 3, 920 7, 193, 107 24, 509, 071 ---------- ---------- ----------Total 46, 550, 352 62, 943, 697 82, 864, 668 "Other countries" in 1913 included Norway, 2, 070, 220 pounds; Sweden, 2, 238, 332 pounds; Netherlands, 738, 694 pounds; Chile, 609, 441 pounds;Russia, 95, 625 pounds; Denmark, 140, 665 pounds. In 1920, they includedNorway, 10, 726, 375 pounds; Chile, 1, 772, 346 pounds; Netherlands, 1, 071, 614 pounds; Sweden, 9, 635, 947 pounds; Denmark, 1, 061, 772 pounds. [Illustration: A FLOURISHING COFFEE ESTATE IN CHIAPAS, MEXICO] [Illustration: LABORERS BRINGING IN THE DAY'S PICKINGS, NEAR BOGOTA, COLOMBIA] [Illustration: MILD-COFFEE CULTURE AND PREPARATION] COSTA RICA. English, French, and German capital was heavily invested inCosta Rica before the war, and all three nations were interested in thecoffee trade. For many years England had maintained the lead as a coffeecustomer, and shipments continued in large volume after the war. Thefollowing figures are for the crop year ending September 30: COFFEE EXPORTS FROM COSTA RICA 1903 1913 1921 Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsUnited States 6, 388, 236 1, 625, 866 14, 137, 605Great Britain 27, 756, 661 23, 464, 827 13, 418, 527France 1, 241, 816 741, 548 313, 538Germany 2, 676, 841 2, 581, 055 376, 649Other countries 147, 925 288, 521 1, 155, 066 ---------- ---------- ----------Total 38, 211, 479 28, 701, 817 29, 401, 385 In 1900 total shipments were 35, 496, 055 pounds, of which 20, 587, 712pounds went to Great Britain; 8, 874, 014 pounds to the United States; and3, 904, 566 pounds to Germany. "Other countries" in 1903 included Spain, 49, 189 pounds; Italy, 4, 104pounds. In 1921, they included Netherlands, 837, 496 pounds; Spain, 308, 308 pounds; Chile, 9, 259 pounds. MEXICO. Mexico has naturally sent most of her coffee across the borderinto the United States, and she continued to do so during and after thewar. But she had worked up a very important trade with Europe, chieflywith Germany; and German capital, and German planters and merchants wereprominent in the industry. France and England also were interested inthe trade, and purchased annually several million pounds. During thewar, as shown by the exports in its final year, this trade almostentirely ceased, and the United States and Spain remained as the onlyconsumers of Mexican coffee. Details of the after-war trade are not yetavailable in published statistics. In the following table, 1900 and 1918are calendar years, and 1913 is a fiscal year. COFFEE EXPORTS FROM MEXICO 1900 1913 1918 Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsUnited States 28, 882, 954 28, 012, 655 23, 816, 044Germany 10, 074, 001 10, 461, 382Aus. -Hungary 163, 934 30, 864Belgium 25, 855 39, 722Spain 546, 132 184, 941 6, 184, 494France 3, 927, 294 4, 482, 011Netherlands 220, 607 46, 296Great Britain 3, 848, 605 2, 170, 669Cuba 467, 201 37, 921 171, 527Italy 157, 653 347, 758Other countries 655, 073 ---------- ---------- ----------Total 48, 314, 236 46, 469, 292 30, 172, 065 In 1913 "other countries" included Panama, 342, 131 pounds; Canada, 276, 567 pounds; Sweden, 3, 079 pounds; British Honduras, 33, 179 pounds;Denmark, 112 pounds. JAMAICA. The French, more than any other peoples in Europe, havecultivated a taste for coffee from the West Indies; and France normallyhas led all other countries in shipments from the larger producingislands, including Jamaica, although the island is a British possession. In the year before the war, France bought nearly 4, 000, 000 pounds ofJamaican coffee, more than half the total production. In the year1900-01 also she took about 4, 000, 000 pounds, leading all othercountries. This trade was very much cut down during the war, but was notwiped out. As shown in the figures for 1918, England largely took theplace of France in that year, and Canada increased her purchases severalhundred percent. COFFEE EXPORTS FROM JAMAICA 1901 (fis. Yr. ) 1913 1918 Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsGreat Britain 1, 849, 456 671, 440 6, 919, 808Canada 109, 536 263, 872 1, 819, 328United States 2, 976, 512 802, 032 643, 888France 3, 958, 304 3, 743, 264 729, 120Aus. -Hungary 104, 272 303, 296Cuba 114, 800Barbados 226, 464 26, 992Other countries 508, 704 507, 248 97, 440 ---------- ---------- ----------Total 9, 621, 584 6, 517, 616 10, 236, 576 "Other countries" in 1901 included British West Indies, 316, 512 pounds. In 1913, they included Netherlands, 125, 216 pounds; Norway, 28, 896pounds; Sweden, 70, 224 pounds; Italy, 46, 592 pounds; Australia, 71, 456pounds. HAITI. Prior to the taking over of the administration of the customs ofHaiti by the United States, detailed statistics of the exports arealmost wholly lacking. France took most of the annual production, continuing a trade that dated back to old colonial times. An Americanconsular report says: Before the war there was no market for Haitian coffee in the United States, practically the entire crop going to Europe, with France as the largest consumer. However, there has been for some time past a determined effort made to create a demand in the United States, and this is said to be meeting with ever-increasing success. The actual success achieved can be measured by the following figures forthe fiscal year ended September 30, 1920: COFFEE EXPORTS FROM HAITI Exported to PoundsUnited States 27, 647, 077France 23, 921, 083Great Britain 39, 583Other countries 10, 362, 351 __________Total 61, 970, 094 These figures do not include 6, 322, 167 pounds of coffee triage, orwaste, of which the United States took 2, 028, 352 pounds; France, 1, 491, 507 pounds. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. The comparatively small production of the DominicanRepublic was divided among the United States and three or four Europeancountries before the war. Since the war the exports have been scatteredamong the former customers in varying amounts. Germany is again a buyer, although her purchases have not come back to anything like the pre-warlevel. COFFEE EXPORTS FROM THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 1906 1913 1920Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsUnited States 564, 291 506, 456 529, 831France 569, 215 1, 248, 418 454, 165Germany 1, 562, 193 327, 843 69, 224Italy [B] 195, 294 51, 543Cuba [B] 25, 628 132, 569Great Britain [B] 660 54, 114Other countries 221, 028 8, 154 70, 220 _________ _________ _________Total 2, 916, 727 2, 312, 453 1, 361, 666 [B] No shipments, or included in "other countries. " "Other countries" in 1920 included only the Netherlands. PORTO RICO. In spite of several attempts on the part of Porto-Ricanplanters to make their product popular in the markets of the UnitedStates, the American consumer has never found the taste of that coffeeto his liking. The big market for the Porto-Rican product has been Cuba, which has depended on her neighbor for most of her supply. This demandtakes a large part of the annual crop, including the lower grades. Thebetter grades, before the war, went largely to Europe, mostly to theLatin countries. During the war, the Cuban market carried thePorto-Rican planters through, although shipments of considerable sizecontinued to go to France and Spain. Recovery of the pre-war trade withEurope, however, has been slow, Spain being the only country to takeover 1, 000, 000 pounds in 1920. Shipments to that country totaled3, 472, 204 pounds; those to France, 900, 868 pounds. Both countriesincreased their purchases considerably in 1921. COFFEE EXPORTS FROM PORTO RICO 1900-01 (fis. Yr. ) 1913 1921Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsUnited States 29, 565 628, 843 211, 531France 3, 348, 025 6, 020, 170 1, 625, 065Spain 2, 590, 096 6, 851, 235 5, 705, 932Aus. -Hungary 386, 158 6, 729, 726Germany 493, 891 876, 315 363, 993Belgium 9, 964 25, 867 234, 019Italy 611, 033 3, 498, 157 43, 484Netherlands 8, 860 497, 938 25, 199Sweden 32, 390[C] 633, 046 266, 550Cuba 4, 633, 538 23, 179, 690 21, 135, 397Other countries 13, 720 393, 586 356, 709 _________ _________ _________Total 12, 157, 240 49, 334, 573 29, 967, 879 [C] Includes Norway. HAWAII. The war disarranged Hawaii's coffee trade very little, as shehad for many years been shipping chiefly to continental United States. Recently a considerable trade with the Philippines has developed. COFFEE EXPORTS FROM HAWAII 1901-02 (fis. Yr. ) 1913 1921Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsUnited States 1, 082, 994 3, 393, 009 4, 183, 046Canada 77, 900 10, 200 11, 355Japan 24, 155 49, 167 23, 950Germany 2, 100 1, 612Philippines [D] 932, 640 747, 700Other countries 23, 349 49, 179 13, 070 _________ _________ _________Total 1, 210, 498 4, 435, 807 4, 979, 121 [D] No exports, or included in "other countries. " ADEN. Lying on the edge of the war area and on the road to India, Adenfelt the full force of the disarrangement of commercial traffic by thewar. Ordinarily, Aden is not only the chief outlet for the coffee of theinterior of Arabia--the original "Mocha"--but it is also thetranshipping point for large amounts from Africa and India. The figuresgiven below relate for the most part to this transhipped coffee. Exportsof coffee from Aden go chiefly to the United Kingdom, France, and theUnited States, and to other ports of Arabia and Africa. Before the warno great proportion went to the Central Powers. The following figuresapply to fiscal years ending March 31: COFFEE EXPORTS FROM ADEN 1901 (fis. Yr. ) 1914 (fis. Yr. ) 1921 (fis. Yr. )Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsGreat Britain 1, 563, 632 696, 976 466, 928United States 2, 412, 368 4, 300, 128 2, 507, 344France 3, 789, 296 2, 975, 840 814, 016Egypt 1, 024, 576 3, 108, 336Arab. Gulf Pts. 860, 160 852, 320 606, 592Germany 247, 184 465, 136Aus. -Hungary 341, 152 553, 952Italy 197, 568 811, 664 7, 504Br. Somaliland 280, 224 23, 408[E] Africa 337, 344 2, 390, 640 292, 880Other countries 1, 114, 848 2, 500, 456 1, 659, 504 _________ _________ _________Total 12, 168, 352 15, 570, 520 9, 463, 104 [E] Including adjacent islands, but exclusive of British territory. "Other countries" in 1914 included Australia, 222, 320 pounds; Perim, 142, 016 pounds; Zanzibar, 148, 848 pounds; Mauritius, 154, 672 pounds;Seychelles, 116, 704 pounds; Sweden, 118, 720 pounds; Norway, 49, 168pounds; Russia, 196, 448 pounds. In 1921, they included Denmark, 120, 624pounds; Spain, 124, 208 pounds; Massowah, 410, 704 pounds. BRITISH INDIA. As India's trade before the war was chiefly with themother country, with France, and with Ceylon, the return to normal hasbeen rapid. In the year following the war, these three customers wereagain credited with the largest amounts exported from India, except forshipments to Greece, which took little before the war. The followingfigures are for the fiscal years ending March 31: COFFEE EXPORTS FROM BRITISH INDIA 1901 (fis. Yr. ) 1914 (fis. Yr. ) 1920(fis. Yr. ) Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsGreat Britain 15, 678, 768 10, 343, 536 8, 138, 144Ceylon 1, 088, 528 1, 428, 112 1, 423, 072France 8, 430, 016 10, 924, 816 9, 256, 352Belgium 617, 792 1, 021, 664Germany 126, 560 1, 033, 088 25, 312Aus. -Hungary 123, 312 1, 358, 896 8, 400Italy 23, 968 22, 624 30, 912United States 54, 096 16, 576Turkey in Asia 232, 176 501, 984 986, 720[F] Africa 118, 272 113, 344 619, 696Other countries 1, 106, 784 2, 360, 736 10, 021, 648 ---------- ---------- ----------Total 27, 600, 272 29, 108, 800 30, 526, 832 [F] Including adjacent islands. "Other countries" in 1914 included Netherlands, 238, 560 pounds;Australia, 748, 608 pounds; Bahrein Islands, 757, 568 pounds. In 1920, they included Greece, 6, 487, 376 pounds; Australia, 481, 152 pounds;Bahrein Islands, 1, 081, 696 pounds; Aden and dependencies, 459, 984pounds; other Arabian ports, 890, 176 pounds. DUTCH EAST INDIES. The war played havoc with the coffee trade of theDutch East Indies, taking away shipping, closing trade routes, andcausing immense quantities of coffee to pile up in the warehouses. Whenthe war ended, this coffee was released; and trade was consequentlyagain abnormal, although in the opposite direction from that it tookduring war years. The 1920 figures indicate that the trade is workingback into its old channels. COFFEE EXPORTS FROM DUTCH EAST INDIES 1900 1913 1920[G] Exported to Pounds Pounds PoundsNetherlands 81, 489, 000 33, 323, 748[H] [H]50, 028, 815Great Britain 88, 000 981, 201 5, 987, 598France 2, 560, 000 9, 081, 715[H] 5, 410, 582Aus. -Hungary 1, 153, 000 996, 988Germany 71, 000 997, 715[H] 75, 699Egypt 5, 494, 000 104, 868 1, 418, 313United States 8, 408, 000 5, 695, 180 17, 274, 522Singapore 9, 952, 000 4, 785, 580 8, 349, 415Other countries 2, 965, 000 7, 831, 732 10, 475, 509 ----------- ---------- -----------Total 112, 180, 000 63, 798, 727 99, 020, 453 [G] These figures cover only Java and Madura. [H] Includes shipments "for orders. " "Other countries" in 1920 included, Norway, 2, 606, 421 pounds; Sweden, 728, 580 pounds; Australia, 1, 553, 495 pounds; British India, 1, 912, 541pounds; Italy, 1, 964, 109 pounds; Denmark, 1, 191, 643 pounds; Belgium, 166, 092 pounds. [Illustration] [Illustration: COFFEE TREE IN BEARING AT THE GOVERNMENTAL EXPERIMENTSTATION AT LAMOA, NEAR MANILA, P. I. ] CHAPTER XX CULTIVATION OF THE COFFEE PLANT _The early days of coffee culture in Abyssinia and Arabia--Coffee cultivation in general--Soil, climate, rainfall, altitude, propagation, preparing the plantation, shade and wind breaks, fertilizing, pruning, catch crops, pests, and diseases--How coffee is grown around the world--Cultivation in all the principal producing countries_ For the beginnings of coffee culture we must go back to the Arabiancolony of Harar in Abyssinia, for here it was, about the fifteenthcentury, that the Arabs, having found the plant growing wild in theAbyssinian highlands, first gave it intensive cultivation. The completestory of the early cultivation of coffee in the old and new worlds istold in chapter II, which deals with the history of the propagation ofthe coffee plant. La Roque[314] was the first to tell how the plant was cultivated and theberries prepared for market in Arabia, where it was brought fromAbyssinia. The Arabs raised it from seed grown in nurseries, transplanting it toplantations laid out in the foot-hills of the mountains, to which theyconducted the mountain streams by ingeniously constructed small channelsto water the roots. They built trenches three feet wide and five feetdeep, lining them with pebbles to cause the water to sink deep into theearth with which the trenches were filled, to preserve the moisture fromtoo rapid evaporation. These were so constructed that the water could beturned off into other channels when the fruit began to ripen. Inplantations exposed to the south, a kind of poplar tree was plantedalong the trenches to supply needful shade. La Roque noted that the coffee trees in Yemen were planted in lines, like the apple trees in Normandy; and that when they were much exposedto the sun, the shade poplars were regularly introduced between therows. Such cultivation as the plant received in early Abyssinia and Arabia wascrude and primitive at best. Throughout the intervening centuries, therehas been little improvement in Yemen; but modern cultural methods obtainin the Harar district in Abyssinia. Like the Arabs in Yemen, the Harari cultivated in small gardens, employing the same ingenious system of irrigation from mountain springsto water the roots of the plants at least once a week during the dryseason. In Yemen and in Abyssinia the ripened berries were sun-dried onbeaten-earth barbecues. The European planters who carried the cultivation of the bean to the FarEast and to America followed the best Arabian practise, changing, andsometimes improving it, in order to adapt it to local conditions. _Coffee Cultivation in General_ Today the commercial growers of coffee on a large scale practiseintensive cultivation methods, giving the same care to preparing theirplantations and maintaining their trees as do other growers of grainsand fruits. As in the more advanced methods of arboriculture, everyeffort is made to obtain the maximum production of quality coffeeconsistent with the smallest outlay of money and labor. Experimentalstations in various parts of the world are constantly working to improvemethods and products, and to develop types that will resist disease andadverse climatic conditions. While cultivation methods in the different producing countries vary indetail of practise, the principles are unchanging. Where methods dodiffer, it is owing principally to local economic conditions, such asthe supply and cost of labor, machinery, fertilizers, and similaressential factors. [Illustration: IMPLEMENTS USED IN EARLY ARABIAN COFFEE CULTURE 1, Plow. 2 and 3, Mattocks. 4, Hatchet and sickle. Top, SeederImplement] SOIL. Rocky ground that pulverizes easily--and, if possible, of volcanicorigin--is best for coffee; also, soil rich in decomposed mold. InBrazil the best soil is known as _terra roxa_, a topsoil of red claythree or four feet thick with a gravel subsoil. CLIMATE. The natural habitat of the coffee tree (all species) istropical Africa, where the climate is hot and humid, and the soil richand moist, yet sufficiently friable to furnish well drained seed beds. These conditions must be approximated when the tree is grown in othercountries. Because the trees and fruit generally can not withstandfrost, they are restricted to regions where the mean annual temperatureis about 70° F. , with an average minimum about 55°, and an averagemaximum of about 80°. Where grown in regions subject to more or lessfrost, as in the northernmost parts of Brazil's coffee-producingdistrict, which lie almost within the south temperate zone, the coffeetrees are sometimes frosted, as was the case in 1918, when about fortypercent of the São Paulo crop and trees suffered. Generally speaking, the most suitable climate for coffee is a temperateone within the tropics; however, it has been successfully cultivatedbetween latitudes 28° north and 38° south. RAINFALL. Although able to grow satisfactorily only on well drainedland, the coffee tree requires an abundance of water, about seventyinches of rainfall annually, and must have it supplied evenly throughoutthe year. Prolonged droughts are fatal; while, on the other hand, toogreat a supply of water tends to develop the wood of the tree at theexpense of the flowers and fruit, especially in low-lying regions. ALTITUDE. Coffee is found growing in all altitudes, from sea-level up tothe frost-line, which is about 6, 000 feet in the tropics. _Robusta_ and_liberica_ varieties of coffee do best in regions from sea-level up to3, 000 feet, while _arabica_ flourishes better at the higher levels. Carvalho says that the coffee plant needs sun, but that a few hoursdaily exposure is sufficient. Hilly ground has the advantage of offeringthe choice of a suitable exposure, as the sun shines on it for only apart of the day. Whether it is the early morning or the afternoon sunthat enables the plant to attain its optimum conditions is a question oflocality. [Illustration: CROSS SECTION OF MOUNTAIN SLOPE IN YEMEN, ARABIA, SHOWINGCOFFEE TERRACES These miniature plantations are found chiefly along the caravan routebetween Hodeida and Sanaa] [Illustration: CLEARING VIRGIN FOREST FOR A COFFEE ESTATE IN MEXICO] [Illustration: COFFEE NURSERY UNDER A BAMBOO ROOF IN COLOMBIA] [Illustration: THE FIRST STEPS IN COFFEE GROWING] In Mexico, Romero tells us, the highlands of Soconusco have theadvantage that the sun does not shine on the trees during the whole ofthe day. On the higher slopes of the Cordilleras--from 2, 500 feet abovesea-level--clouds prevail during the summer season, when the sun ishottest, and are frequently present in the other seasons, after teno'clock in the morning. These keep the trees from being exposed to theheat of the sun during the whole of the day. Perhaps to thiscircumstance is due the superior excellence of certain coffees grown inMexico, Colombia, and Sumatra at an altitude of 3, 000 feet to 4, 000 feetabove sea-level. Richard Spruce, the botanist, in his notes on South America, as quotedby Alfred Russel Wallace, [315] refers to "a zone of the equatorial Andesranging between 4, 000 and 6, 000 feet altitude, where the best flavoredcoffee is grown. " PROPAGATION. Coffee trees are grown most generally from seeds selectedfrom trees of known productivity and longevity; although in some partsof the world propagation is done from shoots or cuttings. The seedmethod is most general, however, the seeds being either propagated innursery beds, or planted at once in the spot where the mature tree is tostand. In the latter case--called planting at stake--four or five seedsare planted, much as corn is sown; and after germination, all but thestrongest plant are removed. Where the nursery method is followed, the choicest land of theplantation is chosen for its site; and the seeds are planted in forcingbeds, sometimes called cold-frames. When the plants are to betransplanted direct to the plantation, the seeds are generally sown sixinches apart and in rows separated by the same distance, and are coveredwith only a slight sprinkling of earth. When the plants are to betransferred from the first bed to another, and then to the plantation, the seeds are sown more thickly; and the plants are "pricked" out asneeded, and set out in another forcing bed. During the six to seven weeks required for the coffee seed to germinate, the soil must be kept moist and shaded and thoroughly weeded. If thetrees are to be grown without shade, the young plants are graduallyexposed to the sun, to harden them, before they begin their existence inthe plantation proper. [Illustration: COFFEE TREE NURSERY, PANAJABAL, POCHUTA, GUATEMALA] [Illustration: DRYING GROUNDS AND FACTORY IN THE PREANGER REGENCY] [Illustration: NATIVE TRANSPORT, FIELD TO FACTORY, AT DRAMAGA, NEARBUITENZORG] [Illustration: COFFEE SCENES IN JAVA, NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES] Considerable experimental work has been done in renewing trees bygrafting, notably in Java; but practically all commercial plantersfollow the seed method. [Illustration: COFFEE GROWING UNDER SHADE, PORTO RICO] PREPARING THE PLANTATION. Before transplanting time has come, theplantation itself has been made ready to receive the young plants. Coffee plantations are generally laid out on heavily wooded and slopinglands, most often in forests on mountainsides and plateaus, where thereis an abundance of water, of which large quantities are used incultivating the trees and in preparing the coffee beans for market. Thesoil most suitable is friable, sandy, or even gravelly, with anabundance of rocks to keep the soil comparatively cool and well drained, as well as to supply a source of food by action of the weather. Theideal soil is one that contains a large proportion of potassium andphosphoric acid; and for that reason, the general practise is to burnoff the foliage and trees covering the land and to use the ashes asfertilizer. In preparing the soil for the new plantation under the intensivecultivation method, the surface of the land is lightly plowed, and thenfollowed up with thorough cultivation. When transplanting time comes, which is when the plant is about a year old, and stands from twelve toeighteen inches high with its first pairs of primary branches, theplants are set out in shallow holes at regular intervals of from eightto twelve, or even fourteen, feet apart. This gives room for the rootsystem to develop, provides space for sunlight to reach each tree, andmakes for convenience in cultivating and harvesting. _Liberica_ and_robusta_ type trees require more room than _arabica. _ When set twelvefeet apart, which is the general practise, with the same distancemaintained between rows, there are approximately four hundred and fiftytrees to the acre. In the triangle, or hexagon, system the trees areplanted in the form of an equilateral triangle, each tree being the samedistance (usually eight or nine feet) from its six nearest neighbors. This system permits of 600 to 800 trees per acre. SHADE AND WIND BREAKS. Strong, chilly winds and intensely hot sunlightare foes of coffee trees, especially of the _arabica_ variety. Accordingly, in most countries it is customary to protect the plantationwith wind-breaks consisting of rugged trees, and to shade the coffee bygrowing trees of other kinds between the rows. The shade trees servealso to check soil erosion; and in the case of the leguminous kinds, tofurnish nutriment to the soil. Coffee does best in shade such as isafforded by the silk oak (_Grevillea robusta_). In _Shade in CoffeeCulture_ (_Bulletin_ 25, 1901, division of botany, United StatesDepartment of Agriculture), O. F. Cook goes extensively into thissubject. The methods employed in the care of a coffee plantation do not differmaterially from those followed by advanced orchardists in the colderfruit-belts of the world. After the young plants have gained theirstart, they are cultivated frequently, principally to keep out theweeds, to destroy pests, and to aerate the earth. The implements usedrange from crude hand-plows to horse-drawn cultivators. FERTILIZING. Comparatively little fertilizing is done on plantationsestablished on virgin soil until the trees begin to bear, which occurswhen they are about three years of age. Because the coffee tree takespotash, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid from the soil, the scheme offertilizing is to restore these elements. The materials used to replacethe soil-constituents consist of stable manure, leguminous plants, coffee-tree prunings, leaves, certain weeds, oil cake, bone and fishmeal, guano, wood ashes, coffee pulp and parchment, and such chemicalfertilizers as superphosphate of lime, basic slag, sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of lime, sulphate of potash, nitrate of potash, and similarmaterials. The relative values of these fertilizers depend largely upon localclimate and soil conditions, the supply, the cost, and other likefactors. The chemical fertilizers are coming into increasing use in thelarger and more economically advanced producing countries. Brazil, particularly, is showing in late years a tendency toward their adoptionto make up for the dwindling supply of the so-called natural manures. Asthe coffee tree grows older, it requires a larger supply of fertilizer. [Illustration: THE FAMOUS BOEKIT GOMPONG ESTATE, NEAR PADANG, ONSUMATRA'S WEST COAST Showing the healthy, regular appearance of well-cultivated coffeebushes, twenty-six years old. Also note the line of feathery bamboowind-breaks] PRUNING. On the larger plantations, pruning is an important part of thecultivation processes. If left to their own devices, coffee treessometimes grow as high as forty feet, the strength being absorbed by thewood, with a consequent scanty production of fruit. To prevent thisundesirable result, and to facilitate picking, the trees on the moremodern plantations are pruned down to heights ranging from six to twelvefeet. Except for pruning the roots when transplanting, the tree ispermitted to grow until after producing its first full crop before anycutting takes place. Then, the branches are severely cut back; andthereafter, pruning is carried on annually. Topping and pruning beginbetween the first and the second years. [Illustration: COFFEE ESTATE IN ANTIOQUIA, COLOMBIA, SHOWINGWIND-BREAKS] Coffee trees as a rule produce full crops from the sixth to thefifteenth year, although some trees have given a paying crop untiltwenty or thirty years old. Ordinarily the trees bear from one-halfpound to eight pounds of coffee annually, although there are accounts oftwelve pounds being obtained per tree. Production is mostly governed bythe cultivation given the tree, and by climate, soil, and location. Whentoo old to bear profitable yields, the trees on commercial plantationsare cut down to the level of the ground; and are renewed by permittingonly the strongest sprout springing out of the stump to mature. CATCH CROPS. On some plantations it has become the practise to growcatch crops between the rows of coffee trees, both as a means ofobtaining additional revenue and to shade the young coffee plants. Corn, beans, cotton, peanuts, and similar plants are most generally used. PESTS AND DISEASES. The coffee tree, its wood, foliage, and fruit, havetheir enemies, chief among which are insects, fungi, rodents (the"coffee rat"), birds, squirrels, and--according to Rossignon--elephants, buffalo, and native cattle, which have a special liking for the tenderleaves of the coffee plant. Insects and fungi are the most bothersomepests on most plantations. Among the insects, the several varieties ofborers are the principal foes, boring into the wood of the trunk andbranches to lay _larvae_ which sap the life from the tree. There arescale insects whose excretion forms a black mold on the leaves andaffects the nutrition by cutting off the sunlight. Numerous kinds ofbeetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers, and crickets attack the coffee-treeleaves, the so-called "leaf-miner" being especially troublesome. TheMediterranean fruit fly deposits _larvae_ which destroy or lessen theworth of the coffee berry by tunneling within and eating the contents ofthe parchment. The coffee-berry beetle and its grub also live within thecoffee berry. Among the most destructive fungoid diseases is the so-called Ceylon leafdisease, which is caused by the _Hemileia vastatrix_, a fungus relatedto the wheat rust. It was this disease which ruined the coffee industryin Ceylon, where it first appeared in 1869, and since has been found inother coffee-producing regions of Asia and Africa. America has a similardisease, caused by the _Sphaerostilbe flavida_, that is equallydestructive if not vigilantly guarded against. (See chapters XV andXVI. ) The coffee-tree roots also are subject to attack. There is the rootdisease, prevalent in all countries, and for which no cause has yet beendefinitely assigned, although it has been determined that it is of afungoid nature. Brazil, and some other American coffee-producingcountries, have a serious disease caused by the eelworm, and for thatreason called the eelworm disease. Coffee planters combat pests and diseases principally with sprays, as inother lines of advanced arboriculture. It is a constant battle, especially on the large commercial plantations, and constitutes a largeitem on the expense sheet. _Cultivation by Countries_ Coffee-cultivation methods vary somewhat in detail in the differentproducing countries. The foregoing description covers the underlyingprinciples in practise throughout the world; while the following isintended to show the local variations in vogue in the principalcountries of production, together with brief descriptions of the mainproducing districts, the altitudes, character of soil, climate, andother factors that are peculiar to each country. In general, they areconsidered in the order of their relative importance as producingcountries. BRAZIL. In Brazil, the Giant of South America, and the world's largestcoffee producer, the methods of cultivation naturally have reached ahigh point of development, although the soil and the climate were not atfirst regarded as favorable. The year 1723 is generally accepted as thedate of the introduction of the coffee plant into Brazil from FrenchGuiana. Coffee planting was slow in developing, however, until 1732, when the governor of the states of Pará and Maranhao urged itscultivation. Sixteen years later, there were 17, 000 trees in Pará. Fromthat year on, slow but steady progress was made; and by 1770, an exporttrade had been begun from the port of Pará to countries in Europe. [Illustration: UP-TO-DATE WEEDING AND HARROWING, SÃO PAULO] The spread of the industry began about this time. The coffee tree wasintroduced into the state of Rio de Janeiro in 1770. From there itscultivation was gradually extended into the states of São Paulo, MinãsGeraes, Bahia, and Espirito Santo, which have become the greatcoffee-producing sections of Brazil. The cultivation of the plant didnot become especially noteworthy until the third decade of thenineteenth century. Large crops were gathered in the season of 1842-43;and by the middle of the century, the plantations were producingannually more than 2, 000, 000 bags. [Illustration: Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co. GENERAL VIEW OF FAZENDA DUMONT, RIBEIRAO PRETO, SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL] Brazil's commercial coffee-growing region has an estimated area ofapproximately 1, 158, 000 square miles, and extends from the river Amazonto the southern border of the state of São Paulo, and from the Atlanticcoast to the western boundary of the state of Matto Grosso. This area islarger than that section of the United States lying east of theMississippi River, with Texas added. In every state of the republic, from Ceará in the north to Santa Catharina in the south, the coffee treecan be cultivated profitably; and is, in fact, more or less grown inevery state, if only for domestic use. However, little attention isgiven to coffee-growing in the north, except in the state of Pernambuco, which has only about 1, 500, 000 trees, as compared, with the 764, 000, 000trees of São Paulo in 1922. The chief coffee-growing plantations in Brazil are situated on plateausseldom less than 1, 800 feet above sea-level, and ranging up to 4, 000feet. The mean annual temperature is approximately 70° F. , ranging froma mean of 60. 8° in winter to a mean of 72° in summer. The temperaturehas been known, however, to register 32° in winter and 97. 7° in summer. While coffee trees will grow in almost any part of Brazil, experienceindicates that the two most fertile soils, the _terra roxa_ and the_massape_, lie in the "coffee belts. " The _terra roxa_ is a dark redearth, and is practically confined to São Paulo, and to it is due thepredominant coffee productivity of that state. _Massape_ is a yellow, dark red--or even black--soil, and occurs more or less contiguous to the_terra roxa_. With a covering of loose sand, it makes excellent coffeeland. Brazil planters follow the nursery-propagated method of planting, andcultivate, prune, and spray their trees liberally. Transplanting is donein the months from November to February. Coffee-growing profits have shown a decided falling off in Brazil inrecent years. In 1900 it was not uncommon for a coffee estate to yieldan annual profit of from 100 to 250 percent. Ten years later the averagereturns did not exceed twelve percent. [Illustration: FAZENDA GUATAPARA, SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL, WITH 800, 000 TREESIN BEARING] In Brazil's coffee belt there are two seasons--the wet, running fromSeptember to March; and the dry, running from April to August. Thecoffee trees are in bloom from September to December. The blossoms lastabout four days, and are easily beaten off by light winds or rains. Ifthe rains or winds are violent, the green berries may be similarlydestroyed; so that great damage may be caused by unseasonable rains andstorms. The harvest usually begins in April or May, and extends well into thedry season. Even in the picking season, heavy rains and strongwinds--especially the latter--may do considerable damage; for in Brazilshade trees and wind-breaks are the exception. Approximately twenty-five percent of the São Paulo plantations arecultivated by machinery. A type of cultivator very common is similar tothe small corn-plow used in the United States. The Planet Junior, manufactured by a well known United States agricultural-machinery firm, is the most popular cultivator. It is drawn by a small mule, with a boyto lead it, and a man to drive and to guide the plow. The preponderance of the coffee over other industries in São Paulo isshown in many ways. A few years ago the registration of laborers in allindustries was about 450, 000; and of this total, 420, 000 were employedin the production and transportation of coffee alone. Of the capitalinvested in all industries, about eighty-five percent was in coffeeproduction and commerce, including the railroads that depended upon itdirectly. An estimated value of $482, 500, 000 was placed upon theplantations in the state, including land, machinery, the residences ofowners, and laborers' quarters. [Illustration: Copyright by Brown & Dawson. PICKING COFFEE IN SÃO PAULO] In all Brazil, there are approximately 1, 200, 000, 000 coffee trees. Thenumber of bearing coffee trees in São Paulo alone increased from735, 000, 000 in 1914-15 to 834, 000, 000 in 1917-18. The crop in 1917-18was 1, 615, 000, 000 pounds, one of the largest on record. In theagricultural year of 1922-23 there were 764, 969, 500 coffee trees inbearing in São Paulo, and in São Paulo, Minãs, and Parana, 824, 194, 500. [Illustration: Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co. INTENSIVE CULTIVATION METHODS IN THE RIBEIRAO PRETO DISTRICT, SÃO PAULO] Plantations having from 300, 000 to 400, 000 trees are common. Oneplantation near Ribeirao Preto has 5, 000, 000 trees, and requires an armyof 6, 000 laborers to work it. Another planter owns thirty-two adjacentplantations containing, in all, from 7, 500, 000 to 8, 000, 000 coffee treesand gives employment to 8, 000 persons. There are fifteen plantationshaving more than 1, 000, 000 trees each, and five of these have more than2, 000, 000 trees each. In the municipality of Ribeirao Preto there were30, 000, 000 trees in 1922. [Illustration: Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co. PRIVATE RAILROAD ON A SÃO PAULO COFFEE FAZENDA Showing coffee trees and laborers' houses in the middle distance atright] The largest coffee plantations in the world are the Fazendas Dumont andthe Fazendas Schmidt. The Fazendas Dumont were valued, in 1915, in costof land and improvements, at $5, 920, 007; and since those figures weregiven out, the value of the investment has much increased. Of thevarious Fazendas Schmidt, the largest, owned by Colonel FranciscoSchmidt, in 1918 had 9, 000, 000 trees with an annual yield of 200, 000bags, or 26, 400, 000 pounds, of coffee. Other large plantations in SãoPaulo with a million or more trees, are the Companhia Agricola FazendaDumont, 2, 420, 000 trees; Companhia São Martinho, 2, 300, 000 trees;Companhia Dumont, 2, 000, 000 trees; São Paulo Coffee Company, 1, 860, 000trees; Christiana Oxorio de Oliveira, 1, 790, 000 trees; CompanhiaGuatapara, 1, 550, 000 trees; Dr. Alfredo Ellis, 1, 271, 000 trees;Companhia Agricola Araqua, 1, 200, 000 trees; Companhia Agricola RibeiraoPreto, 1, 138, 000 trees; Rodriguez Alves Irmaos, 1, 060, 000 trees;Francisca Silveira do Val, 1, 050, 000 trees; Luiza de Oliveira Azevedo, 1, 045, 000 trees; and the Companhia Caféeria São Paulo, 1, 000, 000 trees. The average annual yield in São Paulo is estimated at from 1, 750 to4, 000 pounds from a thousand trees, while in exceptional instances it issaid that as much as 6, 000 pounds per 1, 000 trees have been gathered. Differences in local climatic conditions, in ages of trees, in richnessof soil, and in the care exercised in cultivation, are given as thereasons for the wide variation. The oldest coffee-growing district in São Paulo is Campinas. There are136 others. Bahia coffee is not so carefully cultivated and harvested as the Santoscoffee. The introduction of capital and modern methods would do much forBahia, which has the advantage of a shorter haul to the New York and theEuropean markets. On the average, something like seventy percent of the world's coffeecrop is grown in Brazil, and two-thirds of this is produced in SãoPaulo. Coffee culture in many districts of São Paulo has been brought tothe point of highest development; and yet its product is essentially aquantity, not a quality, one. COLOMBIA. In Colombia, coffee is the principal crop grown for export. Itis produced in nearly all departments at elevations ranging from 3, 500feet to 6, 500 feet. Chief among the coffee-growing departments areAntioquia (capital, Medellin); Caldas (capital, Manizales); Magdalena(capital, Santa Marta); Santander (capital, Bucaramanga); Tolima(capital, Ibague); and the Federal District (capital, Bogota). Thedepartment of Cundinamarca produces a coffee that is counted one of thebest of Colombian grades. The finest grades are grown in the foot-hillsof the Andes, in altitudes from 3, 500 to 4, 500 feet above sea level. [Illustration: THE CONDUCTING SLUICEWAY AT GUATAPARA The running water carries the picked coffee berries to pulpers andwashing tanks] [Illustration: COFFEE PICKING AND FIELD TRANSPORT] [Illustration: COFFEE CULTURE IN SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL] [Illustration: A NEAR VIEW OF A HEAVILY LADEN COFFEE TREE ON A BOGOTAPLANTATION] [Illustration: PICKING COFFEE ON A BOGOTA PLANTATION] Methods of planting, cultivation, gathering, and preparing the Colombiancoffee crop for the market are substantially those that are common inall coffee-producing countries, although they differ in some smallparticulars. About 700 trees are usually planted to the acre, and nativetrees furnish the necessary shade. The average yield is one pound pertree per year. While _Coffea arabica_ has been mostly cultivated in Colombia, as in theother countries of South America, the _liberica_ variety has not beenneglected. Seeds of the _liberica_ tree were planted here soon after1880, and were moderately successful. Since 1900, more attention hasbeen given to _liberica_, and attempts have been made to grow it uponbanana and rubber plantations, which seem to provide all the shadeprotection that is needed. _Liberica_ coffee trees begin to bear intheir third year. From the fifth year, when a crop of about 650 poundsto the acre can reasonably be expected, the productiveness steadilyincreases until after fifteen or sixteen years, when a maximum of overone thousand pounds an acre is attained. Antioquia is the largest coffee producing department in the republic, and its coffee is of the highest grade grown. Medellin, the capital, where the business interests of the industry are concentrated, is ahandsome white city located on the banks of the Aburra river, in apicturesque valley that is overlooked by the high peaks of the Andeanrange. It is a town of about 80, 000 inhabitants, thriving as amanufacturing center, abundant in modern improvements, and is the centerof a coffee production of 500, 000 bags known in the market as Medellinand Manizales. Another center in this coffee region is the town ofManizales, perched on the crest of the Andean spurs to dominate thevalley extending to Medellin and the Cauca valley to the Pacific. There-about many small coffee growers are settled, and several hundredthousand bags of the beans pass through annually. One of the interesting plantations of the country was started a fewyears ago in a remote region by an enterprising American investor. Itwas located on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountains 3, 000 to 5, 000feet above sea-level, about twenty-five miles from the city of SantaMarta. An extended acreage of forest-covered land was acquired, about600 acres of which were cleared and either planted in coffee or reservedfor pasturage and other kinds of agriculture. When the plantation cameto maturity, it had nearly 300, 000 trees. In 1919, there were 425, 000trees producing 3, 600 hundred-weight of coffee. A typical Colombian plantation is the Namay, owned by one of the bankersof the Banco de Colombia of Bogota. It is located a good half day'stravel by rail and horseback from the city, about 5, 000 feet above thelevel of the sea. There are 1, 000 acres in the plantation, with 250, 000trees having an ultimate productive capacity of nearly 2, 000 bags ayear. During crop times, which are from May to July, about two hundredfamilies are needed on an estate of this size. VENEZUELA. Seeds of the coffee plant were brought into Venezuela fromMartinique in 1784 by a priest who started a small plantation nearCaracas. Five years later, the first export of the bean was made, 233bags, or about 30, 000 pounds. Within fifty years, production hadincreased to upward of 50, 000, 000 pounds annually; and by the end of thenineteenth century, to more than 100, 000, 000 pounds. Situated between the equator and the twelfth parallel of north latitude, in the world's coffee belt, this country has an area equal to that ofall the United States east of the Mississippi river and north of theOhio and Potomac rivers, or greater than that of France, Germany, andthe Netherlands combined--599, 533 square miles. The chain of the Maritime Andes, reaching eastward across Colombia andVenezuela, approaches the Caribbean coast in the latter country. Alongthe slopes and foot-hills of these mountains are produced some of thefinest grades of South American coffee. Here the best coffee grows inthe _tierra templada_ and in the lower part of the _tierra fria_, and isknown as the _café de tierra fria_, or coffee of the cold, or high, land. In these regions the equable climate, the constant and adequatemoisture, the rich and well-drained soil, and the protecting forestshade afford the conditions under which the plant grows and thrivesbest. On the fertile lowland valleys nearer the coast grows the _café detierra caliente_, or coffee of the hot land. [Illustration: ON THE ALTAMIRA HACIENDA, VENEZUELA The long pipe crossing the center of the picture is a water sluicewaybringing coffee down from the hills] Coffee growing has become the main agricultural pursuit of the country. In 1839 it was estimated that there were 8, 900 acres of land planted incoffee, and in 1888 there were 168, 000, 000 coffee trees in the countryon 346, 000 acres of land. In the opening years of the twentieth centurynot far from 250, 000 acres were devoted to this cultivation, comprisedin upward of 33, 000 plantations. The average yield per acre is about250 pounds. The trees are usually planted from two to two and a quartermeters apart, and this gives about 800 trees to the acre. The trianglesystem is unknown. [Illustration: CARMEN HACIENDA, FRONTING ON THE ESCALANTE RIVER, VENEZUELA] In this country, the coffee tree bears its first crop when four or fiveyears old. The trees are not subject to unusual hazards from the attacksof injurious insects and animals or from serious parasitic diseases. Nature is kind to them, and their only serious contention for existencearises from the luxuriant tropical vegetation by which they aresurrounded. On the whole their cultivation is comparatively easy. On thebest managed estates there are not more than 1, 000 trees to a_fanegada_--about one and three-quarters acres of land--and it iscalculated that an average annual yield for such a _fanegada_ should beabout twenty quintals, a little more than 2, 032 pounds of merchantablecoffee. It is to be noted, however, that the average yield per treethroughout Venezuela is low--not more than four ounces. There are no great coffee belts as in Mexico and Central America. Manydistricts are days' rides apart. The plantations are isolated, and thereis lacking a co-operative spirit among the growers. Methods of cultivating and preparing the berry for the market aresubstantially those that prevail elsewhere in South America. Mostplantations are handled in ordinary, old-fashioned ways; but the betterestates employ machinery and methods of the most advanced and improvedcharacter at all points of their operation, from the planting of theseed to the final marketing of the berry. JAVA. Java, the oldest coffee-producing country in which the tree is notindigenous, was producing a high-grade coffee long before Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela entered the industry; and it held its supremacyin the world's trade for many years before the younger Americanproducing countries were able to surpass its annual output. The firstattempt to introduce the plant into Java took place in 1696, theseedlings being brought from Malabar in India and planted at Kadawoeng, near Batavia. Earthquake and flood soon destroyed the plants; and in1699 Henricus Zwaardecroon brought the second lot of seedlings fromMalabar. These became the progenitors of all the _arabica_ coffees ofthe Dutch East Indies. The industry grew, and in 1711 the first Javacoffee was sold at public auction in Amsterdam. Exports amounted to116, 587 pounds in 1720; and in 1724 the Amsterdam market sold 1, 396, 486pounds of coffee from Java. From the early part of the nineteenth century up to 1905, cultivationwas carried on under a Dutch government monopoly--excepting for thefive years, 1811-16, when the British had control of the island. Thegovernment monopoly was first established when Marshal Daendels, actingfor the crown of Holland, took control of the islands from theNetherlands East India Company. Before that time, the princes ofPreanger had raised all the coffee under the provisions of a treaty madein the middle of the eighteenth century, by which they paid an annualtribute in coffee to the company for the privilege of retaining theirland revenues. When the Dutch government recovered the islands from theBritish, the plantations, which had been permitted to go to ruin, wereput in order again, and the government system re-established. [Illustration: A HEAVY FRUITING OF COFFEA ROBUSTA IN JAVA] A modification of the first monopoly plan of the government was put intoeffect later in the régime of Governor Van den Bosch, and was maintaineduntil into the twentieth century. Under the Daendels plan, each nativefamily was required to keep 1000 coffee trees in bearing on villagelands, and to give to the government two-fifths of the crop, deliveredcleaned and sorted, at the government store. The natives retained theother three-fifths. Under the Van den Bosch system, each family wasrequired to raise and care for 650 trees and to deliver the crop cleanedand sorted to the government stores at a fixed price. The governmentthen sold the coffee at public auctions in Batavia, Padang, Amsterdam, or Rotterdam. This method of fostering the new industry resulted in government controlof fully four-fifths of the area under the crop, only the small balancebeing owned or worked independently by private enterprise. For manyyears after the cultivation had been fully started, this condition ofthe business persisted. Most of the privately-operated plantations hadbeen in existence before the government had set up its monopoly system. Others were on the estates of native princes who, in treating with theDutch, had been able to retain some of their original sovereign rights. While these plans worked well in encouraging the industry at the outset, they were not conducive to the fullest possibilities in production. Forced labor on the government plantations was naturally apt to be slow, careless, and indifferent. Private ownership and operation bettered thissomewhat, the private estates being able to show annual yields of fromone to two pounds per tree as compared with only a little more thanone-half pound per tree on government-controlled estates. In the course of time, the system of private ownership graduallyexpanded beyond that of the government; and before the end of thenineteenth century, private owners were growing and exporting morecoffee than did the Javanese government. The government withdrew fromthe coffee business in Java in 1905, and the last government auction washeld in June of that year. The monopoly in Sumatra was given up in 1908. After that, however, coffee continued to be grown on government lands, but in much less quantity than in the years immediately preceding. TheDutch government withdrew from all coffee cultivation in 1918-19. According to statistics, the ground under cultivation for all kinds ofcoffee in Java and the other islands of the Dutch East Indies in 1919was 142, 272 acres, of which 112, 138 acres were in Java. Of this area, 110, 903 acres were planted with _robusta_, 15, 314 acres with _arabica_, 4, 940 with _liberica_, and 11, 115 with other varieties. There were more than 400 European-managed estates in 1915, covering aplanted area of about 209, 000 acres. Three hundred and thirty of theseestates, representing 165, 000 acres, were in Java. On that islandproduction in 1904 was 47, 927, 000 pounds; in 1905, 59, 092, 000 pounds; in1906, 66, 953, 000 pounds; in 1907, 31, 044, 000 pounds; 1908, 39, 349, 000pounds. The total crop in 1919 for all the Netherlands East Indies was97, 361, 000 pounds, as against 140, 764, 800 pounds for 1918. Intensive cultivation methods on the European-operated plantations inJava have been practised for many years; and the Netherlands East Indiesgovernment has long maintained experimental stations for the purpose ofimproving strains and cultivation methods. [Illustration: ROAD THROUGH A COFFEE ESTATE IN EAST JAVA] In some parts of the island, especially in the highlands, the climateand soil are ideal for coffee culture. The _robusta_ tree growssatisfactorily even at altitudes of less than 1, 000 feet in someregions; but its bearing life is only about ten years, as compared withthe thirty years of the _arabica_ at altitudes of from 3, 000 to 4, 000feet. The low-ground trees generally produce earlier and moreabundantly. On some of the highland plantations, pruning is notpractised to any great extent, and the trees often reach thirty or fortyfeet in height. This necessitates the use of ladders in picking; butfrequently the yield per tree has been from six to seven pounds. [Illustration: NATIVE PICKING COFFEE, SUMATRA] Coffee is produced commercially in nearly every political district inJava, but the bulk of the yield is obtained from East Java. The namesbest known to European and American traders are those of the regenciesof Besoeki and Pasoeroean; because their coffees make up eighty-sevenpercent of Java's production. Some of the other better known districtsare: Preanger, Cheribon, Kadoe, Samarang, Soerabaya, and Tegal. The _arabica_ variety has practically been driven out of the districtsbelow 3, 500 feet altitude by the leaf disease, and has been succeeded bythe more hardy _robusta_ and _liberica_ coffees and their hybrids. Illustrating the importance of _robusta_ coffee, Netherlands East Indiagovernment in a statement issued August, 1919, estimated the area undercultivation on all islands as follows: _robusta_, eighty-four percent;_arabica_, five and one-half percent; _liberica_, four and one-halfpercent. The balance, six percent, was made up of scores of othervarieties, among the most important being the _canephora_, _Ugandæ_, _baukobensis_, _suakurensis_, _Quillou_, _stenophylla_, and_rood-bessige_. All of these are similar to _robusta_, and are exportedas _robusta-achtigen_ (_robusta_-like). The _liberica_ group includesthe _excelsa_, _abeokuta_, _Dewevrei_, _arnoldiana_, _aruwimiensis_, and_Dybowskii_. [Illustration: PALATIAL BUNGALOW OF ADMINISTRATOR, DRAMAGA, IN THEPREANGER DISTRICT, JAVA] SUMATRA. Practically all the coffee districts in Sumatra are on the westcoast, where the plant was first propagated early in the eighteenthcentury. Padang, the capital city, is the headquarters for Sumatracoffee. With climate and soil similar to Java, the island of Sumatra hasthe added advantage that its land is not "coffee _moe_", or coffeetired, as is the case in parts of Java. Some of the world's best coffeesare still coming from Sumatra; and the island has possibilities thatcould make it an important factor in production. Sumatra produced287, 179 piculs of coffee in 1920. The total production of all theislands that year was 807, 591 piculs. [Illustration: OLD-TIME SAILING VESSEL LOADING IN PADANG ROADS] [Illustration: INTERIOR OF A DUTCH COFFEE-CLEANING FACTORY, PADANG] [Illustration: COFFEE SCENES IN SUMATRA, NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES] [Illustration: ADMINISTRATOR'S BUNGALOW ON THE GADOENG BATOE ESTATE, SUMATRA] The districts of Ankola, Siboga, Ayer Bangies, Mandheling, Palembang, Padang, and Benkoelen, on the west coast, have some of the largestestates on the island; and their products are well known ininternational trade. The east coast has recently gone in for heavyplantings of _robusta_. As in Java, coffee for a century or more was cultivated under thegovernment-monopoly scheme. The compulsory system was given up in thisisland in 1908, three years after it was abandoned in Java. OTHER EAST INDIES. Coffee is grown in several of the other islands inthe Dutch East Indian archipelago, chiefly on the Celebes, Bali, Lombok, the Moluccas, and Timor. Most of the estates are under native control, and the methods of cultivation are not up to the standard of theEuropean-owned plantations on the larger islands of Java and Sumatra. The most important of these islands is Celebes, where the first coffeeplant was introduced from Java about 1750, but where cultivation was notcarried on to any great extent until about seventy-five years later. In1822 the production amounted to 10, 000 pounds; in 1917, the yield was1, 322, 328 pounds. SALVADOR. Coffee, which is far and away the most important crop inSalvador, constitutes in value more than one-half the total exports. Ithas been cultivated since about 1852, when plants were brought fromHavana; but the development of the industry in its early years was notrapid. The first large plantations were established in 1876 in La Paz, and that department has become the leading coffee-producing section ofthe country. The berry is grown in all districts that have altitudes of from 1, 500 to4, 000 feet. Besides those of La Paz, the most productive plantations arein the departments of Santa Ana, Sonsonate, San Salvador, San Vincente, San Miguel, Santa Tecla, and Ahuachapan. In contrast with several of theadjoining Central American republics, native Salvadoreans are the ownersof most of the coffee farms, very few having passed into the hands offoreigners. The laborers are almost entirely native Indians. Aconsiderable part of the work of cultivating and preparing the berry forthe market is still done by hand; but in recent years machinery has beenset up on the large estates and for general use in the receivingcenters. [Illustration: WELL CULTIVATED YOUNG COFFEE TREES IN BLOSSOM] [Illustration: ENTRANCE TO A FINCA IN THE HIGHLANDS] [Illustration: COFFEE CULTURE IN GUATEMALA] It is estimated that now about 166, 000 acres are under coffee, nearlyall the land in the country suitable for that purpose. As in most othercoffee-raising countries, the trees begin bearing when they are two orthree years old, reach full maturity at the age of seven or eight years, and continue to bear for about thirty years. Intensive cultivation and amore extensive use of fertilizers have been urged as necessary in orderto increase the crop; but, so far, with not much effect, the importationof fertilizer being still very small. Crop gathering begins in thelowlands in November, and gradually proceeds into the higher regions, month by month, until the picking in the highest altitudes is finishedin the following March. GUATEMALA. Guatemala began intensive coffee growing about 1875. Coffeehad been known in the country in a small way from about 1850, but nowserious attention began to be given to its cultivation, and it quicklyadvanced to an industrial position of importance. Within a generation itbecame the great staple crop of the country. Guatemala has an area of 48, 250 square miles, about the size of thestate of Ohio. Its population is about 2, 000, 000. Three mountain ranges, intersecting magnificent table lands, traverse the country from north tosouth; and there is the great coffee territory. The table lands are from2, 500 to 5, 000 feet above sea-level, and have a temperate climate mostagreeable to the coffee tree. On the lower heights it is necessary toprotect the young trees from the extreme heat of the sun; and the bananais most approved for this purpose, since it raises its own crop at thesame time that it is giving shade to its companion tree. On the higherlevels the plantations need protection from the cold north winds thatblow strongly across the country, especially in December, January, andFebruary. The range of hills to the north is the best protection, andgenerally is all sufficient. When the weather becomes too severe, heapsof rubbish mixed with pitch are thrown up to the north of the fields ofcoffee trees and set afire, the resultant dense smoke driving downbetween rows of trees and saving them from the frost. [Illustration: INDIANS PICKING COFFEE, GUATEMALA] Named in the order of their productivity, the coffee districts are CostaCuca, Costa Grande, Barberena, Tumbador, Cobán, Costa de Cucho, Chicacao, Xolhuitz, Pochuta, Malacatan, San Marcos, Chuva, Panan, Turgo, Escuintla, San Vincente, Pacaya, Antigua, Moran, Amatitlan, Sumatan, Palmar, Zunil, and Motagua. Estimates of coffee acreage vary. One authority, too conservatively, perhaps, puts the figure at 145, 000. Another estimate is 260, 000 acres. Under cultivation are from 70, 000, 000 to 100, 000, 000 trees from which anannual crop averaging about 75, 000, 000 pounds is raised, and theexceptional amounts of nearly 90, 000, 000 and 97, 000, 000 pounds have beenharvested. Several plantations of size can be counted upon for an annualproduction of more than 1, 000, 000 pounds each. Before the World War German interests dominated the coffee industry, handling fully eighty percent of the crop, and growing nearly half ofit. Planting and cultivation methods in Guatemala are about the same asthose prevailing in other countries. The trees are usually in flower inFebruary, March, and April, and the harvesting season extends fromAugust to January. All work on the plantation is done by Indian laborersunder a peonage system, families working in companies: wages are small, but sufficient, conditions of living being easy. As elsewhere in thesetropical and sub-tropical countries, scarcity of labor is severelyfelt, and is a grave obstacle to the development of the industry in aland that is regarded as particularly well adapted to it. [Illustration: THE COFFEE PLANTER'S LIFE IN GUATEMALA IS ONE OFPLEASANTNESS AND PEACE] HAITI. Haiti, the magic isle of the Indies, has grown coffee almost fromthe beginning of the introduction of the tree into the westernhemisphere. Its cultivation was started there about 1715, but the treeswere largely permitted to fall into a wild natural state, and littleattention was given to them or to the handling of the crop. Fertility ofsoil, climate, and moisture are favorable, and the advancement of theindustry has been retarded only by the political conditions of the negrorepublic and a general lack of industry and enterprise on the part ofthe people. Haiti is an island with three names. Haiti is used to describe theisland as a whole, and to denote the Republic of Haiti, which occupiesthe western third of its area. The island is also known as SantoDomingo, and San Domingo, names likewise applied to the DominicanRepublic which occupies the eastern two-thirds of the land unit. Plantations now existing in Haiti have had, with rare exceptions, a lifeof more than ten or twenty years. It is estimated that they cover about125, 000 acres, with about 400 trees to the acre. When the French acquired the island in 1789, the annual production was88, 360, 502 pounds. During the following century that amount was notapproached in any year, the nearest to it being 72, 637, 716 pounds in1875. The lowest annual production was 20, 280, 589 pounds in 1818. Therange during the hundred years, 1789-1890, was, with the exceptionsnoted, from 45, 000, 000 to 71, 000, 000 pounds. MEXICO. Opinions differ as to the exact date when coffee was introducedinto Mexico. It is said to have been transplanted there from the WestIndies near the end of the eighteenth century. A story is current that aSpaniard set out a few trees, on trial, in southern Mexico, in 1800, andthat his experiments started other Mexican planters along the same line. Coffee was grown in the state of Vera Cruz early in the nineteenthcentury; and the books of the Vera Cruz custom house record that 1, 101quintals of coffee were exported through that port during the years1802, 1803, and 1805. In the Coatepec district, which eventually became famous in the annalsof Mexican coffee growing, trees were planted about the year 1808. Localhistory says that seeds were brought from Cuba by Arias, a partner ofthe house of Pedro Lopez, owners of the large _hacienda_ of Orduna inCoatepec. The seeds were given to a priest, Andres Dominguez, who sowedthem near Teocelo. When he had succeeded in starting seedlings, he gavethem away to other planters there-about. The plants thrived, and thiswas the beginning of coffee cultivation in that section of the country. [Illustration: THIRTY-YEAR-OLD COFFEE TREES, LA ESPERANZA, HUATUSCO, MEXICO] It was, however, nearly ten years later before the cultivation was on ascale approaching industrial and commercial importance. About 1816 or1818 a Spaniard, named Juan Antonio Gomez, introduced the plant into theneighborhood of Cordoba. This city, now on the line of the Mexican andVera Cruz Railroad, 200 miles from Mexico City, and sixty miles fromVera Cruz, is 2, 500 feet above sea-level, and is situated in the mostproductive tropical region of the country. Having been started in Coatepec and Cordoba, the industry was centeredfor a long time in the state of Vera Cruz. For many years practicallyall the coffee grown commercially in Mexico was produced in that state. Gradually the new pursuit spread to the mountains in the adjacent statesof Oaxaca and Puebla, where it was taken up by the Indians almostentirely, and is still followed by them, but not on a large scale. Although cultivation is now widely distributed in most of the moresouthern states of the republic, the principal coffee territory is stillin Vera Cruz, where lie the districts of Cordoba, Orizaba, Huatusco, andCoatepec. In the same region are the Jalapa district, and the mountainsof Puebla, where a great deal of coffee is grown. Farther south are theOaxaca districts on the mountain slopes of the Pacific coast, and stillfarther south the districts of the state of Chiapas. Planting in thePluma district in Oaxaca was begun about fifty years ago, and it nowproduces annually, in good years, nearly 1, 000, 000 pounds. The youngestdistrict in this section is Soconusco, one of the most prolific in therepublic, having been developed within the last thirty years. The regionis near the border of Guatemala, and the coffee is held by many topossess some of the quality of the coffee of that country. The influenceof Guatemalan methods has been felt also in its cultivation andhandling, especially in increasing plantation productiveness. On thegulf slope of Oaxaca, there are plantations that annually produce222, 000 to 550, 000 pounds. Several United States companies have becomeinterested in coffee growing in this state, and their output in recentyears has been put upon the market in St. Louis. Two principal varieties of coffee are recognized in Mexico. Asub-variety of _Coffea arabica_ is mostly cultivated. This is anevergreen, growing only from five to seven feet. It flourishes well atdifferent altitudes and in different climes, from the temperate plainsof Puebla to the hot, damp, lower lands of Vera Cruz and Oaxaca, andother Pacific-coast regions. The range of elevation for it is from 1, 500to 5, 000 feet, and it is satisfied with a temperature as low as 55° oras high as 80°, with plenty of natural humidity or with irrigation inthe dry season. The other variety is called the "myrtle" and is widelygrown, although not in large quantities. It is distinguished from_arabica_ by the larger leaf of the tree and by the smaller corolla ofthe flower. It is a hardier plant than the _arabica_ and will stand thehigher temperature of low altitudes, thriving at an elevation of from500 to 3, 000 feet above sea-level. Mostly it is cultivated in theCordoba district. It is claimed by many that the Mexican coffee of best quality is grownin the western regions of the table lands of Colima and Michoacan, butonly a small quantity of that is available for export. The state ofMichoacan is especially favored by climate, altitude, soil, andsurroundings to produce coffee of exceptionally high grade, and theUruapan is considered to be its best. Trees flower in January and March, and in high altitudes as late as Juneor July. Berries appear in July and are ripe for gathering in October orNovember, the picking season lasting until February. Trees begin to yield when two or three years old, producing from two tofour ounces. They reach full production, which is about one and a halfpounds, at the age of six or seven years, though in the districts ofChiapas, Michoacan, Oaxaca, and Puebla, annual yields of three to fivepounds per tree have been reported. Since the World War American buyers have shown greater interest in theTapachula coffee grown in Chiapas. [Illustration: MEXICAN COFFEE PICKER, COATEPEC DISTRICT] PORTO RICO. Coffee culture in Porto Rico dates from 1755 or evenearlier, having been introduced from the neighboring islands ofMartinique and Haiti. Count O'Reilly, writing of the island in theeighteenth century, mentions that the coffee exports for five yearsprevious to 1765 amounted in value to $2, 078. Old records show that in1770 there was a crop of 700, 000 pounds and that seems to be the firstevidence that the new industry was growing to any noticeableproportions. For a hundred years, at least, only slow progress was made. In 1768 the king, of Spain issued a royal decree exempting coffeegrowers on the island from the payment of taxes or charges for a periodof five years; but even that measure was not materially successful instimulating interest and in developing cultivation. Porto Rico is a good coffee-growing country; soil, climate, andtemperature are well adapted to the berry. The coffee belt extendsthrough the western half of the island, beginning in the hills along thesouth coast around Ponce, and extending north through the center of theisland almost to Arecibo, near the west end of the north coast. But somecoffee is grown in the other parts of the island, in sixty-four of thesixty-eight municipalities. Mountain sections are considered to besuperior. The largest plantations are in the region which includes themunicipalities of Utuado, Adjuntas, Lares, Las Marias, Yauco, Maricao, San Sebastian, Mayaguez, Ciales, and Ponce. With the exception of Ponceand Mayaguez, all these districts are back from the coast; but insularroads of recent construction make them now easily accessible, and thereis no point on the island more than twenty miles distant from the sea. [Illustration: RECEIVING AND MEASURING THE RIPE BERRIES FROM THEPICKERS, MEXICO] From the Sierra Luquillo range, which rises to a height of 1, 500 feet, and from Yauco, Utuado, and Lares, come excellent coffees; and, on thewhole, these are considered to be the best coffee regions of the island. A fine grade of coffee is also grown in the Ciales district. Figurescompiled by the Treasury Department of the insular government for thepurpose of taxation showed that for the tax year 1915-16 there were167, 137 acres of land planted to coffee and valued at $10, 341, 592, anaverage of $61. 87 per acre. In 1910, there were 151, 000 acres planted incoffee. In 1916 there were more than 5, 000 separate coffee plantations. Originally the coffee trees of Porto Rico were all of the _arabica_variety. In recent years numerous others have been introduced, until in1917 there were more than 2, 500 trees of new descriptions on the island. The virgin land in the interior of the island is admirably adapted tothe coffee tree, and less labor is required to prepare it for plantationpurposes than in many other coffee-growing countries. It is cleared inthe usual manner, and the trees are planted about eight feet apart, anaverage of 680 trees to the acre. The seeds are planted in February; andif the seedlings are transplanted, that is done when they are a year ora year and a half old. The guama, a big strong tree of dense foliage, isused for a wind-break on the ridges; and the guava, for shade in theplantation. Plow cultivation is generally impossible on account of thelay of the land, and only hoeing and spade work are done. Pruning iscarefully attended to as the trees become full grown. Flowering is generally in February and March, or even later. Heavy rainsin April make a poor crop. Harvesting begins in September and extendsinto January, during which time ten pickings are made. [Illustration: SINGLE PORTO RICO COFFEE TREE IN FULL BEARING, PROPPEDUP WITH STAKES] The average yield per acre is between 200 and 300 pounds; but expertauthority--Prof. O. F. Cook--in a statement made to the Committee onInsular Affairs of the United States House of Representatives, in 1900, held that under better cultural methods the yield could be increased to800 or 900 pounds per acre. One estimator has calculated that an averageplantation of 100 acres had cost its owner at the end of six or sevenyears, the bearing age, about $13, 100 with yields of 75 pounds per acrein the third and in the fourth years, 400 pounds per acre in the fifthyear, and 500 pounds in the sixth year, the income from which wouldpractically have met the cost to that time. It is held by the sameauthority that an intensively cultivated, well-situated farm of selectedtrees, 880 to the acre, should yield some 880 pounds of cleaned coffeeto the acre. COSTA RICA. Costa Rica ranks next to Guatemala and Salvador among theCentral American countries as a producer of coffee, showing an averageannual yield in recent years of 35, 000, 000 pounds as compared withGuatemala's 80, 000, 000 and Salvador's 75, 000, 000 pounds. Nicaragua hasan average annual production of 30, 000, 000 pounds. Coffee was introduced into Costa Rica in the latter part of theeighteenth century; one authority saying that the plants were broughtfrom Cuba in 1779 by a Spanish voyager, Navarro, and another saying thatthe first trees were planted several years later by Padre Carazo, aSpanish missionary coming from Jamaica. For more than a century six bigcoffee trees standing in a courtyard in the city of Cartago were pointedout to visitors as the very trees that Carazo had planted. The coffee-producing districts are principally on the Pacific slope andin the central plateaus of the interior. Plantations are located in theprovinces of Cartago, Tres Rios, San José, Heredia, and Alajuela. In theprovince of Cartago are several extensive new estates on the slope tothe Atlantic coast. The San José and the Cartago districts areconsidered by many to be the best naturally for the coffee tree. Thesoil is an exceedingly rich black loam made up of continuous layers ofvolcanic ashes and dust from three to fifteen feet deep. Preferablealtitudes for plantations range from 3, 000 to 4, 500 feet, although aheight of 5, 000 feet is not out of use and there are some estates thatdo fairly well on levels as low as 1, 500 feet. [Illustration: THE MODERN IDEA IN COFFEE CULTIVATION, COSTA RICA] INDIA. Tradition has it that a Moslem pilgrim in the seventeenth centurybrought from Mecca to India the first coffee seeds known in thatcountry. They were planted near a temple on a hill in Mysore called BabaBudan, after the pilgrim; and from there the cultivation of coffeegradually spread to neighboring districts. Aside from this legend, nothing further is heard about coffee in India until the early part ofthe nineteenth century, when its existence there was confirmed by thegranting of a charter to Fort Gloster, near Calcutta, authorizing thatplace to become a coffee plantation. [Illustration: PICKING COSTA RICA COFFEE] [Illustration: COFFEE ESTATE IN THE MOUNTAINS OF COSTA RICA] Planting was begun on the flat land of the plains, but the trees did notthrive. Then the cultivation was extended to the hills in southernIndia, especially in Mysore, where better success was achieved. Thefirst systematic plantation was established in 1840. For the most part, the production has always been confined to southern India in theelevated region near the southwestern coast. The coffee districtcomprises the landward slopes of the Western Ghats, from Kanara toTravancore. About one-half of the coffee-producing area is in Mysore; and otherplantations are in Kurg (Coorg), the Madras districts of Malabar, and inthe Nilgiri hills, those regions having 86 percent of the whole areaunder cultivation. Some coffee is grown also in other districts inMadras, principally in Madura, Salem, and Coimbator, in Cochin, inTravancore, and, on a restricted scale, in Burma, Assam, and Bombay. Thearea returned as under coffee in 1885 was 237, 448 acres; in 1896, as303, 944 acres. Since then there has been a progressive decrease onaccount of damage from leaf diseases difficult to combat, and bycompetition with Brazilian coffee. New land that had just been planted with coffee in plantations reportedfor 1919-20 amounted to 7, 012 acres; while the area abandoned was 8, 725acres, representing a net decrease in cultivated area of 1, 713 acres. [Illustration: BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF A COFFEE ESTATE IN MYSORE, INDIA] Of the total area devoted to coffee cultivation (126, 919 acres), 49percent was in Mysore, which yielded 35 percent of the total production;while Madras, with 23 percent of the total area, yielded 38 percent ofthe production. The total production for the year 1920-21 is reported as26, 902, 471 pounds. Yield varies throughout the country according to the methods ofcultivation and the condition of the season. On the best estates in agood season, the yield per acre may be as high as 1, 100 or 1, 200 pounds, and on poor estates it may not be over 200 or 300 pounds. The _arabica_variety is chiefly cultivated. The _robusta_ and _Maragogipe_ have beentried, but without much success. A representative plantation is the Santaverre in Mysore, comprising 400acres, at an elevation of from 4, 000 to 4, 500 feet, where the coffeetrees, cultivated under shade, produce from 100 to 250 tons of coffee ayear. Other prominent estates in Mysore are Cannon's Baloor andMylemoney, the Hoskahn, and the Sumpigay Khan. NICARAGUA. Coffee trees will grow well anywhere in Nicaragua, but thebest locations have altitudes of from 2, 000 to 3, 000 feet above sealevel. At such elevations the yield varies from one pound to five poundsper tree annually; but above or below those, the average productiondiminishes to from one pound to one-half pound a tree. Lands most suitable for the berry are on the Sierra de Managua, inDiriambe, San Marcos, and Jinotega, and about the base of the volcanoMonbacho near Granada. Good land is also found on the island Omotepe inLake Nicaragua, and around Boaco in the department of Chontales, wherecultivation was begun in 1893. There are also plantations in the vicinity of Esteli and Lomati in thedepartment of Neuva Segovia. The most extensive operations are in thedepartments of Managua, Carazo, Matagalpa, Chontales, and Jinotega, andfrom those regions the annual crop has attained to such quantity that ithas become the chief agricultural product of the republic. Poor andcostly means of transportation on the Atlantic slope have operated toretard the development of the industry there, even though conditions ofclimate are not unfavorable. [Illustration: COFFEE GROWING UNDER SHADE, UBBAN ESTATE, INDIA] ABYSSINIA. In the absence of any conclusive evidence to the contrary, the claim that coffee was first made known to modern man by the trees onthe mountains of the northeastern part of the continent of Africa may beaccepted without reserve. Undoubtedly the plant grew wild all throughtropical Africa; but its value as an addition to man's dietary wasbrought forth in Abyssinia. Abyssinia, while it may have given coffee to the world, no longerfigures as a prime factor in supplying the world, and now exports only alimited quantity. There are produced in the country two coffees known tothe trade as Harari and Abyssinian, the former being by far the moreimportant. The Harari is the fruit of cultivated _arabica_ trees grownin the province of Harar, and mostly in the neighborhood of the city ofHarar, capital of the province. The Abyssianian is the fruit of wild_arabica_ trees that grow mainly in the provinces of Sidamo, Kaffa, andGuma. The coffee of Harar is known to the trade as Mocha longberry orAbyssinian longberry. Most of the plantations upon which it is raisedare owned by the native Hararis, Galla, and Abyssinians, although thereare a few Greek, German, and French planters. The trees are planted inrows about twelve or fifteen feet apart, and comparatively littleattention is given to cultivation. Crops average two a year, andsometimes even five in two years. The big yield is in December, January, and February. The average crop is about seventy pounds, and is mostlyfrom small plots of from fifty to one hundred trees, there being no verylarge plantations. All the coffee is brought into the city of Harar, whence it is sent on mule-back to Dire-Daoua on the Franco-EthiopianRailway, and from there by rail to Jibuti. Some of it is exporteddirectly from Jibuti, and the rest is forwarded to Aden, in Arabia, forre-exporting. Abyssinian, or wild, coffee is also known as Kaffa coffee, from one ofthe districts where it grows most abundantly in a state of nature. Thiscoffee has a smaller bean and is less rich in aroma and flavor than theHarari; but the trees grow in such profusion that the possible supply, at the minimum of labor in gathering, is practically unlimited. It issaid that in southwestern Abyssinia there are immense forests of itthat have never been encroached upon except at the outskirts, where thenatives lazily pick up the beans that have fallen to the ground. It isshelled where it is found, in the most primitive fashion, and goes outin a dirty, mixed condition. Formerly, much of this Kaffa coffee was sent to market through Boromeda, Harar, and Dire-Daoua. An average annual crop was about 6, 000 bags, or800, 000 pounds, of which something more than one-half usually wentthrough Harar. A customs and trading station has lately been establishedat Gambela, on the Sobat River: and with the development of this outlet, there has been a substantial and increasing exploitation of thewild-coffee plants since 1913. Large areas of land have been cleared, with a view to cultivation, and attention is being given to improvedmethods of harvesting and of preparing the coffee for the market. At onetime a fair amount of coffee from this region went to Adis Abeba on thebacks of pack mules, a journey of thirty-five or forty days, and thenwas carried to Jibuti, nearly 500 miles, part of the way by rail. Nowpractically all of it goes to Gambela, thence by steamers to Khartoum, and by rail to the shipping-point at Port Sudan on the Red Sea. OTHER AFRICAN COUNTRIES. Practically every part of Africa seems to besuitable for coffee cultivation, even United South Africa, in thesouthern part of the continent, producing 140, 212 pounds in 1918. Toname all the countries in which it is grown would be to list nearly allthe political divisions of Africa. Among the largest producers are theBritish East African Protectorate, 18, 735, 572 pounds in 1918; FrenchSomaliland, 11, 222, 736 pounds in 1917; Angola, 10, 655, 934 pounds in1913; Uganda, 9, 999, 845 pounds in 1918; former German East Africa, 2, 334, 450 pounds in 1913; Cape Verde Islands, 1, 442, 910 pounds in 1916;Madagascar, 707, 676 pounds in 1918; Liberia, 761, 300 pounds in 1917;Eritrea, 728, 840 pounds in 1918; St. Thomas and Prince's Islands, 484, 350 pounds in 1916; and the Belgian Congo, 375, 000 pounds in 1917. [Illustration: A GALLA COFFEE GROWER, AND HIS HELPER, IN HIS GROVE OFYOUNG TREES NEAR HARAR] ANGOLA. Coffee is Angola's second product, and there are large areas ofwild-coffee trees. With a production of nearly 11, 000, 000 pounds, Angolaranks about third in Africa as a coffee-growing country. The coffee isgathered and sold by the natives, and there are also several Europeancompanies engaged in the coffee business. The chief coffee belt extendsfrom the Quanza River northward to the Kongo at an altitude of 1, 500 to2, 500 feet. In the Cazengo valley the wild trees are so thick thatthinning out is the only operation necessary to the plantation-owner. When the trees become too tall, they are simply cut off about two feetabove ground; and new shoots appear from the trunks the followingseason. The largest coffee plantation, owned by the Companhia Agricola deCazengo, produced in 1913, a record year, nearly 1, 500 tons. LIBERIA. Coffee is native to Liberia, growing wild in the hinterland ofthe negro republic, and in the natural state the trees often attain aheight of from thirty to forty feet. Cultivated Liberian coffee, _Coffealiberica_, has become a staple of the civilized inhabitants of thecountry, and is grown successfully in hot, moist lowlands or on hillsthat are not much elevated. On account of the size of the trees, onlyabout four hundred can be planted to the acre. In recent years thenative Africans have been planting thousands of trees in the district ofGrand Cape Mount. Coffee is grown in all parts of the republic, butchiefly in Grand Cape Mount and Montserrado. GENERAL OUTLOOK IN AFRICA. In the African countries under control ofEuropean governments much recent progress has been made in promotingcoffee growing and in improving methods of cultivation. British interests were reported in 1919 as having started a movementtoward reviving interest in the coffee growing industry in the Britishpossessions in Africa. The report stated that Uganda, in the EastAfrican Protectorate, had 21, 000 acres under coffee cultivation, with16, 000 acres more in other parts of the Protectorate, and 1, 300 acres inNyasaland; also that there is no hope of an immediate revival of theindustry in Natal, where it was killed twenty years ago by variouspests; "but it should certainly be established in the warmer parts ofRhodesia; and in the northern part of the Transvaal an effort is beingmade to bring this form of enterprise into practical existence. " Coffee growing possibilities in British East Africa (Kenya Colony) arealluring, according to reports from planters in that region. Late in1920, Major C. J. Ross, a British government officer there, said that"British East Africa is going to be one of the leading coffee countriesof the world. " Coffee grows wild in many parts of the Protectorate, butthe natives are too lazy to pick even the wild berries. On the more advanced plantations in all parts of Africa the approvedcultivation methods of other leading countries are carefully followed;especial care being given to weeding and pruning, because of the rankgrowth of the tropics. On the whole, however, little attention is givento intensive methods. ARABIA. Whether the coffee tree was first discovered indigenous in themountains of Abyssinia, or in the Yemen district of Arabia, willprobably always be a matter of contention. Many writers of Europe andAsia in the fifteenth century, when coffee was first brought to theattention of the people of Europe, agree on Arabia; but there is goodreason to believe the plant was brought to Arabia from Abyssinia in thesixth century. Once all the coffee of Arabia went to the outside world through the portof Mocha on the eastern coast of the Red Sea. Mocha, which never raisedany coffee, is no longer of commercial importance; but its name has beenpermanently attached to the coffee of this country. _Mocha_ (_Moka_, or _Morkha_) coffee (i. E. _Coffea arabica_) is raisedprincipally in the vilayet of Yemen, a district of southeastern Arabia. Yemen extends from the north, southerly along the line of the Red Sea, nearly to the Gulf of Aden. With the exception of a narrow strip of landalong the shores of the Red Sea, the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and theGulf of Aden, it is a rugged, mountainous region, in which innumerablesmall valleys at high elevations are irrigated by waters from themelting snows of the mountains. Coffee can be successfully grown in any part of Yemen, but itscultivation is confined to a few widely scattered districts, and theacreage is not large. The principal coffee regions are in the mountainsbetween Taiz and Ibb, and between Ibb and Yerim, and Yerim and Sanaa, onthe caravan route from Taiz to Sanaa; between Zabeed and Ibb, on theroute from Taiz to Zabeed; between Hajelah and Menakha, on the routefrom Hodeida to Sanaa, and in the wild mountain ranges both to the northand south of that route; between Beit-el-Fakih and Obal; and betweenManakha and Batham to the north of Bajil. The plant does best atelevations ranging from 3, 500 to 6, 500 feet. [Illustration: WILD KAFFA COFFEE TREES NEAR ADIS ABEBA] In the Yemen district, coffee is generally grown in small gardens. Largeplantations, as they exist in other coffee-growing countries, are notseen in Arabia. Many of these small farms may be parts of a large estatebelonging to some rich tribal chief. The native Arabs do not use coffeein the way it is used elsewhere in the world. They drink _kisher_, abeverage brewed from the husks of the berry and not from the bean. Consequently, the entire crop goes into export. But bad conditions oftrade routes, political disturbances, and small regional wars, absenceof good cultivation methods, and heavy transit taxes imposed by thegovernment, have combined to restrict the production of Yemen coffee. Land for the coffee gardens is selected on hill-slopes, and is terracedwith soil and small walls of stone until it reaches up like anamphitheater--often to a considerable height. The soil is wellfertilized. For sowing, the seeds are thoroughly dried in ashes, andafter being placed in the ground, are carefully watched, watered, andshaded. In about a year the shrub has grown to a height of twelve ormore inches. Seedlings in that condition are set out in the gardens inrows, about ten to thirteen feet apart. The young trees receive moisturefrom neighboring wells or from irrigation ditches, and are shaded bybananas. At maturity the trees reach a height of ten or fifteen feet. Since theynever lose all their leaves at one time, they appear always green, andbear at the same time flowers and fruits, some of which are still greenwhile others are ripe or approaching maturity. Thus, in some districts, the trees are considered to have two or even three crops a year. All thetrees begin to bear about the end of the third year. [Illustration: A RARE PICTURE SHOWING MOCHA COFFEE GROWING ON TERRACESIN YEMEN, ARABIA] CUBA. Coffee can be grown in practically every island of the WestIndies, but owing to the state of civilization in many of the lesserislands, little is produced for international trade, excepting inJamaica, Guadeloupe, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Trinidad, andTobago. In past years a considerable quantity of good-quality coffee wasproduced in Cuba, the annual export in the decade of 1840 averaging50, 000, 000 pounds. Severe hurricanes, adverse legislation, the rise ofcoffee-growing in Brazil, the increase in cultivation of sugar and othermore profitable crops, practically eliminated Cuba from theinternational coffee-export trade. MARTINIQUE. This is a name well known to coffee men, the world over, asthe pioneer coffee-growing country of the western hemisphere. Gabriel deClieu introduced the coffee plant to the island in 1723 by bringing itthrough many hardships from France. For a time, coffee flourished there, but now practically none is grown. Such coffee as bears the nameMartinique in modern trade centers is produced in Guadeloupe, and isonly shipped through Martinique. JAMAICA. Coffee was introduced into Jamaica in 1730; and so highly wasit regarded as a desirable addition to the agricultural resources of theisland, that the British Parliament in 1732 passed a special actproviding for the encouraging and fostering of its cultivation. Later, it became one of the great staples of the country. Disastrous floods in1815, and the gradual exhaustion of the best lands since then, havebrought about a decline of the industry, which is now confined to a fewestates in the Blue Mountains and to scattered "settler" or peasantcultivation in the same districts but at lower altitudes. The tree was formerly grown at all altitudes, from sea-level to 5, 000feet; but the best height for it is about 4, 500 feet. Four parishes leadin coffee producing: Manchester, with an area of 5, 045 acres; St. Thomas, with 2, 315 acres; Clarendon, with 2, 172 acres; St. Andrew, with1, 584 acres. Nine other parishes that raise coffee have less than 1, 000acres each under cultivation. There were 24, 865 acres devoted to coffeein 1900. In addition, it was estimated that there were 80, 000 acressuitable for the cultivation, nearly all being owned by the government. [Illustration: PICKING BLUE MOUNTAIN BERRIES, JAMAICA] DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. Coffee was once the leading staple in the DominicanRepublic as in the adjoining Haitian Republic; but in recent yearscacao, sugar, and tobacco have become the predominating crops. Said tohave the world's richest and most productive soil, one-half of therepublic's area is particularly suited to the cultivation of a goodgrade of coffee of the highland type. But political and industrialconditions have made for neglect of its cultivation by efficientmethods. Lack of suitable roads has also militated against thedevelopment of the coffee industry. In spite of many drawbacks, it is to be noted that, from the beginningof the twentieth century, the coffee-growing area has been graduallyexpanded until exports increased from less than 1, 000, 000 pounds to5, 029, 316 pounds in 1918, although in the next two years there was arecession in the total exports to 1, 358, 825 pounds in 1920. The principal plantations are in the vicinity of the town of Moca and inthe districts of Santiago, Bani, and Barahona. Generally speaking, themethods of cultivation in the Dominican Republic are somewhat crude ascompared with the practise in the larger countries of production inCentral America and South America. GUADELOUPE. Guadeloupe has an area of 619 square miles, and aboutone-third of this area is under cultivation. About 15, 000 acres are incoffee, giving employment to upward of 10, 000 persons. The average yieldof a plantation of mature trees is about 535 pounds to the acre. In the early years of the industry in Guadeloupe, production and exportwere considerable. From old records it appears that in 1784 the exportsamounted to 7, 500, 000 pounds. During the closing years of the eighteenthcentury the annual exports were from 6, 500, 000 to 8, 500, 000 pounds, andin the beginning of the next century they registered about 6, 000, 000pounds. Toward the middle of the nineteenth century the growing of sugarcane overtopped that of coffee in profit, and many planters abandonedcoffee. After 1884, with the decadence of the sugar industry, coffee wasagain favored, the government giving substantial encouragement by payingbounties ranging from $15 to $19 per acre for all new coffeeplantations. In recent years, considerable _liberica_ and _robusta_ have been plantedin place of the exhausted _arabica_. [Illustration: COFFEE PICKERS RETURNING FROM THE FIELDS, GUADELOUPE] TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. The islands of Trinidad and Tobago are smallfactors in international coffee trading. Coffee can be grown almost anyplace on the islands; but its cultivation is confined principally to thedistricts of Maracas, Aripo, and North Oropouche. Both the _arabica_ andthe _liberica_ varieties are grown. HONDURAS. Soil, surface, and climate in Honduras, as far as they relateto the cultivation of coffee, are similar to those of the adjoiningregions of Central America. The tree grows in the uplands of theinterior, thriving best at an altitude of from 1, 500 to 4, 000 feet. Scarcity of labor and insufficient means of transportation have been thechief obstacles in the way of the large development of the industry. The departments of Santa Barbara, Copan, Cortez, La Paz, Choluteca, andEl Paraiso have the principal plantations. The ports of shipment areTruxillo and Puerto Cortés. Annual production in recent years has beenabout 5, 000, 000 pounds. In 1889 the United States imported 3, 322, 502pounds, but in 1915 its importations fell away to 665, 912 pounds. BRITISH HONDURAS. British Honduras has never undertaken to raise coffeeon a commercial scale despite the fact that conditions are notunfavorable to its cultivation. It has failed to produce enough even fordomestic consumption, importing most of what it has needed. Annualproduction, as recorded in recent years, has been upward of 10, 000pounds. [Illustration: THREE-YEAR-OLD COFFEE TREES IN BLOSSOM, PANAMA] PANAMA. Panama presents a very favorable field for the growing ofcoffee. The best district is situated in the uplands of the district ofBugaba, where vast areas of the best lands for coffee-growing exist, andwhere climatic and other conditions are most favorable to its growth. No shade is required in this country; and the only cultivation consistsof three or four cleanings a year to keep down the weeds, as no plowing, etc. , are necessary. Coffee matures from October to January. Water powerbeing abundant, it is used for running all machinery. The annual output of the province of Chiriqui, which produces the bulkof the coffee, is approximately 4, 000 sacks of 100 pounds each; all ofwhich is produced in the Boquete district at present, as the coffeeplanted in the Bugaba section is still young and unproductive. The localsupply does not meet the domestic demand; and instead of exporting, agreat deal is imported from adjoining countries, although, there is aprotective tariff of six dollars per hundred pounds. THE GUIANAS. Coffee has had a precarious existence in the Guianas. Plants are said to have been brought by Dutch voyagers from Amsterdam in1718 or 1720. They flourished in the new habitat to which they wereintroduced, and in 1725 were carried from Dutch Guiana into the districtof Berbice in British Guiana and into French Guiana. There the berry wasa considerable success for a time; Berbice coffee especially acquiring agood reputation; and when Demerara was settled, coffee became a stapleof that region. Shortage of native labor, and the difficulty ofprocuring cheap and capable workers from outside the country, ultimatelycompelled the practical abandonment of the crop in all three sections, Dutch, French, and British. In British Guiana it is now grown mainly fordomestic consumption, and the same is true of French Guiana, which alsoimports. From the time of its introduction, about 1718, until about 1880, theonly coffee grown in Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, was the _Coffea arabica_. It was not a bountiful producer, and with labor scarce and unreliable, its cultivation was expensive. Therefore experiment was made with the_liberica_ plant. This proved to be very satisfactory, growingluxuriantly, producing abundantly, and requiring minimum labor in care. In 1918 some 16, 000, 000 pounds were produced. ECUADOR. Though not of great commercial importance, coffee in Ecuadorgrows on both the mainland and on the adjacent islands. The area plantedto coffee is estimated at 32, 000 acres having an aggregate of about8, 000, 000 trees. The trees blossom in December, and the picking seasonis through April, May and June. Coffee ranks third in value among theexports of the country. PERU. Although possessed of natural coffee land and climate, little hasbeen done to develop the industry in Peru. A finely flavored coffeegrows at an altitude of 7, 000 feet, while that grown in the lowlandsalong the Pacific coast is not so desirable. Such small quantities asare grown are cultivated in the mountain districts of Choquisongo, Cajamarca, Perene, Paucartambo, Chaucghamayo, and Huanace. ThePacific-coast district of Paces-mayo also grows a not unimportant crop. BOLIVIA. Comparatively little attention is given to coffee cultivationin Bolivia. Agricultural methods are crude, and are limited to cuttingdown weeds and undergrowth twice a year. The coffee is planted in smallpatches, or as hedges along the roads or around the fields of othercrops. The first crop is picked at the end of one and a half or twoyears. The trees bear for fifteen to twenty years. The average yield isfrom three to eight pounds per tree. The best grades of coffee are grownat 2, 000 to 6, 000 feet above sea level. Coffee is cultivated in the departments of La Paz, Cochabamba, SantaCruz, El Beni, and Chuquisca. In the department of Santa Cruz there areplantations in the provinces of Sara, Velasco, Chiquitos and Cordillera. In the Yungas and the Apolobamba districts of La Paz, its cultivationreaches the greatest importance, but even there is not of largeproportions. CHILE, PARAGUAY, AND ARGENTINA. Coffee is of minor, almostinsignificant, importance in the agriculture of Chile, Paraguay, andArgentina. In Uruguay the climate is altogether unsuitable for it. Argentina and Paraguay each have small growing districts. In the firstnamed, only the provinces of Salta and Jujuy have, at the latestreports, a little more than 3, 000 acres under cultivation. In Paraguaysome householders have grown coffee in their yards solely for their ownuse. In the Paraguayan district of Altos, north of Asuncion, a smallgroup of plantations was started before the outbreak of the World War, and produced about 300, 000 pounds of coffee in a year. CEYLON. Coffee planting in Ceylon was an important industry for acentury, until the so-called Ceylon leaf disease attacked theplantations in 1869, and a few years later had practically destroyed allthe trees of the country. Although coffee raising has continued sincethen, there has been, especially since the beginning of the twentiethcentury, a steady decline in acreage. There were 4, 875 acres undercultivation in 1903, 2, 433 acres in 1907, 1, 389 in 1912, and 941. 5 in1919. Only 2, 200 pounds were produced in 1917. However, the climate andsoil of Ceylon seem adapted to coffee culture, and the experimentalstations at Peradeniya and Anuradhapura have been experimenting inrecent years with _robusta_, _canephora_, _Ugandæ_, and a _robusta_hybrid for the purpose of reviving the industry in the country. Ceylon is one of the oldest coffee-growing countries, the Arabs havingexperimented with it there, according to legend, long before thePortuguese seized the island in 1505. The Dutch, who gained control in1658, continued the cultivation, and in 1690 introduced more systematicmethods. They sent a few pounds in 1721 to Amsterdam, where the coffeebrought a higher price than Java or Mocha. However, it was not untilafter the British occupied the island in 1796, that coffee growing wascarried on extensively. The first British-owned upland plantation wasstarted in 1825 by Sir Edward Barnes; and for more than fifty yearsthereafter coffee was one of the island's leading products. An orgy ofspeculation in coffee growing in Ceylon, in which £5, 000, 000 sterlingare said to have been invested, culminated in 1845 in the bursting ofthe coffee bubble, and hundreds were ruined. The peak of the exporttrade was reached in 1873, when 111, 495, 216 pounds of coffee were sentout of the country. Even then, the plantations were suffering severelyfrom the leaf disease, which had appeared in 1869; and by 1887, thecoffee tree had practically disappeared from Ceylon. Ceylon's day incoffee was a cycle of fifty-odd years. [Illustration: ROBUSTA COFFEE GROWING ON THE SUZANNAH ESTATE, COCHIN-CHINA] FRENCH INDO-CHINA. Coffee culture in French Indo-China is acomparatively small factor in international trade, although productionis on the increase, particularly from those plantations planted to_robusta_, _liberica_, and _excelsa_ varieties. The average annualexport for the five-year period ended with 1918 was 516, 978 pounds, nearly all of it going to France. The first experiments with coffee growing were begun in 1887, near Hanoiin Tonkin. The seeds were of the _arabica_ variety, brought fromRéunion, and the production from the first years was distributedthroughout the country to foster the industry. Eventually _arabica_ wasfound unsuitable to the soil and climate, and experiments were begunwith _robusta_ and other hardier types. A survey of the industry of the country in 1916 showed that the plantwas being successfully grown in the provinces of Tonkin, Anam, andCochin-China, and that altogether there were about 1, 000, 000 trees inbearing. The plantations are mostly in the foot-hills of the mountainranges or on the slopes, although a few are located near the coast lineat 1, 000 feet, or even less, above sea-level. The larger and more successful plantations follow advanced methods ofplanting and cultivating, while the government maintains experimentalstations for the purpose of fostering the industry. It is believed thatFrench Indo-China in coming years will assume an important position inthe coffee trade of the world, particularly as a source of supply forFrance. FEDERATED MALAY STATES, INCLUDING STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. Rubber has beenthe chief cause of the decline of coffee industry in the Federated MalayStates. Since the closing years of the nineteenth century coffee hasbeen steadily on the downward path in acreage and production, with thepossible exception of parts of Straits Settlements, which in 1918exported, mostly to England, some 3, 500, 000 pounds of good grade coffee. The other sections of the federation shipped less than 1, 000, 000 pounds. In the early days, planters of the Malay Peninsula knew little aboutproper methods of cultivating, and depended mostly upon what theylearned of the practises in Ceylon, which, unfortunately for them, werenot at all suited to the Malay country. They secured their best cropsfrom lowlands where peaty soil prevailed, and eventually all the coffeegrown on the peninsula came from such regions. _Liberica_ is mostly favored, and is grown with some success as aninter-crop with cocoanuts and rubber. The _robusta_ variety has alsobeen introduced, but does not seem to do as well as the _liberica_. Between 2, 300 and 2, 600 acres, according to recent returns, have beenunder coffee as a catch-crop with cocoanuts, out of a total of 40, 000acres in cocoanut estates. One planter has been reported as making quitea success with this method of inter-cropping for coffee, but it is notgenerally approved. There has been a general decline in acreage, product, and exports sincethe closing years of the nineteenth century, until now the industry isregarded as practically at a stand-still and likely so to remain as longas rubber shall continue to hold the commercially high position to whichit has attained. Unsatisfactory prices realized for the crop, poorgrowth of the trees in some localities, and the gradual weakening of thetrees under rubber as they mature, are offered as the principalexplanations of this decrease in acreage. Nearly all the Malay crop inrecent years has been grown in Selangor, though Negri Sembilan, Pahang, and Perak continue as factors in the trade. [Illustration: COFFEE TREES OF THE BOURBON VARIETY, FRENCH INDO-CHINA] AUSTRALIA. Although Australia is a prospective coffee-growing country oflarge natural possibilities, the _Australian Year Book_ for 1921 statesthat Queensland is the one state in which experiments have been tried, and that in 1919-20 there were only twenty-four acres under cultivation. Queensland soils are of volcanic origin, exceptionally rich, andsupport trees that are vigorous and prolific with a bean of finequality. The _arabica_ is chiefly cultivated, and the trees can besuccessfully grown on the plains at sea-level as well as up to a heightof 1, 500 or 2, 000 feet. The trees mature earlier than in some othercountries. Planted in January, they frequently blossom in December ofthe next year, or a month later, and yield a small crop in July orAugust; that is, in about two years and a half from the time ofplanting. The bean closely resembles the choice Blue Mountain coffee ofJamaica. For coffee cultivation the labor cost is almost prohibitive. [Illustration: PICKING COFFEE ON A NORTH QUEENSLAND PLANTATION] As much as fifteen hundred-weight of beans per acre have been gatheredfrom trees in North Queensland; and for years the average was tenhundred-weight per acre. After thirty years of cultivation, no signs ofdisease have appeared. At late as 1920, the government was proposing tomake advances of fourteen cents a pound upon coffee in the parchment toencourage the development of the industry to a point where it would bepossible for local coffee growers to capture at least the bulk of thecommonwealth's import coffee trade of 2, 605, 240 pounds. Coffee grows well in most all the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and insome of them, as in the Philippines and Hawaii, the industry in pastyears, reached considerable importance. HAWAII. Coffee has been grown in Hawaii since 1825, from plants broughtfrom Brazil. It has also been said that seed was brought by Vancouver, the British navigator, on his Pacific exploration voyage, 1791-94. Not, however, until 1845 was an official record made of the crop, which wasthen 248 pounds. The first plantations, started on the low levels, nearthe sea, did not do well; and it was not until the trees were planted atelevations of from 1, 000 to 3, 000 feet above sea-level that betterreturns were obtained. Coffee is grown on all the islands of the group, but nowhere to anygreat extent except on Hawaii, which produces ninety-five percent of theentire crop. Next in importance, though far behind, is the island ofOahu. On Hawaii there are four principal coffee districts, Kona, Hamakua, Puna, and Olaa. About four-fifths of the total output of theislands is produced in Kona. At one time there were considerable coffeeareas in Maui and Kauai, but sugar cane eventually there took the placeof coffee. [Illustration: COFFEE IN BLOSSOM, CAPTAIN COOK COFFEE COMPANY ESTATE, KEALAKEKUA, KONA, HAWAII] The Kona coffee district extends for many miles along the western slopeof the island of Hawaii and around famous Kealakekua Bay. The soil isvolcanic, and even rocky; but coffee trees flourish surprisingly wellamong the rocks, and are said to bear a bean of superior quality. Coffee trees in Kona are planted principally in the open, thoughsometimes they are shaded by the native _kukui_ trees. They are grownfrom seed in nurseries; and the seedlings, when one year old, aretransplanted in regular lines nine feet apart. In two years a small cropis gathered, yielding from five to twelve bags of cleaned coffee peracre. At three years of age the trees produce from eight to twenty bagsof cleaned coffee per acre, and from that time they are fully matured. The ripening season is between September and January, and there are twoprincipal pickings. Many of the trees are classed as wild; that is, theyare not topped, and are cultivated in an irregular manner and are poorlycared for; but they yield 700 or 800 pounds per acre. The fruit ripensvery uniformly, and is picked easily and at slight expense. It is calculated that in the Hawaiian group more than 250, 000 acres ofgood coffee land are available and about 200, 000 acres more of fairquality. Comparatively little of this possible acreage has been put touse. According to the census of 1889, there were then 6, 451 acresdevoted to coffee, having, young and old, 3, 225, 743 bearing trees. Theyield, in that census year, was 2, 297, 000 pounds, of which 2, 112, 650pounds were credited to Hawaii, the small remainder coming from Maui, Oahu, Kauai, and Molokai. A blight in 1855-56 set back the industry, many plantations being ruinedand then given over to sugar cane. After the blight had disappeared, theplantations were re-established, and prosperity continued for years. Following the American occupation of the islands in 1898, came anotherperiod of depression. With the loss of the protective tariff that hadexisted, prices fell to an unremunerativte figure; and the moreprofitable sugar cane was taken up again. After 1912, the increaseddemand for coffee, with higher prices, led again to hopes for the futureof the industry. Planting was encouraged; and it has been demonstratedthat from lands well selected and intelligently cultivated it ispossible to have a yield of from 1, 200 to 2, 100 pounds per acre. Improvements have also been made in pulping and milling facilities. Manyof the plantations are cultivated by Japanese labor. [Illustration: COFFEE GROWING UNDER SHADE, HAMAKUA, H. I. ] Exports of coffee from Hawaii to the principal countries of the world in1920 were 2, 573, 300 pounds. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Spanish missionaries from Mexico are said to havecarried the coffee plant to the Philippine Islands in the latter part ofthe eighteenth century. At first it was cultivated in the province of LaLaguna; but afterward other provinces, notably Batangas and Cavite, tookit up; and in a short time the industry was one of the most important inthe islands. The coffee was of the _arabica_ variety. In the middle ofthe eighteenth century, and after, the industry had a position ofimportance; several provinces produced profitable crops that contributedmuch to the wealth of the communities where the berry was cultivated. Inthose days the city of Yipa was an important trading center. In theperiod of its prime Philippine coffee enjoyed fine repute, especially inSpain, Great Britain, and China (at Hong Kong), those three countriesbeing the largest consumers. At one time--in 1883 and 1884--the annualexport was 16, 000, 000 pounds, which demonstrates the importance of theindustry at the peak of its prosperity. The leaf blight appeared on theisland about 1889, causing destruction from which there has not yet beencomplete recovery. The export of 3, 086 pounds in 1917 shows the depthsinto which the industry had fallen. The Bureau of Agriculture at Manila announced in 1915 that an effort wasto be made to re-habilitate the coffee industry of the islands. Nothingcame of the effort, which died a-borning. Since then, several attemptsto introduce disease-resisting varieties of coffee from Java have failedbecause of lack of interest on the part of the natives. Despite the misfortunes that have overwhelmed it in the past and are nowretarding its growth, it is still believed that the industry in theseislands may be re-habilitated. Conditions of soil and climate arefavorable; land and labor are cheap, abundant, and dependable: railroadsrun into the best coffee regions, and good cart roads are in process ofconstruction. Some plantations of consequence are still in existence, and serious consideration is being given to their development and toincreasing their number. [Illustration: THE COFFEE TREE THRIVES IN THE LAVA SOIL OF SOUTH KONA, ISLAND OF HAWAII] GUAM. Coffee is one of the commonest wild plants on the little island ofGuam. It grows around the houses like shade trees or flowering shrubs, and nearly every family cultivates a small patch. Climate and soil arefavorable to it; and it flourishes, with abundant crops, from thesea-level to the tops of the highest hills. The plants are set instraight rows, from three and a half to seven feet apart, and are shadedby banana trees or by cocoanut leaves stuck in the ground. There is noproduction for export, scarcely enough for home consumption. [Illustration: COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR SAGADA, BONTOC PROVINCE, P. I. ] OTHER PACIFIC ISLANDS. Other islands of the Pacific do not loom large incoffee growing, though New Caledonia gives promise as a producer, exporting 1, 248, 024 pounds in 1916, most of which was _robusta_. Tahitiproduces a fair coffee, but in no commercial quantity. In the Samoangroup there are plantations, small in number, in size, and in amount ofproduction. Several islands of the Fiji group are said to be welladapted to coffee, but little is grown there and none for export. [Illustration] [Illustration: OWNER'S RESIDENCE ADJOINING DRYING GROUNDS ON ONE OF THELARGE ESTATES] [Illustration: DRYING GROUNDS, FAZENDA SANTA ADELAIDE, RIBEIRAO PRETO] [Illustration: COFFEE PREPARATION IN SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL] CHAPTER XXI PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET _Early Arabian methods of preparation--How primitive devices were replaced by modern methods--A chronological story of the development of scientific plantation machinery, and the part played by British and American inventors--The marvelous coffee package, one of the most ingenious in all nature--How coffee is harvested--Picking--Preparation by the dry and the wet methods--Pulping--Fermentation and washing--Drying--Hulling; or peeling, and polishing--Sizing, or grading--Preparation methods of different countries_ La Roque[316], in his description of the ancient coffee culture, and thepreparation methods as followed in Yemen, says that the berries werepermitted to dry on the trees. When the outer covering began to shrivel, the trees were shaken, causing the fully matured fruits to drop uponcloths spread to receive them. They were next exposed to the sun ondrying-mats, after which they were husked by means of wooden or stonerollers. The beans were given a further drying in the sun, and then weresubmitted to a winnowing process, for which large fans were used. _Development of Plantation Machinery_ The primitive methods of the original Arab planters were generallyfollowed by the Dutch pioneers, and later by the French, with slightmodifications. As the cultivation spread, necessity for more effectivemethods of handling the ripened fruit mothered inventions that soonbegan to transform the whole aspect of the business. Probably the firstnotable advance was in curing, when the West Indian process, or wetmethod, of cleaning the berries was evolved. About the time that Brazil began the active cultivation of coffee, William Panter was granted the first English patent on a "mill forhusking coffee. " This was in 1775. James Henckel followed with anEnglish patent, granted in 1806, on a coffee drier, "an inventioncommunicated to him by a certain foreigner. " The first American to enterthe lists was Nathan Reed of Belfast, Me. , who in 1822 was granted aUnited States patent on a coffee huller. Roswell Abbey obtained a UnitedStates patent on a huller in 1825; and Zenos Bronson, of Jasper County, Ga. , obtained one on another huller in 1829. In the next few years manyothers followed. John Chester Lyman, in 1834, was granted an English patent on a coffeehuller employing circular wooden disks, fitted with wire teeth. IsaacAdams and Thomas Ditson of Boston brought out improved hullers in 1835;and James Meacock of Kingston, Jamaica, patented in England, in 1845, aself-contained machine for pulping, dressing, and sorting coffee. William McKinnon began, in 1840, the manufacture of coffee plantationmachinery at the Spring Garden Iron Works, founded by him in 1798 inAberdeen, Scotland. He died in 1873; but the business continues as Wm. McKinnon & Co. , Ltd. About 1850 John Walker, one of the pioneer English inventors ofcoffee-plantation machinery, brought out in Ceylon his cylinder pulperfor Arabian coffee. The pulping surface was made of copper, and waspierced with a half-moon punch that raised the cut edges into halfcircles. The next twenty years witnessed some of the most notable advances in thedevelopment of machinery for plantation treatment, and served tointroduce the inventions of several men whose names will ever beassociated with the industry. John Gordon & Co. Began the manufacture in London of the line ofplantation machinery still known around the world as "Gordon make" in1850; and John Gordon was granted an English patent on his improvedcoffee pulper in 1859. Robert Bowman Tennent obtained English (1852) and United States (1853)patents on a two-cylinder pulper. George L. Squier began the manufacture of plantation machinery inBuffalo, N. Y. , in 1857. He was active in the business until 1893, anddied in 1910. The Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing Co. Still continues asone of the leading American manufacturers of coffee-plantationmachinery. Marcus Mason, an American mechanical engineer in San José, Costa Rica, invented (1860) a coffee pulper and cleaner which became the foundationstone of the extensive plantation-machinery business of Marcus Mason &Co. , established in 1873 at Worcester, Mass. [Illustration: WALKER'S ORIGINAL DISK PULPER, 1860 Much favored in Ceylon and India] John Walker was granted (1860) an English patent on a disk pulper inwhich the copper pulping surface was punched, or knobbed, by a blindpunch that raised rows of oval knobs but did not pierce the sheet, andso left no sharp edges. During Ceylon's fifty years of coffeeproduction, the Walker machines played an important part in theindustry. They are still manufactured by Walker, Sons & Co. , Ltd. , ofColombo, and are sold to other producing countries. Alexius Van Gulpen began the manufacture of a green-coffee-gradingmachine at Emmerich, Germany, in 1860. Following Newell's United States patents of 1857-59, sixteen otherpatents were issued on various types of coffee-cleaning machines, somedesigned for plantation use, and some for treating the beans on arrivalin the consuming countries. James Henry Thompson, of Hoboken, and John Lidgerwood were granted, in1864, an English patent on a coffee-hulling machine. William Van VleekLidgerwood, American chargé d'affaires at Rio de Janeiro, was granted anEnglish patent on a coffee hulling and cleaning machine in 1866. Thename Lidgerwood has long been familiar to coffee planters. TheLidgerwood Manufacturing Co. , Ltd. , has its headquarters in London, withfactory in Glasgow. Branch offices are maintained at Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, and in other cities in coffee-growing countries. [Illustration: EARLY ENGLISH COFFEE PEELER Largely used in India and Ceylon] Probably the name most familiar to coffee men in connection withplantation methods is Guardiola. It first appears in the chronologicalrecord in 1872, when J. Guardiola, of Chocola, Guatemala, was grantedseveral United States patents on machines for pulping and drying coffee. Since then, "Guardiola" has come to mean a definite type of rotarydrying machine that--after the original patent expired--was manufacturedby practically all the leading makers of plantation machinery. JoséGuardiola obtained additional United States patents on coffee hullers in1886. [Illustration: GROUP OF ENGLISH CYLINDER COFFEE-PULPING MACHINES] William Van Vleek Lidgerwood, Morristown, N. J. , was granted an Englishpatent on an improved coffee pulper in 1875. Several important cleaning and grading machinery patents were granted bythe United States (1876-1878) to Henry B. Stevens, who assigned them tothe Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing Co. , Buffalo, N. Y. One of them was on aseparator, in which the coffee beans were discharged from the hopper ina thin stream upon an endless carrier, or apron, arranged at such aninclination that the round beans would roll by force of gravity down theapron, while the flat beans would be carried to the top. C. F. Hargreaves, of Rio de Janeiro, was granted an English patent onmachinery for hulling, polishing, and separating coffee, in 1879. The first German patent on a coffee drying apparatus was granted toHenry Scolfield, of Guatemala, in 1880. In 1885 Evaristo Conrado Engelberg of Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil, invented an improved coffee huller which, three years later, waspatented in the United States. The Engelberg Huller Co. Of Syracuse, N. Y. , was organized the same year (1888) to make and to sell Engelbergmachines. Walker Sons & Co. , Ltd. , began, in 1886, experimenting in Ceylon with aLiberian disk pulper that was not fully perfected until twelve yearslater. Another name, that has since become almost as well known as Guardiola, appears in the record in 1891. It is that of O'Krassa. In that yearR. F. E. O'Krassa of Antigua, Guatemala, was granted an English patent ona coffee pulper. Additional patents on washing, hulling, drying, andseparating machines were issued to Mr. O'Krassa in England and in theUnited States in 1900, 1908, 1911, 1912, and 1913. The Fried. Krupp A. G. Grusonwerk, Magdeburg-Buckau, Germany, began themanufacture of coffee plantation machines about 1892. Among others itbuilds coffee pulpers and hulling and polishing machines of the Anderson(Mexican) and Krull (Brazilian) types. Additional United States patents were granted in 1895 to Marcus Mason, assignor to Marcus Mason & Co. , New York, on machines for pulping andpolishing coffee. Douglas Gordon assigned patents on a coffee pulper anda coffee drier to Marcus Mason & Co. In 1904-05. The names of Jules Smout, a Swiss, and Don Roberto O'Krassa, ofGuatemala, are well known to coffee planters the world over because oftheir combined peeling and polishing machines. The Huntley Manufacturing Co. , Silver Creek, N. Y. , began in 1896 themanufacture of the Monitor line of coffee-grading-and-cleaning machines. _The Marvelous Coffee Package_ It is doubtful if in all nature there is a more cunningly devised foodpackage than the fruit of the coffee tree. It seems as if Good MotherNature had said: "This gift of Heaven is too precious to put up in anyordinary parcel. I shall design for it a casket worthy of its divineorigin. And the casket shall have an inner seal that shall safeguard itfrom enemies, and that shall preserve its goodness for man until the daywhen, transported over the deserts and across the seas, it shall bebroken open to be transmuted by the fires of friendship, and made toyield up its aromatic nectar in the Great Drink of Democracy. " To this end she caused to grow from the heart of the jasmine-likeflower, that first herald of its coming, a marvelous berry which, as itripens, turns first from green to yellow, then to reddish, to deepcrimson, and at last to a royal purple. [Illustration: SPECIMENS OF COPPER COVERS FOR PULPER CYLINDERS 1--For Arabian coffee (_Coffea arabica_). 2--For Liberian coffee(_Coffea liberica_). 3--Also for Arabian. 4--For _Coffea canephora_. 5--For _Coffea robusta_. 6--For larger Arabian, and for _CoffeaMaragogipe_. ] The coffee fruit is very like a cherry, though somewhat elongated andhaving in its upper end a small umbilicus. But mark with what ingenuitythe package has been constructed! The outer wrapping is a thin, gossamer-like skin which encloses a soft pulp, sweetish to the taste, but of a mucilaginous consistency. This pulp in turn is wrapped aboutthe inner-seal--called the parchment, because of its tough texture. Theparchment encloses the magic bean in its last wrapping, a delicatesilver-colored skin, not unlike fine spun silk or the sheerest of tissuepapers. And this last wrapping is so tenacious, so true to itsguardianship function, that no amount of rough treatment can dislodge italtogether; for portions of it cling to the bean even into the roastingand grinding processes. [Illustration: DRYING GROUNDS, PULPING HOUSE, AND FERMENTATION VATS, BOA VISTA. BRAZIL] [Illustration: PULPING HOUSE AND FERMENTATION TANKS, COSTA RICA] [Illustration: COFFEE PREPARATION IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA] [Illustration: GRANADA UNPULPED COFFEE SEPARATOR Shown in combination with a Guatemala coffee pulper] Coffee is said to be "in the husk, " or "in the parchment, " when thewhole fruit is dried; and it is called "hulled coffee" when it has beendeprived of its hull and peel. The matter forming the fruit, called thecoffee berry, covers two thin, hard, oval seed vessels held together, one to the other, by their flat sides. These seed vessels, when brokenopen, contain the raw coffee beans of commerce. They are usually of aroundish oval shape, convex on the outside, flat inside, markedlongitudinally in the center of the flat side with a deep incision, andwrapped in the thin pellicle known as the silver skin. When one of thetwo seeds aborts, the remaining one acquires a greater size, and fillsthe interior of the fruit, which in that case, of course, has but onecellule. This abortion is common in the _arabica_ variety, and producesa bean formerly called _gragé_ coffee, but now more commonly known aspeaberry, or male berry. The various coverings of the coffee beans are almost always removed onthe plantations in the producing countries. Properly to prepare the rawbeans, it is necessary to remove the four coverings--the outer skin, thesticky pulp, the parchment, or husk, and the closely adhering silverskin. There are two distinct methods of treating the coffee fruits, or"cherries. " One process, the one that until recent years was in generaluse throughout the world, and is still in many producing countries, isknown as the dry method. The coffee prepared in this way is sometimescalled "common, " "ordinary, " or "natural, " to distinguish it from theproduct that has been cleaned by the wet or washed method. The wetmethod, or, as it is sometimes designated, the "West Indian process"(W. I. P. ) is practised on all the large modern plantations that have asufficient supply of water. In the wet process, the first step is called pulping; the second isfermentation and washing; the third is drying; the fourth is hulling orpeeling; and the last, sizing or grading. In the dry process, the firststep is drying; the second hulling; and the last, sizing or grading. [Illustration: HAND-POWER DOUBLE-DISK PULPER] _Harvesting_ The coffee cherry ripens about six to seven months after the tree hasflowered, or blossomed; and becomes a deep purplish-crimson color. It isthen ready for picking. The ripening season varies throughout the world, according to climate and altitude. In the state of São Paulo, Brazil, the harvesting season lasts from May to September; while in Java, wherethree crops are produced annually, harvesting is almost a continuousprocess throughout the year. In Colombia the harvesting seasons areMarch and April, and November and December. In Guatemala the crops aregathered from October through December; in Venezuela, from Novemberthrough March. In Mexico the coffee is harvested from November toJanuary; in Haiti the harvest extends from November to March; in Arabia, from September to March; in Abyssinia, from September through November. In Uganda, Africa, there are two main crops, one ripening in March andthe other in September, and picking is carried on during practicallyevery month except December and January. In India the fruit is ready forharvesting from October to January. [Illustration: TANDEM COFFEE PULPER OF ENGLISH MAKE Being a combination of a Bon-Accord-Valencia pulper with a Bon-Accordrepassing machine] _Picking_ The general practise throughout the world has been to hand-pick thefruit; although in some countries the cherries are allowed to becomefully ripe on the trees, and to fall to the ground. The introduction ofthe wet method of preparation, indeed, has made it largely unnecessaryto hand-pick crops; and the tendency seems to be away from this practiseon the larger plantations. If the berries are gathered promptly afterdropping, the beans are not injured, and the cost of harvesting isreduced. The picking season is a busy time on a large plantation. All hands joinin the work--men, women and children; for it must be rushed. Over-ripeberries shrink and dry up. The pickers, with baskets slung over theirshoulders, walk between the rows, stripping the berries from the trees, using ladders to reach the topmost branches, and sometimes even takingimmature fruit in their haste to expedite the work. About thirty poundsis considered a fair day's work under good conditions. As the basketsare filled, they are emptied at a "station" in that particular unit ofthe plantation; or, in some cases, directly into wagons that keep pacewith the pickers. The coffee is freed as much as possible of sticks, leaves, etc. , and is then conveyed to the preparation grounds. A space of several acres is needed for the various preparation processeson the larger plantations; the plant including concrete-surfaced dryinggrounds, large fermentation tanks, washing vats, mills, warehouses, stables, and even machine shops. In Mexico this place is known as the_beneficio_. _Washed and Unwashed Coffee_ Where water is plenty, the ripe coffee cherries are fed by a stream ofwater into a pulping machine which breaks the outer skins, permittingthe pulpy matter enveloping the beans to be loosened and carried away infurther washings. It is this wet separation of the sticky pulp from thebeans, instead of allowing it to dry on them, to be removed later withthe parchment in the hulling operation, that makes the distinctionbetween washed and unwashed coffees. Where water is scarce the coffeesare unwashed. Either method being well done, does washing improve the strength andflavor? Opinions differ. The soil, altitude, climatic influences, andcultivation methods of a country give its coffee certain distinctivedrinking qualities. Washing immensely improves the appearance of thebean; it also reduces curing costs. Generally speaking, washed coffeeswill always command a premium over coffees dried in the pulp. [Illustration: Costa Rica Vertical Coffee Washer] [Illustration: Continuous Working Horizontal Coffee Washer] Whether coffee is washed or not, it has to be dried; and there is a kindof fermentation that goes on during washing and drying, about whichcoffee planters have differing ideas, just as tea planters differ overthe curing of tea leaves. Careful scientific study is needed todetermine how much, if any, effect this fermentation has on the ultimatecup value. _Preparation by the Dry Method_ The dry method of preparing the berries is not only the older method, but is considered by some operators as providing a distinct advantageover the wet process, since berries of different degrees of ripeness canbe handled at the same time. However, the success of this method isdependent largely on the continuance of clear warm weather over quite alength of time, which can not always be counted on. In this process the berries are spread in a thin layer on open dryinggrounds, or barbecues, often having cement or brick surfaces. Theberries are turned over several times a day in order to permit the sunand wind thoroughly to dry all portions. The sun-drying process lastsabout three weeks; and after the first three days of this period, theberries must be protected from dews and rains by covering them withtarpaulins, or by raking them into heaps under cover. If the berries arenot spread out, they heat, and the silver skin sticks to the coffeebean, and frequently discolors it. When thoroughly dry, the berries arestored, unless the husks (outer skin and inner parchment) are to beremoved at once. Hot air, steam, and other artificial drying methodstake the place of natural sun-drying on some plantations. In the dry method, the husks are removed either by hand (threshing andpounding in a mortar, on the smaller plantations) or by speciallyconstructed machinery, known as hulling machines. [Illustration: Cobán Pulper in Tachira, Venezuela] _The Wet Method--Pulping_ The wet method of preparation is the more modern form, and is generallypractised on the larger plantations that have a sufficient supply ofwater, and enough money to instal the quite extensive amount ofmachinery and equipment required. It is generally considered thatwashing results in a better grade of bean. In this method the cherries are sometimes thrown into tanks full ofwater to soak about twenty-four hours, so as to soften the outer skinsand underlying pulp to a condition that will make them easily removableby the pulping machine--the idea being to rub away the pulp by frictionwithout crushing the beans. On the larger plantations, however, the coffee cherries are dumped intolarge concrete receiving tanks, from which they are carried the same dayby streams of running water directly into the hoppers of the pulpingmachines. At least two score of different makes of pulping machines are in use inthe various coffee-growing countries. Pulpers are made in various sizes, from the small hand-operated machine to the large type driven by power;and in two general styles--cylinder, and disk. The cylinder pulper, the latest style--suggesting a hugenutmeg-grater--consists of a rotary cylinder surrounded with a copper orbrass cover punched with bulbs. These bulbs differ in shape according tothe species, or variety, of coffee to be treated--_arabica_, _liberica_, _robusta_, _canephora_, or what not. The cylinder rotates against abreast with pulping edges set at an angle. The pulping is effected bythe rubbing action of the copper cover against the edges, or ribs, ofthe breast. The cherries are subjected to a rubbing and rolling motion, in the course of which the two parchment-covered beans contained in themajority of the cherries become loosened. The pulp itself is carried bythe cover and is discharged through a pulp shoot, while the pulpedcoffee is delivered through holes on the breast. Cylinder machines varyin capacity from 400 pounds (hand power) to 4, 800 pounds (motive power)per hour. Some cylinder pulpers are double, being equipped with rotary screens oroscillating sieves, that segregate the imperfectly pulped cherries sothat they may be put through again. Pulpers are also equipped withattachments that automatically move the imperfectly pulped material overinto a repassing machine for another rubbing. Others have attachmentspartially to crush the cherries before pulping. The breasts in cylinder machines are usually made with removable steelribs; but in Brazil, Nicaragua, and other countries, where, owing to theshort season and scarcity of labor, the planters have to pick, simultaneously, green, ripe, and over-ripe (dry) cherries, rubberbreasts are used. [Illustration: NIAGARA POWER COFFEE HULLER] [Illustration: MCKINNON'S GUARDIOLA COFFEE DRIER] [Illustration: THE SQUIER-GUARDIOLA COFFEE DRIER, WITH DIRECT-FIREHEATER] [Illustration: BRITISH AND AMERICAN COFFEE DRIERS--GUARDIOLA SYSTEM There are numerous makes of coffee driers based upon the originalinvention of José Guardiola of Chocola, Guatemala. In the twoillustrated above both direct-fire heat and steam heat may be utilized] The disk pulper (the earliest type, having been in use more thanseventy years) is the style most generally used in the Dutch East Indiesand in some parts of Mexico. The results are the same as those obtainedwith the cylindrical pulper. The disk machine is made with one, two, three, or four vertical iron disks, according to the capacity desired. The disks are covered on both sides with a copper plate of the sameshape, and punched with blind punches. The pulping operation takes placebetween the rubbing action of the blind punches, or bulbs, on the copperplates and the lateral pulping bars fitted to the side cheeks. As in thecylinder pulper, the distance between the surface of the bulbs and thepulping bar may be adjusted to allow of any clearance that may berequired, according to the variety of coffee to be treated. [Illustration: ANOTHER AMERICAN GUARDIOLA DRIER] Disk pulpers vary in capacity from 1, 200 pounds to 14, 000 pounds of ripecherry coffee per hour. They, too, are made in combinations employingcylindrical separators, shaking sieves, and repassing pulpers, forcompleting the pulping of all unpulped or partially pulped cherries. _Fermentation and Washing_ The next step in the process consists in running the pulped cherriesinto cisterns, or fermentation tanks, filled with water, for the purposeof removing such pulp as was not removed in the pulping machine. Thesaccharine matter is loosened by fermentation in from twenty-four tothirty-two hours. The mass is kept stirred up for a short time; and, ingeneral practise, the water is drawn off from above, the light pulpfloating at the top being removed at the same time. The same tanks areoften used for washing, but a better practise is to have separate tanks. Some planters permit the pulped coffee to ferment in water. This iscalled the wet fermentation process. Others drain off the water from thetanks and conduct the fermenting operation in a semi-dry state, calledthe dry fermentation process. The coffee bean, when introduced into the fermentation tanks, isenclosed in a parchment shell made slimy by its closely adheringsaccharine coat. After fermentation, which not only loosens theremaining pulp but also softens the membranous covering, the beans aregiven a final washing, either in washing tanks or by being run throughmechanical washers. The type of washing machine generally used consistsof a cylindrical tub having a vertical spindle fitted with a number ofstirrers, or arms, which, in rotating, stir and lift up the parchmentcoffee. In another type, the cylinder is horizontal; but the operationis similar. _Drying_ The next step in preparation is drying. The coffee, which is still "inthe parchment, " but is now known as washed coffee, is spread out thinlyon a drying ground, as in the dry method. However, if the weather isunsuitable or can not be depended upon to remain fair for the necessarylength of time, there are machines which can be used to dry the coffeesatisfactorily. On some plantations, the drying is started in the openand finished by machine. The machines dry the coffee in twenty-fourhours, while ten days are required by the sun. [Illustration: THE SMOUT PEELER AND POLISHER] The object of the drying machine is to dry the parchment of the coffeeso that it may be removed as readily as the skin on a peanut; and thisobject is achieved in the most approved machines by keeping a hotcurrent of air stirring through the beans. One of the best-liked types, the Guardiola, resembles the cylinder of a coffee-roasting machine. Itis made of perforated steel plates in cylinder form, and is carried on ahollow shaft through which the hot air is circulated by a pressure fan. The beans are rotated in the revolving cylinder; and as the hot airstrikes the wet coffee, it creates a steam that passes out through theperforations of the cylinder. Within the cylinder are compartmentsequipped with winged plates, or ribs, that keep the coffee constantlystirred up to facilitate the drying process. Another favorite is theO'Krassa. It is constructed on the principle just described, but differsin detail of construction from the Guardiola, and is able to dry itscontents a few hours quicker. Hot air, steam, and electric heat are allemployed in the various makes of coffee driers. A temperature from 65°to 85° centigrade is maintained during the drying process. [Illustration: O'KRASSA'S COFFEE DRIER COMBINED WITH DIRECT-FIRE HEATER] When thoroughly dry, the parchment can be crumbled between the fingers, and the bean within is too hard to be dented by finger nail or teeth. _Hulling, Peeling, and Polishing_ The last step in the preparation process is called hulling or peeling, both words accurately describing the purpose of the operation. Somehusking machines for hulling or peeling parchment coffee are polishersas well. This work may be done on the plantation or at the port ofshipment just before the coffee is shipped abroad. Sometimes the coffeeis exported in parchment, and is cleaned in the country of consumption;but practically all coffee entering the United States arrives withoutits parchment. [Illustration: THE SMOUT PEELER AND POLISHER, WITH CYLINDER OPEN SHOWINGCONE] Peeling machines, more accurately named hullers, work on the principleof rubbing the beans between a revolving inner cylinder and an outercovering of woven wire. Machines of this type vary in construction. Somehave screw-like inner cylinders, or turbines, others having plaincone-shaped cores on which are knobs and ribs that rub the beans againstone another and the outer shell. Practically all types have sieve orexhaust-fan attachments, which draw the loosened parchment and silverskin into one compartment, while the cleaned beans pass into another. [Illustration: KRULL HULLING MACHINE (German)] [Illustration: ANDERSON HULLING MACHINE (German)] [Illustration: EUREKA SEPARATOR AND GRADER (American)] [Illustration: CARACOLILLO (PEABERRY) SEPARATOR (American)] [Illustration: ENGELBERG HULLER AND SEPARATOR (American)] [Illustration: THE AMERICAN COFFEE HULLER AND POLISHER] [Illustration: WELL KNOWN AMERICAN AND GERMAN HULLING AND SEPARATINGMACHINES] Polishers of various makes are sometimes used just to remove the silverskin and to give the beans a special polish. Some countries demand ahighly polished coffee; and to supply this demand, the beans are sentthrough another huller having a phosphor-bronze cylinder and cone. MuchGuadeloupe coffee is prepared in this way, and is known as _cafébonifieur_ from the fact that the polishing machine is called inGuadeloupe the _bonifieur_ (improver). It is also called _café de luxe_. Coffee that has not received the extra polish is described as_habitant_; while coffee in the parchment is known as _café en parché_. Extra polished coffee is much in demand in the London, Hamburg, andother European markets. A favorite machine for producing this kind ofcoffee is the Smout combined peeler and polisher, the invention of JulesSmout, a Swiss. Don Roberto O'Krassa also has produced a highlysatisfactory combined peeler and polisher. For hulling dry cherry coffee there are several excellent makes ofmachines. In one style, the hulling takes place between a rotating diskand the casing of the machine. In another, it takes place between arotary drum covered with a steel plate punched with vertical bulbs, anda chilled iron hulling-plate with pyramidal teeth cast on the plate. Both are adjustable to different varieties of coffee. In still anothertype of machine, the hulling takes place between steel ribs on aninternal cylinder, and an adjustable knife, or hulling blade, in frontof the machine. [Illustration: EL MONARCA COFFEE CLASSIFIER] _Sizing or Grading_ The coffee bean is now clean, the processes described in the foregoinghaving removed the outer skin, the saccharine pulp, the parchment, andthe silver skin. This is the end of the cleaning operations; but thereare two more steps to be taken before the coffee is ready for the tradeof the world--sizing and hand-sorting. These two operations are of greatimportance; since on them depends, to a large extent, the price thecoffee will bring in the market. [Illustration: Old rope-drive transmission on Finca Ona. ] [Illustration: Hydro-electric power plant on Finca Ona. HYDRO-ELECTRIC INSTALLATION ON A GUATEMALA FINCA] Sizing, or grading by sizes, is done in modern commercial practise bymachines that automatically separate and distribute the different beansaccording to size and form. In principle, the beans are carried across aseries of sieves, each with perforations varying in size from theothers; the beans passing through the holes of corresponding sizes. Themajority of the machines are constructed to separate the beans into fiveor more grades, the principal grades being triage, third flats, secondflats, first flats, and first and second peaberries. Some are designedto handle "elephant" and "mother" sizes. The grades have localnomenclature in the various countries. After grading, the coffee is picked over by hand to remove the faultyand discolored beans that it is almost impossible to remove thoroughlyby machine. The higher grades of coffee are often double-picked; thatis, picked over twice. When this is done on a large scale, the beans aregenerally placed on a belt, or platform, that moves at a regulated speedbefore a line of women and children, who pick out the undesirable beansas they pass on the moving belt. There are small machines of this typebuilt for one person, who operates the belt mechanism by means of atreadle. _Preparation in the Leading Countries_ The foregoing description tells in general terms the story of the mostapproved methods of harvesting, shelling, and cleaning the coffee beans. The following paragraphs will describe those features of the processesthat are peculiar to the more important large producing countries andthat differ in details or in essentials from the methods just outlined. _In the Western Hemisphere_ BRAZIL. The operation of some of the large plantations in Brazil, anumber of which have more than a million trees, requires a large numberand a great variety of preparation machines and equipment. Generallyconsidered, the State of São Paulo is better equipped with approvedmachinery than any other commercial district in the world. In Brazil, coffee plantations are known as _fazendas_, and theproprietors as _fazendeiros_, terms that are the equivalent of "landedestates" and "landed proprietors. " Practically every _fazenda_ in Brazilof any considerable commercial importance is equipped with the mostmodern of coffee-cleaning equipment. Some of the larger ones in thestate of São Paulo, like the Dumont and the Schmidt estates, areprovided with private railways connecting the _fazendas_ with the mainrailroad line some miles away, and also have miniature railway systemsrunning through the _fazendas_ to move the coffee from one harvestingand cleaning operation to another. The coffee is carried in small carsthat are either pushed by a laborer or are drawn by horse or mule. [Illustration: PICKING COFFEE ON A WELL KEPT FAZENDA] [Illustration: MANAGER'S RESIDENCE ON ONE OF THE BIG SÃO PAULO FAZENDAS] [Illustration: Photographs by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co. DRYING GROUNDS ON A MODERN ESTATE IN RIBEIRAO PRETO] [Illustration: MAKING BRAZIL COFFEE READY TO MARKET] Some of the larger _fazendas_ cover thousands of acres, and haveseveral millions of trees, giving the impression of an unending foreststretching far away into the horizon. Here and there are openings inwhich buildings appear, the largest group of structures usuallyconsisting of those making up the _cafezale_, or cleaning plant. Nearby, stand the handsome "palaces" of the _fazendeiros_; but not so close thatthe coffee princes and their households will be disturbed by the almostconstant rumble of machinery and the voices of the workers. [Illustration: Copyright by Brown & Dawson. WORKING COFFEE ON DRYING FLATS, SÃO PAULO] Brazilian _fazendeiros_ follow the methods described in the foregoing inpreparing their coffee for market, using the most modern of theequipment detailed under the story of the wet method of preparation. Onmost of the _fazendas_ the machinery is operated by steam orelectricity, the latter coming more and more into use each year in allparts of the coffee-growing region. In some districts, however, far in the interior, there are still to befound small plantations where primitive methods of cleaning are even nowpractised. Producing but a small quantity of coffee, possibly for onlylocal use, the cherries may be freed of their parchment by maceratingthe husks by hand labor in a large mortar. On still another plantation, the old-time bucket-and-beam crusher perhaps may be in use. This consists of a beam pivoted on an upright upon which it moves freelyup and down. On one end of the beam is an open bucket; and on the other, a heavy stone. Water runs into the bucket until its weight causes thestone end of the beam to rise. When the bucket reaches the ground, thewater is emptied, and the stone crashes down on the coffee cherrieslying in a large mortar. [Illustration: FERMENTING AND WASHING TANKS ON A SÃO PAULO FAZENDA] The workers on some of the largest Brazilian _fazendas_ would constitutethe population of a small city--more than a thousand families oftenfinding continuous employment in cultivating, harvesting, cleaning, andtransporting the coffee to market. For the most part, the workers are ofItalian extraction, who have almost altogether superseded the Indian andNegro laborers of the early days. The workers live on the _fazendas_ inquarters provided by the _fazendeiros_, and are paid a weekly or monthlywage for their services; or they may enter upon a year's contract tocultivate the trees, receiving extra pay for picking and other work. Brazil in the past has experimented with the slave system, withgovernment colonization, with co-operative planting, with the harvestingsystem, and with the share system. And some features of all theseplans--except slavery, which was abolished in 1888--are still employedin various parts of the country, although the wage system predominates. [Illustration: By Courtesy of J. Aron & Co. DRYING GROUNDS ON FAZENDA SCHMIDT, THE LARGEST IN BRAZIL] Brazil has six gradings for its São Paulo coffees, which are alsoclassified as Bourbon Santos, Flat Bean Santos, and Mocha-seed Santos. Rio coffees are graded by the number of imperfections for New York, andas washed and unwashed for Havre. (See chapter XXIV. ) COLOMBIA. Practically all the countries of the western hemisphereproducing coffee in large quantities for export trade use thecleaning-and-grading machines specified in the first part of thischapter; and the installation of the equipment is increasing as itsadvantages become better known. In Colombia, now (1922), next to Brazil the world's largest producer, the wet method of preparing the coffee for market is most generallyfollowed, the drying processes often being a combination of sun anddrying machines. Many plantations have their own hulling equipment; butmuch of the crop goes in the cherry to local commercial centers wherethere are establishments that make a specialty of cleaning and gradingthe coffee. The Colombia coffee crop is gathered twice a year, the principal one inMarch and April and the smaller one in November and December, althoughsome picking is done throughout the year. For this labor native Indianand negro women are preferred, as they are more rapid, skilful, andcareful in handling the trees. Contrary to the method in Brazil, wherethe tree at one handling is stripped of its entire bearings, ripe andunripe fruit, here only the fully ripened fruit is picked. Thatnecessitates going over the ground several times, as the berriesprogressively ripen. More time is consumed in this laborious operation, but it is believed that thereby a better crop of more uniform grade isobtained and in the aggregate with less waste of time and effort. Colombian planters classify their coffees as _café trillado_ (natural orsun-dried), _café lavado_ (washed), _café en pergamino_ (washed anddried in the parchment). They grade them as _excelso_ (excellent), _fantasia_ (_excelso_ and _extra_), _extra_ (extra), _primera_, (first), _segundo_ (second), _caracol_ (peaberry), _monstruo_ (large anddeformed), _consumo_ (defective), and _casilla_ (siftings). [Illustration: PREPARING COLOMBIAN COFFEE FOR THE MARKET] VENEZUELA. Venezuela employs both the dry and the wet methods ofpreparation, producing both "washed" and "commons" and also, likeColombia, has a large part of the coffee cleaned in the trading centersof the various coffee districts. Dry, or unwashed, coffees are known as_trillado_ (milled), and compose the bulk of the country's output. Venezuela's plantation-working forces are largely natives of Indiandescent and negroes, some of them coming during harvesting season fromadjoining Colombia and returning there after the picking is done. Theresident workers labor under a sort of peonage system which is tacitlyrecognized by both employee and employer, although no laws of peonage orslavery have ever existed in Venezuela. Under this system, the laborerslive in little colonies scattered over the _haciendas_, as the coffeeplantations are called in Venezuela. Company stores keep them suppliedwith all their wants. Modern plantation machinery is very scarce; theancient method of hulling coffee in a circular trough where the driedberries are crushed by heavy wooden wheels drawn by oxen, is still acommon sight in Venezuela. In preparing washed coffees, some plantersferment the pulped coffee under water (wet fermentation process); whileothers ferment without water (dry fermentation). [Illustration: THIS OLD-FASHIONED HULLING MACHINE IS OPERATED BY OXPOWER IN VENEZUELA] The principal ports of shipments for Venezuela coffees are La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, and Maracaibo. Caracas, the capital, is five miles in anair line from the port of La Guaira; but in ascending the three thousandfeet of altitude to the city the railroad twists and turns among themountains for a distance of twenty-four miles. By rail or motor the tripis one of much charm and great beauty. SALVADOR. The planters in Salvador favor the dry method of coffeepreparation; and the bulk of the crop is natural, or unwashed. GUATEMALA. Most Guatemalas are prepared for market by the wet method. The gathering of the crops furnishes employment for half the population. German and American settlers have introduced the latest improvements inmodern plantation machinery into Guatemala. MEXICO. In Mexico coffee is harvested from November to January, andlarge quantities are prepared by both the dry and the wet methods, thelatter being practised on the larger estates that have the necessarywater supply and can afford the machinery. Here, too, one will findcoffee being cleaned by the primitive hand-mortar and wind-winnowingmethod. Laborers are mostly half-breeds and Indians. Chinese coolieshave been tried and found satisfactory, and some Japanese are utilized, though not largely. [Illustration: STREET CAR COFFEE TRANSPORT IN ORIZABA, MEXICO] HAITI. In Haiti the picking season is from November to March. In recentyears better attention has been paid to cultural and preparationmethods; and the product is more favorably regarded commercially. Largequantities are shipped to France and Belgium; and much of that sent tothe United States is reshipped to France, Belgium, and Germany, where itis sorted by hand. Both dry and wet methods are employed in Haiti. PORTO RICO. Here planters favor the wet method of coffee preparation. The crop is gathered from August to December. The coffees are graded as_caracollilo_ (peaberry), _primero_ (hand-picked), _segundo_ (secondgrade), _trillo_ (low grade). [Illustration: COFFEE ON THE DRYING FLOORS IN PORTO RICO] NICARAGUA. The wet method of coffee preparation is mostly favored inNicaragua. Many of the large plantations are worked by colonies ofAmericans and Germans who are competent to apply the abundant naturalwater power of the country to the operation of modern coffee cleaningmachinery. COSTA RICA. Costa Rica was one of the first countries of the westernworld to use coffee cleaning machinery. Marcus Mason, an Americanmechanical engineer then managing an iron foundry in Costa Rica, invented three machines that would respectively peel off the husk, remove the parchment and pulp, and winnow the light refuse from thebeans. The inventor gave his original demonstration to the planters of San Joséin 1860, and duplicates were installed on all the large plantations. Inthe course of the next thirty years, Mason brought out other machinesuntil he had developed a complete line that was largely used on coffeeplantations in all parts of the world. _In the Eastern Hemisphere_ Modern cleaning machinery and methods of preparation are employed tosome extent in the large coffee-producing countries of the easternhemisphere, and do not differ materially from those of the western. ARABIA. In Arabia the fruit ripens in August or September, and pickingcontinues from then until the last fruits ripen late in the Marchfollowing. The cherries, as they are picked, are left to dry in the sunon the house-top terrace or on a floor of beaten earth. When they havebecome partly dry, they are hulled between two small stones, one ofwhich is stationary, while the other is worked by the hand power of twomen who rotate it quickly. Further drying of the hulled berry follows. It is then put into bags of closely woven aloe fiber, lined with mattingmade of palm leaves. It is next sent to the local market at the foot ofthe mountain. There, on regular market days, the Turkish or Arabianmerchants, or their representatives, buy and dispatch their purchases bycamel train to Hodeida or Aden. The principal primary market in recentyears has been the city of Beit-el-Fakih. [Illustration: RAKING COFFEE ON DRYING FLOORS--CHUVA DISTRICT, GUATEMALA] [Illustration: COFFEE DRYING PATIOS, HACIENDA LONGA-ESPANA, VENEZUELA] [Illustration: SUN-DRYING COFFEE AMID SCENES OF RARE TROPICAL BEAUTY] In Aden and Hodeida the bean is submitted to further cleaning by theprincipal foreign export houses to whom it has come from the mountainsin rather dirty condition. Indian women are the sole laborers employedin these cleaning houses. First, the coffee beans are separated from thedry empty husks by tossing the whole into the air from bamboo trays, theworkers deftly permitting the husks to fly off while the beans arecaught again in the tray. The beans are then surface-cleaned by passingthem gently between two very primitive grindstones worked by men. Athird process is the complete clearing of the bean from the silver skin, and it is then ready for the final hand picking. Women are called intoservice again, and they pick out the refuse husks, quaker or black, beans, green or immature beans, white beans, and broken beans, leavingthe good beans to be weighed and packed for shipment. The cleaned beansare known as _bun safi_; the husks become _kisher_. Some of the poorerbeans also are sold, principally to France and to Egypt. Hand-powermachinery is used to a slight extent; but mostly the old-fashionedmethods hold sway. [Illustration: A DRYING PATIO ON A COSTA RICA ESTATE] [Illustration: Photograph by R. C. Wilhelm. EARLY GUARDIOLA STEAM DRIER, "EL CANIDA" PLANTATION, COSTA RICA] The Yemen, or Arabian, bale, or package, is unique. It is made up of twofiber wrappers, one inside the other. The inside one is called _attal_or _darouf_. It is made from cut and plaited leaves of _nakhel douin_ or_narghil_, a species of palm. The outer covering, called _garair_, is asack made of woven aloe fiber. The Bedouins weave these covers and bringthem to the export merchants at Aden and Hodeida. A Mocha bundlecontains one, two, or four fiber packages, or bales. When the bundlecontains one bale it is known as a half; when it contains two it isknown as quarters; and when it contains four it is known as eighths. Arabian coffee for Boston used to be packed in quarters only; for SanFrancisco and New York, in quarters and eighths. The longberryAbyssinian coffees were formerly packed in quarters only. Since theWorld War, however, there has been a scarcity of packing materials, andpacking in quarters and eighths has stopped. Now, all Mocha, as well asHarar, coffee comes in halfs. A half weighs eighty kilos, or 176 pounds, net--although a few exporters ship "halfs" of 160 pounds. [Illustration: INDIAN WOMEN CLEANING MOCHA COFFEE IN AN ADEN WAREHOUSE There are four processes in cleaning Mocha coffee. In order to separatethe dried beans from the broken hulls these women (brought over fromIndia) toss the beans in the air, very deftly permitting the empty hullsto fly off, and catch the coffee beans on the bamboo trays. Then thecoffee is passed between two primitive grindstones, turned by men. Afterthis grinding process the beans are separated from the crushed outsidehulls and the loose silver skins. In the fourth process the Indian womenpick out by hand the remaining husks, the quakers, the immature beans, the white beans and the broken beans. Being Mohammedans, their religiondoes not permit such little vanities as picture posing, which explainswhy their faces are covered and turned away from the camera. ] ABYSSINIA. Little machinery is used in the preparation of coffee inAbyssinia; none, in preparing the coffee known as Abyssinian, which isthe product of wild trees; and only in a few instances in cleaning theHarari coffee, the fruit of cultivated trees. Both classes are raisedmostly by natives, who adhere to the old-time dry method of cleaning. InHarar, the coffee is sometimes hulled in a wooden mortar; but for themost part it is sent to the brokers in parchment, and cleaned byprimitive hand methods after its arrival in the trading centers. ANGOLA. In Angola the coffee harvest begins in June, and it is oftennecessary for the government to lend native soldiers to the planters toaid in harvesting, as the labor supply is insufficient. After picking, the beans are dried in the sun from fourteen to forty days, dependingupon the weather. After drying, they are brought to the hulling andwinnowing machines. There are now about twenty-four of these machines inthe Cazengo and Golungo districts, all manufactured in the United Statesand giving satisfactory results. They are operated by natives. A condition adversely affecting the trade has been the low price thatAngola coffee commands in European markets. The cost of production per_arroba_ (thirty-three pounds) on the Cazengo plantations is $1. 23, while Lisbon market quotations average $1. 50, leaving only twenty-sevencents for railway transport to Loanda and ocean freight to Lisbon. Ithas been unprofitable to ship to other markets on account of thepreferential export duties. A part of the product is now shipped toHamburg, where it is known as the Cazengo brand. Next to Mocha, theCazengo coffee is the smallest bean that is to be found in the Europeanmarkets. [Illustration: CLEANING AND GRADING COFFEE BY MACHINERY IN ADEN] JAVA AND SUMATRA. The coffee industry in Java and Sumatra, as well as inthe other coffee-producing regions of the Dutch East Indies, was begunand fostered under the paternal care of the Dutch government; and forthat reason, machine-cleaning has always been a noteworthy factor in themarketing of these coffees. Since the government relinquished itscontrol over the so-called government estates, European operators havemaintained the standard of preparation, and have adopted new equipmentas it was developed. The majority of estates producing considerablequantities of coffee use the same types of machinery as theircompetitors in Brazil and other western countries. [Illustration: DRYING COFFEE IN THE SUN AT THE CUSTOM-HOUSE, HARAR, ABYSSINIA] In Java, free labor is generally employed; while on the east coast ofSumatra the work is done by contract, the workers usually being boundfor three years. In both islands the laborers are mostly Javanesecoolies. Under the contract system, the worker is subject to laws that compel himto work, and prevent him from leaving the estate until the contractperiod expires. Under the free-labor system, the laborer works as hiswhims dictate. This forces the estate manager to cater to his workers, and to build up an organization that will hold together. As an example of the working of the latter system, this outline--by JohnA. Fowler, United States trade commissioner--of the organization of aleading estate in Java will indicate the general practise in vogue: The manager of this estate has had full control for twenty years and knows the "adat" (tribal customs) of his people and the individual peculiarities of the leaders. This estate has been described as having one of the most perfect estate organizations in Java. It consists of two divisions of 3, 449 bouws (about 6, 048 acres in all), of which 2, 500 bouws are in rubber and coffee and 550 in sisal; the remainder includes rice fields, timber, nurseries, bamboo, teak, pastures, villages, roads, canals, etc. The foreign staff is under the supervision of a general manager, and consists of the following personnel: A chief garden assistant of section 1, who has under him four section assistants and a native staff; a chief garden assistant of section 2, who has under him three section assistants, an apprentice assistant, and a native staff; a chief factory assistant, who has under him an assistant machinist, an apprentice assistant, and a native staff; and, finally, a bookkeeper. The term "garden" means the area under cultivation. The bookkeeper, a man of mixed blood, handles all the general accounting, accumulating the reports sent in by the various assistants. The two chief garden assistants are responsible to the manager for all work outside the factory except the construction of new buildings, which is in charge of the chief factory assistant. The two divisions of the estate are subdivided into seven agricultural sections, each section being in full charge of an assistant. A section may include coffee, rubber, sisal, teak, bamboo, a coagulation station and nurseries. The assistant's duties include the supervision of road building and repairs, building repairs, transportation, paying the labor, and the supervision of section accounts. [Illustration: OPEN-AIR DRYING GROUNDS ON A WEST JAVA ESTATE The beans are being turned by native Sudanese men and women] [Illustration: INTERIOR OF A MODERN COFFEE FACTORY IN EAST JAVA Showing pulping machinery and fermentation tanks] [Illustration: PREPARING JAVA COFFEE FOR THE MARKET] The factory includes a water-power plant delivering, through an American water wheel and by cable, 250 horse-power to the main shafting, an auxiliary steam plant of 150 horse-power as a reserve, a rubber mill, a coffee mill, three sisal-stripping machines, smoke-houses, drying fields and houses for sisal, drying floors and houses for coffee, sorting rooms, blacksmith shop, machine shop, brass-fitting foundry, packing houses, warehouses, and other equipment. The factory is in charge of a first assistant, who is a machinist, with a European staff consisting of a machinist and an apprentice assistant. The chief garden assistant is paid 350 to 400 florins, and the garden assistants start at 200 florins per month, with graduated yearly increases up to 300 florins per month (florin=$0. 40). The chief factory assistant receives 300 florins, and the machinist and bookkeeper 250 florins each. The mandoer in charge of the air and kiln drying of coffee gets 25 florins per month, and the mandoer at the coffee mill 20 florins. A woman mandoer in charge of the coffee sorters receives 0. 50 florin per day and 0. 01 florin each for sewing the bags. This woman supervises all the sorters, fixes their status, and inspects their work. Unskilled labor (male) receives 0. 40 florin per day in the coffee sheds, and the women sorters are paid 0. 50 florin per picul of 136 pounds, measured before sorting. These women are graded into three classes--those who can sort 1 picul in a day, those who can sort three-fourths of a picul, and those who can sort but one-half of a picul in a day. Some of these women become very expert in sorting, and the quality of the output of a factory is largely dependent on an ample supply of expert sorters. Many years are required to develop an adequate personnel for this department. [Illustration: COFFEE TRANSPORT IN JAVA] [Illustration: THE WORLD'S COFFEE TOWER COMPARED WITH THE EIFFEL ANDWOOLWORTH TOWERS The Woolworth Building, the world's loftiest office structure is 792feet high from street to top of tower; its main section of 151 by 196feet stretches up 386 feet, and its volume equals a total of 13, 110, 942cubic feet. But a tower made of the year's supply of bags of greencoffee (132 pounds each) would equal 73, 649, 115 cubic feet, or nearlysix times the bulk of the Woolworth Building. In the same proportions itwould rise 1, 386 feet, with the lower section 260 by 340 feet and 670feet high. Its dimensions would be nearly double those of the WoolworthBuilding in every direction. And the Eiffel Tower, reaching up 1, 000feet toward the sky would be lost in a tower made of a year's bags ofcoffee. Such a tower would stand 1, 425 feet high on a base area of 230feet square, the size of the Eiffel's first floor. ] CHAPTER XXII THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE _A statistical study of world production of coffee by countries--Per capita figures of the leading consuming countries--Coffee-consumption figures compared with tea-consumption figures in the United States and the United Kingdom--Three centuries of coffee trading--Coffee drinking in the United States, past and present--Reviewing the 1921 trade in the United States_ The world's yearly production of coffee is on the average considerablymore than one million tons. If this were all made up into the refreshingdrink we get at our breakfast tables, there would be enough to supplyevery inhabitant of the earth with some sixty cups a year, representinga total of more than ninety billion cups. In terms of pounds the annualworld output amounts to about two and a quarter billions--an amount solarge that if it were done up in the familiar one-pound paper packages;and if these packages were laid end to end in a row; they would form aline long enough to reach to the moon. If this average yearly productionwere left in the sacks in which the coffee is shipped, the total of17, 500, 000 would be enough to form a broad six-foot pavement reachingentirely across the United States, upon which a man could walk steadilyfor more than five months at the rate of twenty miles a day. This vastamount of coffee comes very largely from the western hemisphere; andabout three-fourths of it, from a single country. The production, shipment, and preparation of this coffee, directly and indirectlysupport millions of workers; and many countries are entirely dependenton it for their prosperity and economic well-being. During the crop year that ended June 30, 1921, this million-ton averagewas considerably exceeded, though it did not approach the record yieldof all time in the crop year 1906-07, when the total amounted to almost24, 000, 000 sacks; or, in round numbers, 3, 000, 000, 000 pounds. As indicated by the Statistical Record table, on page 274, Brazilproduces more than all the rest of the world put together. Coffeegrowing, however, is general throughout tropical countries, and in mostof them constitutes one of the leading industries. Yet in most cases, the actual production of these countries can only be estimated, asaccurate figures, showing the exact output, are seldom kept. But thecontribution which each country makes to the total world traffic incoffee can be determined by its export figures, which are obtainable inreasonably accurate and up-to-date form. The table on page 276 gives thecoffee export figures, in pounds, for practically every country thatproduces coffee for sale outside its own borders. Figures are given forthe latest available year, and also for the average of the last fiveyears for which statistics are to be obtained. The figures are takenfrom official statistics, from the publications of the InternationalInstitute of Agriculture of Rome, and from other authoritative sources. STATISTICAL RECORD FOR THIRTY-EIGHT YEARS _Crops_ /---------------------------------\Fiscal Rio and Other TotalYear Santos Countries (Bags)(July 1 to (Bags)[I] (Bags)June 30) 1883-84 5, 047, 000 4, 526, 000 9, 573, 0001884-85 6, 206, 000 4, 004, 000 10, 210, 0001885-86 5, 565, 000 3, 505, 000 9, 070, 0001886-87 6, 078, 000 4, 106, 000 10, 184, 0001887-88 3, 033, 000 3, 214, 000 6, 247, 0001888-89 6, 827, 000 3, 672, 000 10, 499, 0001889-90 4, 260, 000 3, 965, 000 8, 225, 0001890-91 5, 358, 000 2, 886, 000 8, 244, 0001891-92 7, 397, 000 4, 453, 000 11, 850, 0001892-93 6, 203, 000 4, 887, 000 11, 090, 0001893-94 4, 309, 000 5, 307, 000 9, 616, 0001894-95 6, 695, 000 5, 069, 000 11, 764, 0001895-96 5, 476, 000 4, 901, 000 10, 377, 0001896-97 8, 680, 000 5, 238, 000 13, 918, 0001897-98 10, 462, 000 5, 596, 000 16, 058, 0001898-99 8, 771, 000 4, 985, 000 13, 756, 0001899-00 8, 959, 000 4, 842, 000 13, 801, 0001900-01 10, 927, 000 4, 173, 000 15, 100, 0001901-02 15, 439, 000 4, 296, 000 19, 735, 0001902-03 12, 324, 000 4, 340, 000 16, 664, 0001903-04 10, 408, 000 5, 575, 000 15, 983, 0001904-05 9, 968, 000 4, 480, 000 14, 448, 0001905-06 10, 227, 000 4, 565, 000 14, 792, 0001906-07 19, 654, 000 4, 160, 000 23, 814, 0001907-08 10, 283, 000 4, 551, 000 14, 834, 0001908-09 12, 419, 000 4, 499, 000 16, 918, 0001909-10 14, 944, 000 4, 181, 000 19, 125, 0001910-11 10, 548, 000 3, 976, 000 14, 524, 0001911-12 12, 491, 000 4, 918, 000 17, 409, 0001912-13 11, 458, 000 4, 915, 000 16, 373, 0001913-14 13, 816, 000 5, 796, 000 19, 612, 0001914-15 12, 867, 000 5, 019, 000 17, 886, 0001915-16 14, 992, 000 4, 764, 000 19, 756, 0001916-17 12, 112, 000 4, 579, 000 16, 691, 0001917-18 15, 127, 000 3, 720, 000 18, 847, 0001918-19 9, 140, 000 4, 500, 000 13, 640, 0001919-20 6, 700, 000 8, 463, 000 15, 163, 0001920-21 13, 816, 000 6, 467, 000 20, 283, 000 _Deliveries_ /---------------------------------\ Fiscal UnitedYear Europe States Total(July 1 to (Bags) (Bags) (Bags)June 30) 1883-84 6, 774, 000 2, 635, 000 9, 409, 0001884-85 7, 388, 000 3, 169, 000 10, 557, 0001885-86 7, 198, 000 2, 938, 000 10, 136, 0001886-87 7, 363, 000 2, 672, 000 10, 035, 0001887-88 5, 888, 000 2, 164, 000 8, 052, 0001888-89 6, 589, 000 2, 659, 000 9, 249, 0001889-90 6, 716, 000 2, 704, 000 9, 420, 0001890-91 6, 046, 000 2, 673, 000 8, 719, 0001891-92 6, 392, 000 4, 412, 000 10, 804, 0001892-93 6, 457, 000 4, 389, 000 10, 945, 0001893-94 6, 272, 000 4, 298, 000 10, 570, 0001894-95 6, 816, 000 4, 396, 000 11, 212, 0001895-96 6, 803, 000 4, 339, 000 11, 142, 0001896-97 7, 155, 000 5, 080, 000 12, 244, 0001897-98 8, 535, 000 6, 036, 000 14, 571, 0001898-99 7, 798, 000 5, 682, 000 13, 480, 0001899-00 8, 937, 000 6, 035, 000 14, 972, 0001900-01 8, 486, 000 5, 843, 000 14, 329, 0001901-02 8, 853, 000 6, 663, 000 15, 516, 0001902-03 9, 118, 000 6, 847, 000 15, 966, 0001903-04 9, 280, 000 6, 853, 000 16, 133, 0001904-05 9, 475, 000 6, 687, 000 16, 163, 0001905-06 9, 934, 000 6, 806, 000 16, 741, 0001906-07 10, 502, 000 7, 042, 000 17, 544, 0001907-08 10, 481, 000 7, 043, 000 17, 525, 0001908-09 11, 129, 000 7, 519, 000 18, 649, 0001909-10 10, 811, 000 7, 287, 000 18, 098, 0001910-11 10, 492, 000 7, 015, 000 17, 507, 0001911-12 10, 712, 000 6, 762, 000 17, 474, 0001912-13 10, 144, 000 6, 675, 000 16, 820, 0001913-14 11, 027, 000 7, 545, 000 18, 573, 0001914-15 13, 368, 000 8, 010, 000 21, 378, 0001915-16 11, 050, 000 8, 834, 000 19, 884, 0001916-17 5, 171, 000 9, 046, 000 14, 217, 0001917-18 6, 209, 000 8, 624, 000 14, 833, 0001918-19 6, 073, 000 8, 994, 000 15, 067, 0001919-20 7, 047, 000 9, 683, 000 16, 730, 0001920-21 6, 397, 000 9, 701, 000 16, 099, 000 _Spot_Fiscal _Visible_ _Quotations_, Year _Supply_ _Rio No. 7_(July 1 to _July 1. _ _New York_, June 30) (Bags) _July 1. _ 1883-841884-85 5, 398, 000 8-1/41885-86 5, 051, 000 7-1/81886-87 3, 985, 000 8-1/41887-88 4, 134, 000 16-7/81888-89 2, 329, 000 13-1/21889-90 3, 579, 000 14-1/21890-91 2, 384, 000 17-1/21891-92 1, 909, 000 17-3/81892-93 2, 955, 000 17-7/81893-94 3, 100, 000 16-5/81894-95 2, 146, 000 16-1/21895-96 3, 115, 000 15-3/41896-97 2, 588, 000 131897-98 3, 975, 000 7-3/81898-99 5, 435, 000 6-1/41899-00 6, 200, 000 6-1/81900-01 5, 840, 000 8-15/161901-02 6, 867, 000 61902-03 11, 261, 000 5-1/41903-04 11, 900, 000 5-3/161904-05 12, 361, 000 7-1/81905-06 11, 265, 000 7-3/41906-07 9, 636, 000 7-15/161907-08 16, 400, 000 6-3/81908-09 14, 126, 000 6-1/41909-10 12, 841, 000 7-3/41910-11 13, 719, 000 8-3/81911-12 11, 070, 000 13-1/81912-13 11, 048, 000 14-3/41913-14 10, 285, 000 9-5/81914-15 11, 302, 000 8-3/41915-16 7, 523, 000 7-1/21916-17 7, 328, 000 9-1/81917-18 7, 793, 000 9-1/21918-19 8, 783, 000 8-1/21919-20 7, 173, 000 22-1/41920-21 6, 909, 000 13-1/4 [I] 1 Bag=132. 27 lbs. [Illustration: THE WORLD'S COFFEE CUP AND THE WORLD'S LARGEST SHIP The statistical sharks talk of the 17, 566, 000 bags, or 2, 318, 712, 000pounds of coffee that the world drinks every year; but how many reallyappreciate what those huge figures mean? For instance, computing 40 cupsof beverage to the pound, there are more than 90, 000, 000, 000 cups drunkannually, or enough to fill a gigantic cup 4, 000 feet in diameter and 40feet deep, on which the "Majestic, " the world's largest ship, wouldappear floating approximately as shown in the drawing. ] For the most part, these figures of exportation are the only onesavailable to indicate the actual coffee production in the countriesnamed. The following additional data, however, will serve to show theextent to which the coffee-raising industry has developed in most ofthese countries, and in a few places of minor importance not named inthe table: BRAZIL. The coffee industry of Brazil, which has furnished seventypercent of the world's coffee during the last ten years, has developedin a century and a half. Brazilian soil first made the acquaintance ofthe coffee plant at Pará in 1723. A small export trade to Europe haddeveloped by 1770, the year when the first plantation was established inthe state of Rio de Janeiro, and from which the country's great industryreally dates. Development at first was apparently slow, as no exportsare recorded until the beginning of the nineteenth century; so that thehistory of Brazil's coffee trade is a matter entirely of the nineteenthand twentieth centuries. Once started, however, the new line of exportmade rapid progress. In 1800, the amount of coffee exported was 1720pounds, contained in thirteen bags. Twenty years later, 12, 896, 000pounds were shipped, the number of bags being 97, 498. Ten years later, in 1830, this amount had increased to 64, 051, 000 pounds; and in 1840, to137, 300, 000 pounds. In 1852-53, the receipts for shipment at the portswere double that amount, 284, 592, 000 pounds; in 1860-61 they were420, 420, 000 pounds; in 1870-71 they had increased to 427, 416, 000 pounds;in 1880-81 they were 764, 945, 000 pounds; in 1890-91, 739, 654, 000 pounds;and at the beginning of this century, 1900-01, they were 1, 504, 424, 000pounds, having passed the one billion-pound mark in 1896-97. The highestpoint of coffee receipts in the country's history was reached in 1906-07with 2, 699, 644, 694 pounds; and since that year, the amount has staid atabout one and one-half billion pounds. Further expansion in the lastfifteen years has been closely regulated to prevent overproduction. EXPORTS OF COFFEE FROM THE COFFEE-PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD _Country_ _Five-Year Average_South America: _Year_ _Pounds_ _Pounds_ Brazil 1920 1, 524, 382, 650 1, 469, 949, 180 Colombia 1920 190, 961, 953[c] 172, 862, 121 Venezuela 1920 73, 726, 632 110, 174, 946 Guiana, Br. 1917 267, 344 257, 152 Guiana, Fr. 1918 1, 100 970 Guiana, D. 1918 3, 856 923, 644[d] Ecuador 1919 3, 729, 413 5, 843, 033 Peru 1919 370, 655 455, 212Central America: Salvador 1920 82, 864, 668 78, 953, 339 Nicaragua 1920 15, 345, 398 23, 243, 865 Costa Rica 1921[a] 29, 401, 683 28, 667, 262 Guatemala 1920 94, 205, 569 88, 213, 080 Honduras 1920[b] 1, 091, 977 646, 574Mexico 1918 30, 172, 065 47, 555, 514[d]West Indies: Haiti 1920[b] 61, 970, 694[e] 54, 308, 959[d] Dominican Republic 1920 1, 361, 666 3, 497, 866 Jamaica 1919 8, 246, 672 7, 918, 781 Porto Rico 1921 29, 967, 879[f] 30, 033, 471[d][f] Trinidad & Tobago 1920 73, 201 19, 639 Martinique 1918 10, 358 17, 219 Guadeloupe 1918 2, 144, 855 1, 594, 146Dutch East Indies 1920 99, 020, 453[i] 103, 701, 297[h]Pacific Islands: Br. North Borneo 1918 1, 984 6, 618 New Caledonia 1916 1, 248, 024 784, 176 New Hebrides 1917 625, 224 608, 410[g] Hawaii 1921 4, 979, 121[f] 4, 244, 479[d][f] Réunion 1918 3, 527 26, 455Asia: Aden (Arabia) 1921[b] 9, 463, 104 10, 837, 893 Br. India 1920[b] 30, 526, 832 23, 767, 744 French Indo-China 1918 79, 145 516, 978Africa: Eritrea 1918 728, 840 315, 698 Somaliland, Fr. 1917 11, 222, 736 9, 321, 930 Somaliland, Br. 1918 440, 272 233, 908 Somaliland, It. 1918 3, 747 3, 306 Abyssinia 1917 17, 324, 223 12, 744, 406 German East Africa (former) 1913 2, 334, 450 2, 649, 047[d] Br. East African Protectorate 1918 18, 735, 572 8, 397, 541 Uganda 1918 9, 999, 845 5, 076, 091 Nyasaland 1918 122, 796 92, 593 Mayotte (including Comoro Is. )1914 3, 306 660 Madagascar 1918 707, 676 981, 047 Angola 1913 10, 655, 934 10, 459, 724 Belgian Congo 1919 347, 588 186, 432[h] Fr. Equatorial Africa 1916 48, 060 47, 046 Nigeria 1916 3, 527 19, 180 Ivory Coast 1918 66, 358 49, 162 Gold Coast 1917 660 220 French Guinea 1918 1, 320 1, 320 Spanish Guinea 1918 8, 150 3, 968[h] St. Thomas & Prince's Is. 1916 484, 350 1, 125, 448 Liberia 1917 761, 300 Cape Verde Islands 1916 1, 442, 910 1, 100, 095 [a] Crop year. [b] Fiscal year. [c] Including small proportion of unhusked coffee. [d] Four-year average. [e] Not including 6, 322, 167 pounds "triage" or waste coffee. [f] Including shipments to continental United States. [g] Two-year average. [h] Three-year average. [i] Java and Madura only It is estimated that the area in the coffee-growing section suitablefor coffee raising covers 1, 158, 000 square miles, or more than one-thirdthe area of continental United States. The state of São Paulo is thechief producing state, and supplies practically half the world's annualoutput. Most of this São Paulo coffee is exported through the port ofSantos, which is consequently the leading coffee port of the world. Besides Santos, the ports of Rio de Janeiro and Victoria are of muchimportance in the coffee trade, although some twenty or thirty millionpounds are exported each year through the port of Bahia, and smalleramounts through various other ports. The crop year of Brazil runs fromJuly 1 to June 30, the heaviest receipts for shipment coming as a rulein the months of August, September, and October of each year. One-thirdof the season's crop is usually received at ports of shipment before thelast of October, sometimes as early as the latter part of September;one-half comes in by the middle or last of November; and two-thirds isusually received, by the end of January. [Illustration: No. 1--COFFEE EXPORTS, 1850-1920 This diagram shows the exports of the principal coffee-producingcountries, omitting Brazil] [Illustration: No. 21--1 COFFEE EXPORTS, 1916-1920 This diagram shows the exports of the leading coffee countries (exceptBrazil) in a period covering most of the World War] VENEZUELA. The coffee plant was introduced into Venezuela in 1784, beingbrought from Martinique; and the first shipment abroad, consisting of233 bags, was made five years later. By 1830-31, production hadincreased to 25, 454, 000 pounds; and in the next twenty years, it morethan trebled, amounting to 83, 717, 000 pounds in 1850-51. Since then, however, the increase has been much more gradual. In 1881-82, 94, 369, 000pounds were produced; and about the same amount, 95, 170, 000 pounds, in1889-90. Twentieth-century production has apparently exceeded thehundred-million mark on the average, although there are no definitestatistics beyond export figures. These showed 86, 950, 000 pounds sentabroad in 1904-05; 103, 453, 000 pounds in 1908-09; and 88, 155, 000 poundsin 1918; the trade in the last-named year being cut down by warconditions. In 1919, the extraordinary amount of 179, 414, 815 pounds wasexported, the high figure being due to the release of coffee stored fromprevious years. It has been estimated that domestic consumption ofcoffee would amount to a maximum of 25, 000, 000 pounds yearly, but may bemuch less than that. The United States and France have in the past beenVenezuela's best customers. COLOMBIA. Prior to 1912, the total production of coffee in Colombia wasaround 80, 000, 000 pounds annually, of which some 3, 000, 000 or 4, 000, 000pounds were consumed in the country itself. But in the last decadeproduction has been advancing rapidly, and the present production is theheaviest in the history of the country. The industry has practicallygrown up in the last seventy years, the exports for the decade 1852-53to 1861-62 averaging only about 940, 000 pounds; in the decade following, about 5, 700, 000 pounds; and, in the ten years from 1872-73 to 1881-82, about 12, 600, 000 pounds, according to an unofficial compilation. Exportations had advanced to about 47, 000, 000 pounds by 1895; and to80, 000, 000 pounds by 1906. As large quantities of Colombian coffee areshipped out through Venezuela, and because of the lack of detailedstatistics in Colombia, the actual exportation each year is not easy todetermine; but the following figures, obtained by a trade commissionerof the United States, may be taken as a fairly accurate estimate ofexports from 1906 to 1918: COLUMBIAN COFFEE EXPORTS_Year_ _Sacks (138 lbs. )_ 1906 605, 705 1907 541, 300 1908 577, 900 1909 673, 350 1910 543, 000 1911 601, 600 1912 888, 800 1913 972, 000 1914 983, 000 1915 1, 074, 600 1916 1, 153, 000 1917 1, 093, 000 1918 1, 102, 000 [Illustration: No. 3--BRAZIL'S COFFEE EXPORTS, 1850-1920 Diagram based on 5-year averages with quantities given in millions ofpounds] ECUADOR. Annual production in Ecuador runs from 3, 000, 000 to 8, 000, 000pounds, most of which is exported. The greater part of the production issent to Chile and the United States. Production has shown only a gradualincrease since the middle of the nineteenth century, when planters beganto give some attention to coffee cultivation. Exports were about 87, 000pounds in 1855; 296, 000 pounds in 1870; and 985, 000 pounds in 1877. Bythe beginning of the present century, production had reached 6, 204, 000pounds; in 1905, it was estimated at 4, 861, 000 pounds; and in 1910, at8, 682, 000 pounds. Exports in 1912 were 6, 101, 700 pounds; and 7, 671, 000pounds in 1918; but there was a falling off to 3, 729, 000 pounds in 1919. Several years ago it was estimated that the coffee trees numbered8, 000, 000, planted on 32, 000 acres. PERU. Coffee is one of the minor products of Peru, and the country doesnot occupy a place of importance in the international coffee trade. Thelarger part of the production is apparently consumed in the countryitself. Export figures indicate that the industry is steadily declining. Exports amounted to 2, 267, 000 pounds in 1905; to 1, 618, 000 pounds in1908; and in the five years ending with 1918, exports averaged only529, 000 pounds; while figures for 1919 show that in that year they fellstill lower, to 370, 000 pounds. Production is mainly in the coast lands. BRITISH GUIANA. The Guianas are the site of the first coffee planting onthe continent of South America; and according to some accounts, thefirst in the New World. The plants were brought first into Dutch Guiana, but there was no planting in what is now British Guiana (then a Dutchcolony) until 1752. Twenty-six years later, 6, 041, 000 pounds were sentto Amsterdam from the two ports of Demarara and Berbice; and after thecolony fell into the hands of the English in 1796, cultivation continuedto increase. Exports amounted to 10, 845, 000 pounds in 1803; and to morethan 22, 000, 000 pounds in 1810. Then there was a falling off, and theproduction in 1828 was 8, 893, 500 pounds and 3, 308, 000 pounds in 1836. In1849 British Guiana exported only 109, 600 pounds. For a long periodthereafter there was little production, and practically no exportation;exports in 1907, for instance, amounting to only 160 pounds. With thenext year, however, a revival of exportation began, and it has continuedto grow since then. In 1908, exports were 88, 700 pounds; and for thesucceeding years, up to 1917, the following amounts are recorded: 1909, 96, 952 pounds; 1910, 108, 378 pounds; 1911, 136, 420 pounds; 1912, 144, 845pounds; 1913, 89, 376 pounds; 1914, 238, 767 pounds; 1915, 172, 326 pounds;1916, 501, 183 pounds; 1917, 267, 344 pounds. In the last-named year 4, 953acres were in coffee plantations. FRENCH GUIANA. This colony raises a small amount of coffee for localconsumption, and exports a few hundred pounds; but it is really animporting and not an exporting colony. Coffee cultivation was never ofmuch importance, although in 1775 some 72, 000 pounds were exported. Onehundred and eighty thousand pounds were harvested in 1860; and 132, 000pounds in 1870, mostly for local consumption. DUTCH GUIANA. Regular shipments of coffee from Dutch Guiana have beenmade for two centuries, beginning--a few years after the plant wasintroduced--with a shipment of 6, 461 pounds to the mother country in1723. Seven years later, 472, 000 pounds were shipped; and in 1732-33exportation reached 1, 232, 000 pounds. Exports were averaging 16, 900, 000pounds a year by 1760; and reached almost 20, 600, 000 pounds in 1777. Atthe beginning of the nineteenth century, they amounted to about17, 000, 000 pounds; but a few years later fell off to some 7, 000, 000pounds, where they remained until about 1840; after which they beganagain to decline. Exportation had practically ceased by 1875, only 1, 420pounds going out of the country, although cultivation still continued, as evidenced by a production of 82, 357 pounds in that year. In 1890, production was only 15, 736 pounds, and exports only 476 pounds; butsince then there has been a considerable increase. In 1900, productionamounted to 433, 000 pounds, and exports to 424, 000 pounds. In 1908, 1, 108, 000 pounds were grown, of which 310, 000 pounds were sent abroad;and in 1909, the figures were 552, 000 pounds produced and 405, 000 poundsexported. No figures are available for production in recent years; butthe exportation of 1, 600, 000 pounds in 1917 indicates that plantingshave been steadily growing. OTHER SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES. Of the other South American countries, Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay are coffee-importing countries; and thecoffee-raising industry of Paraguay, although more or less promising, has yet to be developed. In Argentina, a few hundred acres in thesub-tropical provinces of the north have been planted to coffee; butcoffee-growing will always necessarily remain a very minor industry. Many attempts have been made to establish the industry in Paraguay, where favorable conditions obtain, but only a few planters have met withsuccess. Their product has all been consumed locally. Bolivia has muchland suitable for coffee raising; and it is estimated that productionhas reached as high as 1, 500, 000 pounds a year, but transportationconditions are such as to hold back development for an indefinite time. Small amounts are now exported to Chile. SALVADOR. Coffee was introduced into Salvador in 1852, and immediatelybegan to spread over the country. Exports were valued at more than$100, 000 in 1865; and by 1874-75 the amount exported had reached8, 500, 000 pounds. The first large plantation was established in 1876;and since then planting has continued, until now practically all theavailable coffee land has been taken up. The area in plantations hasbeen estimated at 166, 000 acres, and the annual production at 50, 000, 000to 75, 000, 000 pounds, of which some 5, 000, 000 pounds are consumed in thecountry. Since the beginning of the present century, exports have ingeneral shown a considerable increase, the figures for 1901 being50, 101, 000 pounds; for 1905, 64, 480, 000 pounds; for 1910, 62, 764, 000pounds; for 1915, 67, 130, 000 pounds; and for 1920, 82, 864, 000 pounds. GUATEMALA. Cultivation of coffee in Guatamala became of importancebetween 1860 and 1870. In 1860, exports were only about 140, 000 pounds;by 1863, they had increased to about 1, 800, 000 pounds; and by 1870, to7, 590, 000 pounds. In 1880-81, they amounted to 28, 976, 000 pounds; and in1883-84, to 40, 406, 000 pounds. Twenty years later, they had doubled. Inrecent years, exports have ranged between 75, 000, 000 and 100, 000, 000pounds; the years from 1909 to 1918 showing the following results, according to a consular report: GUATEMALA'S COFFEE EXPORTS _Cleaned_ _Unshelled__Year_ (pounds) (pounds) 1900 92, 639, 800 23, 654, 600 1910 50, 717, 600 19, 671, 700 1911 60, 689, 500 20, 959, 500 1912 14, 329, 800 60, 837, 500 1913 70, 749, 100 20, 980, 700 1914 71, 136, 800 14, 999, 600 1915 69, 649, 500 9, 892, 000 1916 85, 057, 000 3, 015, 800 1917 89, 259, 600 1, 410, 200 1918 77, 842, 800 511, 500 COSTA RICA. Coffee raising in Costa Rica dates from 1779, when the plantwas introduced from Cuba. By 1845, the industry had grown sufficientlyto permit an exportation of 7, 823, 000 pounds; and twenty years later, 11, 143, 000 pounds were shipped. Thereafter, production increasedrapidly; so that in 1874, the total exports were 32, 670, 000 pounds, andin 1884 they were more than 36, 000, 000 pounds. In recent years, theaverage production has been around 35, 000, 000 pounds. For the crop years1916-17 to 1920-21 exports have been: COSTA RICA'S COFFEE EXPORTS _Year_ _Pounds_ 1916-17 27, 044, 550 1917-18 25, 246, 715 1918-19 30, 784, 184 1919-20 30, 860, 634 1920-21 29, 401, 683 NICARAGUA. Production of coffee in Nicaragua began between 1860 and1870; and in 1875, the yield was estimated at 1, 650, 000 pounds. By1879-80, this had increased to 3, 579, 000 pounds; and by 1889-90, to8, 533, 000 pounds. In 1890-91 production was 11, 540, 000 pounds; and in1907-08 it was estimated at more than 20, 000, 000 pounds. Ten yearslater, 25, 000, 000 pounds were produced; and the crop of 1918-19 wasestimated at about 30, 000, 000 pounds. Lack of transportation, and excessof political troubles, have been important factors in holding backdevelopment. HONDURAS. The coffee of Honduras is of very good quality; but productionis small, and the country is not an important factor in internationaltrade. Exports usually run less than 1, 000, 000 pounds. The chiefobstacle to expansion is said to be lack of transportation facilities. BRITISH HONDURAS. This colony grows a little coffee for its own use, butimports most of what it needs. Production had reached almost 50, 000pounds in 1904; but the present average is only about 10, 000 pounds, raised on scattering trees over about 1, 000 acres. PANAMA. A small amount of coffee, of which occasionally as much as200, 000 or 250, 000 pounds a year are exported, is raised in the uplandsof Panama, or is gathered from wild trees. The industry is not of greatimportance, and the country imports considerable supplies, mostly fromthe United States. MEXICO. A very good grade of coffee is produced in Mexico; and it issaid that there is sufficient area of good coffee land to take care ofthe demand of the world outside of that supplied by Brazil. Production, however, is limited, and to a large extent goes to satisfy home needs, leaving only about 50, 000, 000 pounds for export. In spite of muchgovernment encouragement in past years, coffee cultivation has not maderapid progress, when we remember that the country became acquainted withthe plant as early as 1790. Not until about 1870 did the country beginto become important in the list of coffee-exporters; but by 1878-79, shipments amounted to about 12, 000, 000 pounds. This steadily increasedto 29, 400, 000 pounds in 1891-92. Exports in recent years have averagedabout 50, 000, 000 pounds; but in 1918 were only 30, 000, 000. Productionhas fluctuated greatly. In the years preceding the troubledrevolutionary period, the total output was estimated as follows: 1907, 45, 000, 000 pounds; 1908, 42, 000, 000 pounds; 1909, 81, 000, 000 pounds;1910, 70, 000, 000 pounds. In the ten years preceding 1907, productiondropped as low as 22, 000, 000 pounds in 1902; and rose to 88, 500, 000pounds in 1905. Next to the United States, Germany was the chief buyerof Mexican coffee before the war; although France and Great Britain alsotook several million pounds each. HAITI. For well over a century Haiti has been shipping tens of millionsof pounds of coffee annually; and the product is the mainstay of thecountry's economic life. In all that time, however, shipments havemaintained much the same level. The country has been a coffee producerfrom the early years of the eighteenth century, when the plants began tospread from the original sprigs in Guiana or Martinique. After half acentury of growth, exports had risen to 88, 360, 000 pounds in 1789-90, amark that has never again been reached. Since then, exports have rangedbetween 40, 000, 000 and 80, 000, 000 pounds, keeping close to the lowermark in recent years because of European conditions. They were38, 000, 000 pounds in 1856; 55, 750, 000 pounds in 1866; and 52, 300, 000pounds in 1876. They had reached 84, 028, 000 pounds in 1887-88; but fellback to 67, 437, 000 pounds in 1897-98; and ten years later, were63, 848, 000 pounds. In 1917-18, they were only about two-thirds thatamount, or 42, 100, 000 pounds. Some 8, 000, 000 pounds are consumed yearlyin the country itself. The coffee plantations cover about 125, 000 acres. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. Coffee production in the Dominican Republic rangesbetween 1, 000, 000 and 5, 000, 000 pounds, exports in recent yearsaveraging about 3, 500, 000 pounds. The quality of the coffee is good; butthe plantations are not well cared for. Until fifty years ago, theindustry was in a state of decline from a condition of formerimportance; but it was revived, and by 1881 it supplied 1, 400, 000 poundsfor export. The amount was 1, 480, 000 pounds in 1888; 3, 950, 000 pounds in1900; 1, 540, 000 pounds in 1909; and 4, 870, 000 pounds in 1919. Blight, and disturbed political conditions, have hampered development. In normaltimes, Europe takes most of the export. JAMAICA. Jamaica began to raise coffee about 1730; and from that time onthere was a steady but slow increase in production. Shipments amountedto about 60, 000 pounds in 1752, and to about 1, 800, 000 pounds in 1775. At the beginning of the new century, in 1804, exports of 22, 000, 000pounds are recorded; and in 1814 the figure was 34, 045, 000 pounds. Thenexports gradually fell off, and in 1861 were only 6, 700, 000 pounds. Theywere 10, 350, 000 pounds in 1874; and since then, have not varied muchfrom 9, 000, 000 or 10, 000, 000 pounds a year. They were 9, 363, 000 poundsin 1900; 7, 885, 000 pounds in 1909; and 8, 246, 000 pounds in 1919. Theacreage in coffee remains fairly constant, being 24, 865 in 1900; 22, 275in 1911; and 20, 280 in 1917. It is said that there are 80, 000 acres ofgood coffee land still uncultivated. PORTO RICO. The cultivation of coffee in Porto Rico dates back to themiddle of the eighteenth century; but exportation does not seem to havebeen much more than a million pounds a year until the first years of thenineteenth century. Between 1837 and 1840, the average exportation wasabout 10, 000, 000 pounds; and by 1865, this had risen to 24, 000, 000pounds. Ten years later, it was 25, 700, 000 pounds. In recent years, ithas averaged about 37, 000, 000 pounds; the 1921 figure, includingshipments to continental United States, being 29, 968, 000 pounds. Production since 1881 has been between 30, 000, 000 and 50, 000, 000 pounds;the heaviest being in 1896 when the total output was 62, 628, 337pounds--the largest figure in the island's history. The industry wasgreatly damaged by a disastrous storm in 1900, and was also adverselyaffected by the European War, as a large part of Porto Rico's crop goesto Europe. Porto Rican coffee has not been popular in the United States, which takes only limited amounts. Cuba is one of the island's bestcustomers. GUADELOUPE. Coffee production in Guadeloupe reached its highest point inthe latter part of the eighteenth century, when more than 8, 000, 000pounds were raised. The figure was about 6, 000, 000 in 1808; but theoutput declined during the succeeding decades, and forty years later wasonly 375, 000 pounds. The amount produced in 1885 was 986, 000 pounds;and there has been a gradual increase, so that the crop has been largeenough to permit the exportation of 1, 000, 000 to 2, 000, 000 pounds, ormore, since the beginning of the present century. Exports in 1901 were1, 449, 000 pounds; in 1908, 2, 266, 000 pounds; and in 1918, 2, 144, 000pounds. OTHER WEST INDIAN ISLANDS. Some little coffee is gathered for homeconsumption in many other West Indian islands, but little is exported. The island of Martinique, which is said to have seen the introduction ofthe coffee plant into the western hemisphere, does not now raise enoughfor its own use. Cuba was formerly one of the important centers ofproduction; but for various reasons the industry declined, and for manyyears the country has imported most of its coffee supply. A century ago, the plantations numbered 2, 067; and the annual exportation amounted to50, 000, 000 pounds. When the island became independent, steps were takento revive coffee planting; and in 1907 there were 1, 411 plantations and3, 662, 850 trees, producing 6, 595, 700 pounds of coffee. The Cubans, however, now find it convenient to obtain their coffee from theneighboring island of Porto Rico and from other sources; andimportations have remained around 20, 000, 000 pounds a year. In Trinidadand Tobago, exports have reached as high as 1, 000, 000 pounds a year; butin recent times they have fallen off heavily. St. Vincent exported 485pounds in 1917, and Grenada, 251 pounds in 1916. The Leeward Islandsexported 1, 415 pounds in 1917, and 2, 946 pounds in 1916, the acreagebeing 274, the same as for many years past. ARABIA. The home of the famous Mocha coffee still produces considerablequantities of that variety, although the output, comparatively speaking, is not large. The chief district is the vilayet of Yemen; and theproduct reaches the outside world mainly through the port of Aden, although before the war much of this coffee was exported throughHodeida. The port of Massowah, in the last two or three years, has beendrawing some of the supply of Mocha for export. No statistics areavailable to show the production of Mocha coffee; but an estimate madeby the oldest coffee merchant in Aden places the average annual outputat 45, 000 bags of 176 pounds each, or 7, 920, 000 pounds. Although this isthe only district in the world that can produce the particular grade ofcoffee known as Mocha, there is little systematic cultivation, and largeareas of good coffee land are planted to other crops to provide food forthe natives. When transportation facilities are provided, so that thisfood can be imported, it is predicted that the output of Mocha coffeewill be doubled. Aden is a great transhipping port for coffee from Asia and Africa, andmore than half its exports are re-exports from points outside of Arabia. The following figures will show the proportion of Arabian coffee cominginto Aden for export as compared with that from other producingsections: ADEN'S COFFEE RECEIPTS FOR RE-EXPORT _Imports_ 1916-17 1917-18 1918-19 _from_ (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) Abyssinia (via Jibuti) 4, 529, 280 6, 174, 896 4, 337, 760Mocha and Ghizan 3, 555, 104 6, 562, 752 3, 075, 024Somaliland (British) 394, 128 396, 592 245, 840Straits Settlements 672, 224Zanzibar and Pemba 92, 512 795, 312 764, 288All other countries 162, 064 307, 104 323, 616 --------- ---------- ---------Total 9, 405, 312 14, 236, 656 8, 746, 528 BRITISH INDIA. Cultivation of coffee was begun systematically in Indiain 1840; and twenty years later, the country exported about 5, 860, 000pounds. For the next eight years the exports remained at about thatfigure; but in 1859 they amounted to 11, 690, 000 pounds; and by 1864 theyhad doubled, rising in that year to 26, 745, 000 pounds. They havecontinued at between 20, 000, 000 and 60, 000, 000 pounds ever since, reaching their highest point in 1872 with 56, 817, 000 pounds. In recentyears, production and exportation have declined; the exports in 1920being only 30, 526, 832 pounds. The area under coffee has been between200, 000 and 300, 000 acres for fifty years or more, reaching its highestpoint in 1896, with 303, 944 acres. Recently the area has been slowlydecreasing. CEYLON. The island of Ceylon was formerly one of the important producersof coffee; and the industry was a flourishing one until about 1869, whena disease appeared that in ten or fifteen years practically ruined theplantations. Production has gone on since then, but at a steadilydeclining rate. In late years, the island has not produced enough forits own use, and is now ranked as an importer rather than as anexporter. It is said that systematic cultivation was carried on inCeylon by the Dutch as early as 1690; and shipments of 10, 000 to 90, 000pounds a year were made all through the eighteenth century, exports inone year, 1741, going as high as 370, 000 pounds. The English took theisland in 1795, and thirty years later, they began to expandcultivation. Exports had risen to 12, 400, 000 pounds in 1836; and theycontinued to increase to a high point of 118, 160, 000 pounds in 1870; butin the next thirty years they declined, until they were only 1, 147, 000pounds in 1900. The total acreage in coffee at one time reached as highas 340, 000; but as the coffee trees were affected by the leaf disease, this land was turned to tea; and in 1917 there were only 810 acres leftin coffee. DUTCH EAST INDIES. The year 1699 saw the importation from the Malabarcoast of India to Java of the coffee plants which were destined to bethe progenitors of the tens of millions of trees that have made theDutch East Indies famous for two hundred years. Twelve years afterward, the first trickle of the stream of coffee that has continued to flowever since found its way from Java to Holland, in a shipment of 894pounds. About 216, 000 pounds were exported in 1721; and soon thereafter, shipments rose into the millions of pounds. From 1721 to 1730 the Netherlands East India Co. Marketed 25, 048, 000pounds of Java coffee in Holland; and in the decade following, 36, 845, 000 pounds. Shipments from Java continued at about the latterrate until the close of the century, although in the ten years 1771-80they reached a total of 51, 319, 000 pounds. The total sales of Javacoffee in Holland for the century were somewhat more than a quarter of abillion pounds, which represented pretty closely the amount produced. With the beginning of the nineteenth century, coffee production soonbecame much heavier; and in 1825 Java exported, of her own production, some 36, 500, 000 pounds, besides 1, 360, 000 pounds brought fromneighboring islands to which the cultivation had spread. In 1855, theamount was 168, 100, 000 pounds of Java coffee, and 4, 080, 000 pounds ofcoffee from the other islands. This is the highest record for thehalf-century following the beginning of the regular reports of exportsin 1825. From 1875 to 1879 the average annual yield was 152, 184, 000pounds. In 1900, production in Java was 84, 184, 000 pounds; in 1910, itwas 31, 552, 000 pounds, and in 1915 it had jumped to 73, 984, 000 pounds. On the west coast of Sumatra coffee was regularly cultivated, accordingto one account, as early as 1783; but it was not until about 1800, thatexportation began, with about 270, 000 pounds. By 1840, exports wereaveraging 11, 000, 000 to 12, 250, 000 pounds per year. Official records ofproduction date from 1852, in which year the figures were 16, 714, 000pounds. Five years later the recorded yield was 25, 960, 000 pounds, thehigh-water mark of Sumatra production. The total output in 1860 was21, 400, 000 pounds; and 22, 275, 000 pounds in 1870. The average from 1875to 1879 was 17, 408, 000 pounds; and from 1895 to 1899, it was 7, 589, 000pounds. The yield was 5, 576, 000 pounds in 1900; 1, 360, 000 in 1910; and7, 752, 000 in 1915. In Celebes, the first plants were set out about 1750; but seventy yearslater production was only some 10, 000 pounds. This soon increased tohalf a million pounds; and from 1835 to 1852 the yield ran between340, 000 and 1, 768, 000 pounds. From 1875 to 1879, production averaged2, 176, 000 pounds; from 1885 to 1889, 2, 747, 000 pounds; and from 1895 to1899, 707, 000 pounds. In 1900, it was 680, 000 pounds; in 1910, 272, 000pounds; and in 1915, 272, 000 pounds. Planting under government control, largely with forced labor, has beenthe special feature of coffee cultivation in the Dutch East Indies. Atfirst the government exercised what was practically a monopoly; butprivate planting was more and more permitted; and in the latter part ofthe nineteenth century, the amount of coffee produced on privateplantations exceeded that raised by the government. The government hasnow entirely given up the business of coffee production. The total production of coffee in Java, Sumatra, and Celebes, in 1920, in piculs of 136 pounds, was as follows: DUTCH EAST INDIES' COFFEE PRODUCTION _Kind of_ _Quantity Produced in__Coffee_ Java Sumatra Celebes Total and Bali (piculs) (piculs) (piculs) (piculs)Liberica 14, 972 6, 243 2, 074 23, 289Java 16, 312 24, 291 70, 621 111, 224Robusta 411, 235 256, 645 4, 998 672, 878 ------- ------- ------ -------Total 442, 519 287, 179 77, 693 807, 391 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. Trade in coffee is a transhipping trade, Singaporeacting as a clearing center for large quantities of coffee from theneighboring islands. In 1920, the imports were 25, 914, 267 pounds; andthe exports, 26, 856, 000 pounds. FEDERATED MALAY STATES. The acreage in coffee in the Federated MalayStates is steadily declining. In 1903, coffee plantations covered 22, 700acres; in 1913, 7, 695 acres; and in 1916, 4, 312 acres. There wasformerly a considerable export; but apparently local production is nowrequired for home consumption, as in 1920 exports were practicallynothing, and about 9, 800 pounds were imported. BRITISH NORTH BORNEO. Total exports of coffee have reached as high as50, 000 pounds, which was the figure in 1904; but they are much less now;being 5, 973 pounds in 1915; 15, 109 pounds in 1916; and 1, 980 pounds in1918. SARAWAK. Previous to 1912, the exportation of coffee from Sarawak, was20, 000 to 45, 000 pounds annually. In 1912, a coffee estate of 300 acreswas abandoned, and since that time there have been no exports. PHILIPPINES. Coffee raising was formerly one of the chief industries ofthe Philippines; but it has now greatly declined, partly because of theblight. Exports reached their highest point in 1883, when 16, 805, 000pounds were shipped. Since then, they have fallen off steadily tonothing; and the islands are now importers, although still producingconsiderable for their own use. The area still under cultivation in 1920was 2, 700 acres; and the production in that year was given as 2, 710, 000pounds, as compared with 1, 580, 000 pounds in 1919, and an average of1, 500, 000 pounds for the previous five years. GUAM. Coffee is a common plant on the island but is not systematicallycultivated. There is no exportation, but a Navy Department report saysthat the possible export is not less than seventy-five tons annually. HAWAII. A certain amount of coffee has been produced in the HawaiianIslands for many years, exports being recorded as 49, 000 pounds in 1861;as 452, 000 pounds in 1870; and as 143, 000 pounds in 1877. The trees growon all the islands; but nearly all the coffee produced is raised onHawaii. The trees are not carefully cultivated; but the coffee has anexcellent flavor. The amount of land planted to coffee is about 6, 000acres. The exports go mostly to continental United States. The exportsare increasing, the figures up to 1909 ranging usually between 1, 000, 000and 2, 000, 000 pounds, and now usually running between 2, 000, 000 and5, 000, 000 pounds. Including shipments to continental United States, Hawaii exported 5, 775, 825 pounds in 1918; 3, 649, 672 pounds in 1919;2, 573, 300 pounds in 1920; and 4, 979, 121 pounds in 1921. AUSTRALIA. Queensland is the only state of the Commonwealth in whichcoffee growing has been at all extensively tried; and here the resultshave, up to the present time, been far from satisfactory. The total areadevoted to this crop reached its highest point in the season 1901-02when an area of 547 acres was recorded. The area then continuouslydeclined to 1906-07, when it was as low as 256 acres. In subsequentseasons the area fluctuated somewhat; but, on the whole, with a downwardtendency. In 1919-20, only 24 productive acres were recorded, with ayield of 16, 101 pounds. The country is now listed among the consumingrather than the producing countries. ABYSSINIA. This country, usually credited with being the original homeof the coffee plant, still has, in its southern part, vast forests ofwild coffee whose extent is unknown, but whose total production isbelieved to be immense. It is of inferior grade, and reaches the marketas "Abyssinian" coffee. There is also a large district of coffeeplantations producing a very good grade called "Harari", which isconsidered almost, if not quite, the equal of the Arabian Mocha. This isusually shipped to Aden for re-export. Abyssinia's coffee reaches theoutside world through three different gateways; and as the neighboringcountries, through which the produce passes, also produce coffee, noaccurate statistics are available to show the country's annual export. The total probably ranges from 10, 000, 000 to 20, 000, 000 pounds a year. Coffee was shipped from Abyssinia to the extent of 6, 773, 800 pounds in1914, over the Franco-Ethiopian railroad; 10, 054, 000 pounds in 1915; and9, 064, 000 pounds in 1916. Export figures of the port of Massowah includea large amount of Abyssinian coffee, but the proportion is unknown. Atthis port 108, 680 pounds of coffee were exported in 1914; and 1, 221, 880pounds in 1915. Abyssinian coffee exported by way of the Sudan amountedto 232, 616 pounds in 1914; to 140, 461 pounds in 1915; and to 4, 164, 600pounds in 1916. BRITISH EAST AFRICAN PROTECTORATE. The acreage in coffee has greatlyincreased in recent years. It was estimated at 1, 000 acres in 1911; andby 1916, it had grown to 22, 200 acres. Production, as shown by theexports, has likewise increased greatly; and exports in recent yearshave averaged about 8, 000, 000 pounds a year. They were 10, 984, 000 poundsin 1917; and were 18, 735, 000 pounds in 1918. UGANDA PROTECTORATE. The acreage in coffee has been steadily increasing, as shown by the following figures: 1910, 697 acres; 1914, 19, 278 acres;1916, 23, 857 acres; 1917, 22, 745 acres. In 1909, 33, 440 pounds of coffeewere produced; and by 1918, this had grown to 10, 000, 000 pounds. Theaverage for the five years, 1914-18, was 5, 076, 000 pounds. NYASALAND PROTECTORATE. Twenty-five years ago, this colony exportedcoffee in amounts ranging from 300, 000 to more than 2, 000, 000 pounds. Production has now so declined, that only 122, 000 pounds were exportedin 1918; and the average for recent years has been about 92, 000 pounds. The acreage in bearing in 1903 was 8, 234; and in 1917 it was 1, 237. NIGERIA. Production has been falling off in recent years. Exports were35, 000 pounds in 1896; 57, 000 pounds in 1901; and 70, 000 pounds in 1909. In 1916 and 1917, however, they were only about 3, 000 pounds. GOLD COAST. This colony formerly produced considerable coffee, exporting142, 000 pounds in 1896. There have been no exports in recent years, except about 440 pounds in 1916, and 660 pounds in 1917. SOMALILAND PROTECTORATE. Exports of coffee were more than 7, 500, 000pounds in 1897, indicating a very extensive production. But since then, there has been a steady decline; and in 1918 only about 440, 000 poundswere shipped. SOMALI COAST (FRENCH). Exports of coffee from this colony amounted tomore than 5, 000, 000 pounds in 1902; and since then, they have remainedfairly steadily at that figure, showing considerable increase in lateyears. Total exports in 1917 were 11, 200, 000 pounds. ITALIAN SOMALILAND. Some coffee appears to be grown in this colony; butexports have been inconsiderable for many years. SIERRA LEONE. Production has been steadily declining for twenty years. Exports were 33, 376 pounds in 1903; 17, 096 pounds in 1913; and 8, 228pounds in 1917. MAURITIUS. In former times this island was an important coffee producer, exports in the early part of the nineteenth century running as high as600, 000 pounds. Today there is practically no export, and only about 30acres are in bearing, producing 4, 000 to 8, 000 pounds a year. RÉUNION. This island also was once a notable grower of coffee. A centuryago, production was estimated as high as 10, 000, 000 pounds; and thisrate of output continued well through the nineteenth century. In thepresent century, production has fallen off; and only about 530, 000pounds were exported in 1909. The decrease has continued, so that theaverage in recent years has been only about 25, 000 pounds. _Coffee Consumption_ Of the million or more tons of coffee produced in the world each year, practically all--with the exception of that which is used in thecoffee-growing countries themselves--is consumed by the United Statesand western Europe, the British dominions, and the non-producingcountries of South America. Over that vast stretch of territorybeginning with western Russia, and extending over almost the whole ofAsia, coffee is very little known. In the consuming regions mentioned, moreover, consumption is concentrated in a few countries, which togetheraccount for some ninety percent of all the coffee that enters theworld's markets. These are, the United States, which now takes more thanone-half, and Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Scandinavia. The United Kingdom stands out conspicuously among the nations of westernEurope as a small consumer of coffee, the per capita consumption in thatcountry being only about two-thirds of a pound each year. France andGermany are by far the biggest coffee buyers of Europe so far as actualquantity is concerned; although some of the other countries mentioneddrink much more coffee in proportion to the population. TheMediterranean countries and the Balkans are of only secondaryimportance as coffee drinkers. Among the British dominions, the Union ofSouth Africa takes much the largest amount, doubtless because of theDutch element in its population; while Canada, Australia, and NewZealand show the influence of the mother country, consumption per headin the last two being no greater than in England. [Illustration: No. 4--WORLD'S COFFEE CONSUMPTION, 1850-1920 Diagram showing the relationship between the leading coffee-consumingcountries] In South America, Brazil, Bolivia, and all the countries to the north, are coffee producers. Of the southern countries, Argentina is the chiefcoffee buyer, with Chile second. In the western hemisphere, however, thelargest per capita coffee consumer is the island of Cuba, which raisessome coffee of its own and imports heavily from its neighbors. The list of coffee-consuming countries includes practically all thosethat do not raise coffee, and also a few that have some coffeeplantations, but do not grow enough for their own use. These countriesare listed on page 287. Consumption figures can be determined with fairaccuracy by the import figures; although in some countries, where thereis a considerable transit trade, it is necessary to deduct export fromimport figures to obtain actual consumption figures. The import figuresgiven are the latest available for each country named. [Illustration: No. 5--COFFEE IMPORTS, 1916-1920 In this diagram a comparison is drawn between the coffee imports of theleading consuming countries over a critical 5-year period] GENERAL COFFEE CONSUMPTION TABLE _Country_ _Year_ _Imports_ _Exports_ _Consumption_ (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) United States 1921[j] 1, 345, 366, 943[k] 41, 813, 197[k] 1, 303, 553, 746Canada 1921[l] 17, 517, 353 20, 349 17, 497, 004Newfoundland 1920[l] 46, 813[m] 46, 813United Kingdom 1921[j] 34, 363, 728[m] 34, 360, 128France 1921[j] 322, 419, 884 1, 154, 769 321, 265, 115Spain 1920 48, 518, 854 5, 033 48, 513, 821Portugal 1919[j] 6, 926, 575 1, 258, 271 5, 668, 304Belgium 1921[j] 105, 365, 586 21, 541, 049 83, 824, 537Holland 1921[j] 135, 566, 943 66, 567, 702 69, 999, 241Denmark 1921[j] 46, 571, 954 3, 449, 537 43, 122, 417Norway 1921[j] 29, 835, 544 169, 921 29, 665, 623Sweden 1921[j] 89, 660, 766 89, 660, 766Finland 1921[j] 27, 968, 355 27, 968, 355Russia 1916 9, 801, 014 9, 801, 014Austria-Hungary 1917 17, 966, 167 56, 217 17, 909, 950 (former)Austria 1921[n] 5, 128, 781 79, 365 5, 049, 416Germany (former) 1913 371, 130, 520 1, 783, 521 369, 346, 999Germany (present) 1921[o] 167, 675, 258 210, 535 167, 464, 723Poland 1920 7, 612, 526 26, 781 7, 585, 745Bulgaria 1914 1, 300, 493 1, 300, 493Rumania 1919 5, 134, 198 66, 757 5, 067, 441Greece 1920[p] 13, 118, 626 13, 118, 626Switzerland 1921[j] 31, 582, 879 47, 619 31, 535, 260Italy 1920 66, 509, 255 14, 330 66, 494, 925Algeria 1920 17, 273, 041 17, 273, 041Tunis 1920 3, 458, 018 3, 458, 018Egypt 1921[j] 20, 939, 542 218, 938 20, 720, 604Union of S. Africa 1920 28, 752, 538 954, 181[q] 27, 798, 357Northern Rhodesia 1920 43, 880 8, 263 35, 617Southern Rhodesia 1920 325, 900 10, 064 315, 836Mozambique 1919 111, 614 78, 973 32, 641Ceylon 1920 1, 853, 537 2, 240 1, 851, 297China 1920 613, 217 297, 663 315, 554Japan 1920 684, 826 684, 826Philippines 1920 3, 475, 530 26 3, 475, 504Canary Islands 1917 529, 104 529, 104Cyprus 1918 451, 880 451, 880Australia 1920[l] 2, 502, 429 263, 430[r] 2, 238, 999New Zealand 1920 304, 737 21, 104 283, 633Cuba 1920[l] 39, 983, 001 1, 305 39, 981, 696Martinique 1918 335, 099 10, 362 324, 737Panama 1920 216, 923 518 216, 405Argentina 1919 37, 541, 020 37, 541, 020Chile 1920 12, 357, 929 12, 357, 929Uruguay 1921[p] 4, 896, 507 4, 896, 507Paraguay 1920 262, 737 262, 737 [j] Preliminary figures. [k] Figures are for continental U. S. Imports include both foreign coffeeand coffee from our Island possessions. Exports Include both foreign anddomestic exports from continental U. S. And also exports to our islandpossessions. [l] Fiscal year. [m] Entered for home consumption. [n] First six months. Imports in 1920 were 6, 042, 808 pounds; exports93, 034 pounds. [o] Eight months, May-December. [p] First eleven months. [q] Exports of foreign coffee. Domestic exports were 48, 463 pounds. [r] Exports of foreign coffee. Domestic exports were 208, 445 pounds. On account of the very wide fluctuations in imports during the war andthe period following the war, per capita figures of consumption are ofonly relative value, as they have naturally changed radically in recentyears. For the most part, however, the trade has about swung back tonormal; and per capita figures based on the amounts retained forconsumption, as given in the General Coffee Consumption Table, arefairly close to those for the years before the war. As per capitacalculations must take into account population as well as amounts ofcoffee consumed; and as population figures are usually estimates, theresults arrived at by different authorities are likely to vary slightly, although usually they are not far apart. In figuring the per capitaamounts in the table on page 288, latest available estimates ofpopulation have been used. The figures show that the following are theten leading countries in the per capita consumption of coffee in pounds: 1. Sweden 15. 25 6. Norway 10. 952. Cuba 13. 79 7. Holland 10. 223. Denmark 13. 19 8. Finland 8. 254. United States 12. 09 9. Switzerland 8. 175. Belgium 11. 06 10. France 7. 74 The per capita consumption of the most important coffee-consumingcountries, based on the large table, is given with the 1913 per capitafigures for comparison: PER CAPITA COFFEE CONSUMPTION TABLE _Country Year Pounds Pds_. , 1913 United States 1921 12. 09 8. 90[t]Canada 1921[s] 1. 93 2. 17[u]Newfoundland 1920[s] 0. 19 0. 19[t]United Kingdom 1921 0. 72 0. 61[t]France 1921 7. 74 6. 41Spain 1920 2. 33 1. 64Portugal 1919 0. 86 1. 16Belgium 1921 11. 06 12. 27Holland 1921 10. 22 18. 80Denmark 1921 13. 19 12. 85Norway 1921 10. 95 12. 29Sweden 1921 15. 25 13. 41Finland 1921 8. 25 8. 85Russia 1916 0. 05 0. 16Austria-Hungary 1917 0. 34 2. 54Germany 1921 4. 10 5. 43Roumania 1919 0. 29 1. 04Greece 1920 2. 97 1. 19Switzerland 1921 8. 17 6. 48Italy 1920 1. 84 1. 79Egypt 1921 1. 53 1. 15Union of So. Africa 1920 3. 80[v] 4. 19[v]Ceylon 1920 0. 43 0. 36China 1920 0. 001 0. 01Japan 1920 0. 01 0. 004Cuba 1920[s] 13. 79 10. 00Argentina 1919 4. 40 3. 74Chile 1920 3. 06 3. 04Uruguay 1921 3. 61 [w]Paraguay 1920 0. 26 [w]Australia 1920[s] 0. 42 0. 64New Zealand 1920 0. 24 0. 29 [s] Fiscal year. [t] Fiscal year 1913. [u] Fiscal year ending March 31, 1914. [v] Including both white and colored population. [w] Not available. _Tea and Coffee in England and the U. S_. The rise of the United States as a coffee consumer in the last centuryand a quarter has been marked, not only by steadily increased imports asthe population of the country increased, but also by a steady growth inper capita consumption, showing that the beverage has been continuallyadvancing in favor with the American people. Today it stands atpractically its highest point, each individual man, woman, and childhaving more than 12 pounds a year, enough for almost 500 cups, allottedto him as his portion. This is four times as much as it was a hundredyears ago; and more than twice as much as it was in the yearsimmediately following the Civil War. In general it is fifty percent morethan the average in the twenty years preceding 1897, in which year a newhigh level of coffee consumption was apparently established, the percapita figure for that year being 10. 12 pounds, which has beenapproximately the average since then. [Illustration: No. 6--WORLD'S CONSUMPTION OF TEA AND COFFEE Diagram showing their relationship, 1860-1920] Since the advent of country-wide prohibition in the United States onJuly 1, 1919, about two pounds more coffee per person, or 80 to 100cups, have been consumed than before. Part of this increase is doubtlessto be charged to prohibition; but it is yet too early to judge fairly asto the exact effect of "bone-dry" legislation on coffee drinking. Thecontinued growth in the use of coffee in the United States has been indecided contrast to the per capita consumption of tea, which is less nowthan half a century ago. In the United Kingdom, the reverse condition prevails. Tea drinkingthere steadily maintains a popularity which it has enjoyed forcenturies; while coffee apparently makes no advance in favor. In thisrespect, the country is sharply distinguished from its neighbors ofwestern Europe, in many of which coffee drinking has been much heavier, considering the population, even than in the United States. The contrastbetween the tastes of the two countries in beverages is shown clearly bythe per capita figures of tea and coffee consumption for half a century, as they appear in the table, next column. TEA AND COFFEE CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA _Year United States United Kingdom_ Coffee Tea Coffee Tea pounds pounds pounds pounds 1866 4. 96 1. 17 1. 02 3. 42 1867 5. 01 1. 09 1. 04 3. 68 1868 6. 52 . 96 1. 00 3. 52 1869 6. 45 1. 08 . 94 3. 63 1870 6. 00 1. 10 . 98 3. 81 1871 7. 91 1. 14 . 97 3. 92 1872 7. 28 1. 46 . 98 4. 01 1873 6. 87 1. 53 . 99 4. 11 1874 6. 59 1. 27 . 96 4. 23 1875 7. 08 1. 44 . 98 4. 44 1876 7. 33 1. 35 . 99 4. 50 1877 6. 94 1. 23 . 96 4. 52 1878 6. 24 1. 33 . 97 4. 66 1879 7. 42 1. 21 . 99 4. 68 1880 8. 78 1. 39 . 92 4. 57 1881 8. 25 1. 54 . 89 4. 58 1882 8. 30 1. 47 . 89 4. 69 1883 8. 91 1. 30 . 89 4. 82 1884 9. 26 1. 09 . 90 4. 90 1885 9. 60 1. 18 . 91 5. 06 1886 9. 36 1. 37 . 87 4. 92 1887 8. 53 1. 49 . 80 5. 02 1888 6. 81 1. 49 . 83 5. 03 1889 9. 16 1. 25 . 76 4. 99 1890 7. 77 1. 32 . 75 5. 17 1891 7. 94 1. 28 . 76 5. 36 1892 9. 59 1. 36 . 74 5. 43 1893 8. 23 1. 32 . 69 5. 40 1894 8. 01 1. 34 . 68 5. 51 1895 9. 24 1. 39 . 70 5. 65 1896 8. 08 1. 32 . 69 5. 75 1897 10. 04 1. 56 . 68 5. 79 1898 11. 59 . 93 . 68 5. 83 1899 10. 72 . 97 . 71 5. 95 1900 9. 84 1. 09 . 71 6. 07 1901 10. 43 1. 12 . 76 6. 16 1902 13. 32 . 92 . 68 6. 07 1903 10. 80 1. 27 . 71 6. 04 1904 11. 67 1. 31 . 68 6. 02 1905 11. 98 1. 19 . 67 6. 02 1906 9. 72 1. 06 . 66 6. 22 1907 11. 15 . 96 . 67 6. 26 1908 9. 82 1. 03 . 66 6. 24 1909 11. 43 1. 24 . 67 6. 37 1910 9. 33 . 89 . 65 6. 39 1911 9. 29 1. 05 . 62 6. 47 1912 9. 26 1. 04 . 61 6. 49 1913 8. 90 . 96 . 61 6. 68 1914 10. 14 . 91 . 63 6. 89 1915 10. 62 . 91 . 71 6. 87 1916 11. 20 1. 07 . 66 6. 56 1917 12. 38 . 99 1. 02 6. 03 1918 10. 43 1. 40 1. 19 6. 75 1919 9. 13 . 87 . 76 8. 43 1920 12. 78 . 84 . 74 8. 51 Figures for all except most recent years are takenfrom the _Statistical Abstract_ publications ofthe two countries. For the United States the figuresgiven apply to fiscal years ending June 30, and forthe United Kingdom to calendar years. _Coffee Consumption in Europe_ On the continent of Europe, however, coffee enjoys much the same sort ofpopularity that it does in the United States. The leading continentalcoffee ports are Hamburg, Bremen, Copenhagen, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Havre, Bordeaux, Marseilles, and Trieste; and the nationalitiesof these ports indicate pretty well the countries that consume the mostcoffee. The northern ports are transhipping points for large quantitiesof coffee going to the Scandinavian countries, as well as importingports for their own countries; and these countries have been among theleading coffee drinkers, per head of population, for many decades. Norway, for instance, in 1876 was consuming about 8. 8 pounds of coffeeper person; Sweden, 5 pounds; and Denmark, 5. 2 pounds. The per capitaconsumption of various other countries at about the same period, 1875 to1880, has been estimated as follows: Holland, 17. 6 pounds; Belgium, 9. 1pounds; Germany, 5. 1 pounds; Austria-Hungary, 2. 2 pounds; Switzerland, 6. 6 pounds; Prance, 3 pounds; Spain, 0. 2 pounds; Portugal, 0. 7 pounds;and Greece, 1. 6 pounds. Today, the leading country of the world in point of per capitaconsumption is Sweden (15. 25 pounds); but Holland held that position fora long while. During the World War the disturbance of trade currents, and the high price of coffee, greatly reduced the amount of coffeedrinking; and the Dutch took to drinking tea in considerablequantities. FRANCE. Second only to the United States, in the total amount of coffeeconsumed, is France; although that country before the war occupied thirdplace, being passed by Germany. Havre is one of the great coffee portsof Europe; and has a coffee exchange organized in 1882, only a shorttime after the Exchange in New York began operations. France draws onall the large producing regions for her coffee; but is especiallyprominent in the trade in the West Indies and the countries around theCaribbean Sea. Imports in 1921 (preliminary) amounted to 322, 419, 884pounds; exports to 1, 154, 769 pounds; and net consumption, to 321, 265, 115pounds. GERMANY. Hamburg is one of the world's important coffee ports; and innormal times coffee is brought there in vast amounts, not only forshipment into the interior of Germany, but also for transhipment toScandinavia, Finland and Russia. Up to the outbreak of the war, Germanywas the chief coffee-drinking country of Europe. During the blockade, the Germans resorted to substitutes; and after the war because of highprices, there was still some consumption of them. German coffee importssince the war have not quite climbed back to their former high mark; andthe per capita consumption, judged by these figures is still somewhatlow. Importations amounted to 90, 602, 000 pounds in 1920. The amount oftotal imports was 371, 130, 520 pounds in 1913; total exports, 1, 783, 521pounds; and net imports, 369, 346, 999 pounds. NETHERLANDS. Netherlands is one of the oldest coffee countries ofEurope, and for centuries has been a great transhipping agent, distributing coffee from her East Indian possessions and from Americaamong her northern neighbors. Before sending these coffee shipmentsalong, however, she kept back enough plentifully to supply her ownpeople, so that for many years before the war she led the world in percapita consumption. As far back as 1867-76, coffee consumption wasaveraging more than 13 pounds per capita. In the year before the war, the average was 18. 8 pounds. The blockade, and other abnormal conditionsduring the war, threw the trade off; and it is still sub-normal. In 1920the net imports were about 96, 000, 000 pounds, which would give a percapita consumption of about 14 pounds if it all went into consumption. But part of it was probably stored for later exportation, as indicatedby the figures for 1921, which show heavy exports and a consequent lowerfigure for consumption. Eighty percent of the Netherlands coffee tradeis handled through Amsterdam. Consumption of coffee is now slowly going back to normal, but the changein source of imports--which before the war came largely from Brazil butwhich war conditions turned heavily toward the East Indies--is still inevidence. Per capita consumption of coffee in Holland up to the outbreakof the war was as follows: COFFEE CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA IN HOLLAND _Year Pounds Year Pounds_1847-56 9. 6 1907 14. 91857-66 7. 1 1908 14. 31867-76 13. 3 1909 16. 71877-86 16. 7 1910 15. 71887-96 12. 8 1911 15. 81897-1906 16. 7 1912 12. 31906 17. 2 1913 18. 8 OTHER COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are all heavycoffee drinkers. In 1921 Sweden had the highest per capita consumptionin the world, 15. 25 pounds. Before the war, these three countries eachconsumed about as much per capita as the United States does today, 12 to13 pounds. The 1921 imports for consumption[317] were as follows:Denmark, 43, 122, 417 pounds; Norway, 29, 665, 623 pounds; Sweden, 89, 660, 766 pounds. Austria-Hungary was formerly an important buyer ofcoffee, large quantities coming into the country yearly through Trieste. Imports in 1913 totaled 130, 951, 000 pounds; and in 1912, 124, 527, 000pounds. In 1917 the war cut down the total to 17, 910, 000 pounds netconsumption. Finland shares with her neighbors of the Baltic a strongtaste for coffee, importing, in 1921, 27, 968, 000 pounds, about 8. 25pounds per capita. In the same year, Belgium had a net importation of83, 824, 000 pounds. Spain, in 1920, consumed 48, 513, 821 pounds. Portugal, in 1919, imported6, 926, 575 pounds; and exported 1, 258, 271 pounds, leaving 5, 668, 304pounds for home consumption. Coffee is not especially popular in theBalkan States and Italy; importations into the last-named country in1920 amounting to 66, 494, 925 pounds net. Switzerland is a steady coffeedrinker, consuming 31, 535, 260 pounds in 1921. Russia was never fond ofcoffee; and her total imports in 1917, according to a compilation madeunder Soviet auspices, were only 4, 464, 000 pounds. [Illustration: A MEETING OF THE COFFEE BROKERS OF AMSTERDAM, 1820 Reproduced from an old print] OTHER COUNTRIES. The Union of South Africa, in 1920, imported 27, 798, 000pounds net, or about 3. 8 pounds per capita. Cuba purchased 39, 981, 696pounds in the fiscal year 1920; Argentina, 37, 541, 000 pounds in 1919;Chile, 12, 358, 000 pounds in 1920; Australia, 2, 239, 000 pounds in 1920;and New Zealand, 283, 633 pounds in that year. _Three Centuries of Coffee Trading_ The story of the development of the world's coffee trade is a story ofabout three centuries. When Columbus sailed for the new world, thecoffee plant was unknown even as near its original home as his nativeItaly. In its probable birthplace in southern Abyssinia, the natives hadenjoyed its use for a long time, and it had spread to southwesternArabia; but the Mediterranean knew nothing of it until after thebeginning of the sixteenth century. It then crept slowly along the coastof Asia Minor, through Syria, Damascus, and Aleppo, until it reachedConstantinople about 1554. It became very popular; coffee houses wereopened, and the first of many controversies arose. But coffee made itsway against all opposition, and soon was firmly established in Turkishterritory. In those deliberate times, the next step westward, from Asia to Europe, was not taken for more than fifty years. In general, its introductionand establishment in Europe occupied the whole of the seventeenthcentury. The greatest pioneering work in coffee trading was done by theNetherlands East India Company, which began operations in 1602. Theenterprise not only promoted the spread of coffee growing in twohemispheres; but it was active also in introducing the sale of theproduct in many European countries. Coffee reached Venice about 1615, and Marseilles about 1644. The Frenchbegan importing coffee in commercial quantities in 1660. The Dutch beganto import Mocha coffee regularly at Amsterdam in 1663; and by 1679 theFrench had developed a considerable trade in the berry between theLevant and the cities of Lyons and Marseilles. Meanwhile, the coffeedrink had become fashionable in Paris, partly through its use by theTurkish ambassador, and the first Parisian _café_ was opened in 1672. Itis significant of its steady popularity since then that the name _café_, which is both French and Spanish for coffee, has come to mean a generaleating or drinking place. [Illustration: BILL OF PUBLIC SALE OF COFFEE, ETC. , 1790 Reproduction of an advertisement by the Dutch East India Company] Active trading in coffee began in Germany about 1670, and in Swedenabout 1674. Trading in coffee in England followed swiftly upon the heels of theopening of the first coffee house in London in 1652. By 1700, the tradeincluded not only exporting and importing merchants, but wholesale andretail dealers; the latter succeeding the apothecaries who, up to then, had enjoyed a kind of monopoly of the business. Trade and literary authorities[318] on coffee trading tell us that inthe early days of the eighteenth century the chief supplies of coffeefor England and western Europe came from the East Indies and Arabia. TheArabian, or--as it was more generally known--Turkey berry, was boughtfirst-hand by Turkish merchants, who were accustomed to travel inland inArabia Felix, and to contract with native growers. It was moved thence by camel transport through Judea to Grand Cairo, _via_ Suez, to be transhipped down the Nile to Alexandria, then thegreat shipping port for Asia and Europe. By 1722, 60, 000 to 70, 000 balesof Turkish (Arabian) coffee a year were being received in England, thesale price at Grand Cairo being fixed by the Bashaw, who "valorized" itaccording to the supply. "Indian" coffee, which was also grown inArabia, was brought to Bettelfukere (Beit-el-fakih) in the mountains ofsouthwestern Arabia, where English, Dutch, and French factors went tobuy it and to transport it on camels to Moco (Mocha), whence it wasshipped to Europe around the Cape of Good Hope. In the beginning, "Indian" coffee was inferior to Turkish coffee;because it was the refuse, or what remained after the Turkish merchantshad taken the best. But after the European merchants began to make theirown purchases at Bettelfukere, the character of the "Indian" product assold in the London and other European markets was vastly improved. Doubtless the long journey in sailing vessels over tropic seas made forbetter quality. It was estimated that Arabia in this way exported abouta million bushels a year of "Turkish" and "Indian" coffee. The coffee houses became the gathering places for wits, fashionablepeople, and brilliant and scholarly men, to whom they affordedopportunity for endless gossip and discussion. It was only natural thatthe lively interchange of ideas at these public clubs should generateliberal and radical opinions, and that the constituted authoritiesshould look askance at them. Indeed the consumption of coffee has beencuriously associated with movements of political protest in its wholehistory, at least up to the nineteenth century. Coffee has promoted clear thinking and right living wherever introduced. It has gone hand in hand with the world's onward march toward democracy. As already told in this work, royal orders closed the coffee houses forshort periods in Constantinople and in London; Germany required alicense for the sale of the beverage; the French Revolution was fomentedin coffee-house meetings; and the real cradle of American liberty issaid to have been a coffee house in New York. It is interesting also tonote that, while the consumption of coffee has been attended by theseagitations for greater liberty for three centuries, its production forthree centuries, in the Dutch East Indies, in the West Indies, and inBrazil, was very largely in the hands of slaves or of forced labor. Since the spread of the use of coffee to western Europe in theseventeenth century, the development of the trade has been marked, broadly speaking, by two features: (1) the shifting of the weight ofproduction, first to the West Indies, then to the East Indies, and thento Brazil; and (2) the rise of the United States as the chief coffeeconsumer of the world. Until the close of the seventeenth century, thelittle district in Arabia, whence the coffee beans had first made theirway to Europe, continued to supply the whole world's trade. But sprigsof coffee trees were beginning to go out from Arabia to other promisinglands, both eastward and westward. As previously related, the year 1699was an important one in the history of this expansion, as it was thenthat the Dutch successfully introduced the coffee plant from Arabia intoJava. This started a Far Eastern industry, whose importance continues tothis day, and also caused the mother country, Holland, to take up therôle of one of the leading coffee traders of the world, which she stillholds. Holland, in fact, took to coffee from the very first. It isclaimed that the first samples were introduced into that country fromMocha in 1616--long before the beans were known in England orFrance--and that by 1663, regular shipments were being made. Soon afterthe coffee culture became firmly established in Java, regular shipmentsto the mother country began, the first of these being a consignment of894 pounds in 1711. Under the auspices of the Netherlands East India Co. The system of cultivating coffee by forced labor was begun in the EastIndian colonies. It flourished until well into the nineteenth century. One result of this colonial production of coffee was to make Holland theleading coffee consumer per capita of the world, consumption in 1913, asrecorded on page 290, having reached as high as 18. 8 pounds. It has longbeen one of the leading coffee traders, importing and exporting innormal times before the war between 150, 000, 000 and 300, 000, 000 pounds ayear. [Illustration: PRE-WAR AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF COFFEE BY CONTINENTS Fiscal years: 1910-1914 Total pounds: 2, 311, 917, 200] The introduction of the coffee plant into the new world took placebetween 1715 and 1723. It quickly spread to the islands and the mainlandwashed by the Caribbean. The latter part of the eighteenth century sawtens of millions of pounds of coffee being shipped yearly to the mothercountries of western Europe; and for decades, the two great coffee tradecurrents of the world continued to run from the West Indies to France, England, Holland, and Germany; and from the Dutch East Indies toHolland. These currents continued to flow until the disruption of worldtrade-routes by the World War; but they had been pushed into positionsof secondary importance by the establishing of two new currents, runningrespectively from Brazil to Europe, and from Brazil to the UnitedStates, which constituted the nineteenth century's contribution to thehistory of the world's coffee trade. [Illustration: PRE-WAR AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF COFFEE BY COUNTRIES Fiscal years: 1910-1914 Total pounds: 2, 311, 917, 200] The chief feature of the twentieth century's developments has been thepassing by the United States of the half-way mark in world consumption;this country, since the second year of the World War, having taken morethan all the rest of the world put together. The world's chief coffee"stream, " so to speak, is now from Santos and Rio de Janeiro to NewYork, other lesser streams being from these ports to Havre, Antwerp, Amsterdam, and (in normal times) Hamburg; and from Java to Amsterdam andRotterdam. It is said that a movement, fostered by Belgium and Brazil, is under way to have Antwerp succeed Hamburg as a coffee port. The rise of Brazil to the place of all-important source of the world'scoffee was entirely a nineteenth century development. When the coffeetree found its true home in southern Brazil in 1770, it began at once tospread widely over the area of excellent soil; but there was littleexportation for thirty or forty years. By the middle of the nineteenthcentury Brazil was contributing twice as much to the world's commerce asher nearest competitor, the Dutch East Indies, exports in 1852-53 being2, 353, 563 bags from Brazil and 1, 190, 543 bags from the Dutch EastIndies. The world's total that year was 4, 567, 000 bags, so thatBrazilian coffee represented about one-half of the total. Thisproportion was roughly maintained during the latter half of thenineteenth century, but has gradually increased since then to itspresent three-fourths. [Illustration: PRE-WAR AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS OF COFFEE INTO THE UNITEDSTATES BY CONTINENTS Fiscal years: 1910-1914 Total pounds: 899, 339, 327] The most important single event in the history of Brazilian productionwas the carrying out of the valorization scheme, by which the State ofSão Paulo, in 1906 and 1907, purchased 8, 474, 623 bags of coffee, andstored it in Santos, in New York, and in certain European ports, inorder to stabilize the price in the face of very heavy production. Atthe same time, a law was passed limiting the exports to 10, 000, 000 bagsper year. This law has since been repealed. The story of valorization istold more fully in chapter XXXI. The coffee thus purchased by the statewas placed in the hands of an international committee, which fed it intothe world's markets at the rate of several hundred thousand bags a year. Good prices were realized for all coffee sold; and the plan wassuccessful, not only financially, but in the achievement of its mainobject, the prevention of the ruin of planters through overproduction. [Illustration: PRE-WAR AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS OF COFFEE INTO THE UNITEDSTATES BY COUNTRIES Fiscal years: 1910-1914 Total pounds: 899, 339, 327] Another valorization campaign was launched by Brazil in 1918, and athird in 1921. Early in 1918, the São Paulo government bought about3, 000, 000 bags. Subsequent events caused a sharp advance in prices, andat one time it was said that the holdings showed a profit of$60, 000, 000. The Brazil federal government appointed an officialdirector of valorization, Count Alexandre Siciliano. A federal loan of£9, 000, 000, with 4, 535, 000 bags of valorized coffee as collateral, wasplaced in London and New York in May, 1922. European consumption during the last century has been marked by thegrowth of imports into France and Germany; these being the two leadingcoffee drinkers of the world, aside from the United States. Germany heldthe lead in European consumption during the whole of the nineteenthcentury, and also in this century until all imports were stopped by theAllied navies; although, in actual imports, Holland for many yearsshowed higher figures. Both Holland and England have acted asdistributers, re-exporting each year most of the coffee which enteredtheir ports. In the last half-century, the chief consumers, in the ordernamed, have been Germany, France, Holland, Austria-Hungary, and Belgium. However, with the removal of the duty on coffee in the last-namedcountry in 1904, imports trebled; and Belgium took third place. Thetable at the top of this page shows the general trend of the trade forthe last seventy years. TREND OF EUROPEAN COFFEE CONSUMPTION FOR SEVENTY YEARS _Year_ _Germany_ _France_ _Holland_ _Aus. -Hung. _ _Belgium_ (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds)1853 104, 049, 000 48, 095, 000 46, 162, 000 44, 716, 000 41, 270, 0001863 146, 969, 000 87, 524, 000 30, 299, 000 44, 966, 000 39, 305, 0001873 215, 822, 000 98, 841, 000 79, 562, 000 71, 111, 000 49, 874, 0001883 251, 706, 000 150, 468, 000 130, 380, 000 74, 145, 000 62, 846, 0001893 269, 381, 000 152, 203, 000 75, 562, 000 79, 438, 000 52, 046, 0001903 403, 070, 000 246, 122, 000 78, 328, 000 104, 200, 000 51, 859, 0001913 369, 347, 000 254, 102, 000 116, 749, 000 130, 951, 000 93, 250, 000 Most of the coffee for these countries has for many years been suppliedby Brazil, even Holland bringing in several times as much from Brazil asfrom the Dutch East Indies. Special features of the European trade havebeen the organization, in 1873, and successful operation, in Germany, ofthe world's first international syndicate to control the coffee trade;and the opening of coffee exchanges in Havre in 1882, in Amsterdam andHamburg, in 1887: in Antwerp, London, and Rotterdam, in 1890; and inTrieste in 1905. The advance of coffee consumption in the United States, the chiefcoffee-consuming country in the world, has taken place through about thesame period as the advance of production in Brazil, the chief producingcountry; but it has been far less rapid. From 1790 to 1800, coffeeimports for consumption ranged from 3, 500, 000 to 32, 000, 000 pounds. Thefigures in the next column show the net importations of coffee into thiscountry since the beginning of the nineteenth century. The chief source of supply, of course, has been Brazil; and thecommercial and economic ties created by this immense coffee traffic hasknit the two countries closely together. Brazil is probably morefriendly to the United States than any other South American country, asshown by her action in following this country into the World War againstGermany. She also grants the United States certain tariff preferentialsas a recognition of the continued policy of this country of admittingcoffee free of duty. The chief port of entry of coffee into the UnitedStates is New York, which for decades has recorded entries amountingfrom sixty to ninety percent of the country's total. Since 1902, NewOrleans has shown a big advance, and in 1910 imported some thirty-fivepercent of the total. The only other port of importance is SanFrancisco, where imports have been increasing in recent years because ofthe growth of the trade in Central American coffee. COFFEE IMPORTS, UNITED STATES, FOR 120 YEARS _Net Imports_ Year Pounds Year Pounds1800[x] 8, 792, 472 1906 804, 808, 5941811[x] 19, 801, 230 1907 935, 678, 4121821[x] 11, 886, 063 1908 850, 982, 9191830[x] 38, 363, 687 1909 1, 006, 975, 0471840[x] 86, 297, 761 1910 813, 442, 9721850 129, 791, 466 1911 869, 489, 9021860 182, 049, 527 1912 880, 838, 7761870 231, 173, 574 1913 859, 166, 6181880 440, 128, 838 1914 991, 953, 8211890 490, 161, 900 1915 1, 051, 716, 0231900 748, 800, 771 1916 1, 131, 730, 6721901 809, 036, 029 1917 1, 267, 975, 2901902 1, 056, 541, 637 1918 1, 083, 480, 6221903 867, 385, 063 1919 968, 297, 6681904 960, 878, 977 1920 1, 364, 252, 0731905 991, 160, 207 1921 1, 309, 010, 452 [x] Fiscal year ending Sept. 30; all other years end June 30. Throughout the century and a third of steady increase of importations ofcoffee, Congress has for the most part permitted its free entry; as arule, resorting to taxation of "the poor man's breakfast cup" only whenin need of revenue for war purposes. At times, the free entry has beenqualified; but for the most part, coffee has been free from the burdenof customs tariff. The country's coffee trade before the Civil War was without specialincident; but since that time, the continued growth has brought aboutmanipulations that have often resulted in highly dramatic crises;organizations to exercise some sort of regulation in the trade; thedevelopment of a trade in substitutes; the advance of the sale ofbranded package coffee; the institution of large advertising campaigns;and other interesting features. These are treated more in detail inchapters that follow. [Illustration: PRE-WAR CHART OF COFFEE IMPORTS Quantity and value of net imports of coffee into the United States forthe fiscal years 1851 to 1914 in five-year averages. Solid linerepresents quantity, figures in million pounds on left side. Dotted linerepresents value, figures in million dollars on right side] _Coffee Drinking in the United States_ Is the United States using more coffee than formerly, allowing for theincrease in population? Of course there are sporadic increases, inparticular years and groups of years, and they may indicate to thecasual observer that our coffee drinking is mounting rapidly. And thenthere is the steadily growing import figure, double what it was withinthe memory of a man still young. [Illustration: PRE-WAR CONSUMPTION AND PRICE CHART Import price and per capita consumption of coffee in the United Statesfor the fiscal years 1851 to 1914, in five-year averages. Solid linerepresents import price per pound. Dotted line represents per capitaconsumption] But the apparent growth in any given year is a matter of comparison witha nearby year, and there are declines as well as jumps; and, as for thegradual growth, it must always be remembered that, according to theCensus Bureau, some 1, 400, 000 more people are born into this countryevery year, or enter its ports, than are removed by death or emigration. At the present rate this increase would account for about 17, 000, 000pounds more coffee each year than was consumed in the year before. The question is: Do Mr. Citizen, or Mrs. Citizen, or the little Citizensgrowing up into the coffee-drinking age, pass his or her or theirrespective cups along for a second pouring where they used to besatisfied with one, or do they take a cup in the evening as well as inthe morning, or do they perhaps have it served to them at an afternoonreception where they used to get something else? In other words, is thecoffee habit becoming more intensive as well as more extensive? There are plenty of very good reasons why it should have become so inthe last twenty-five or thirty years; for the improvements indistributing, packing, and preparing coffee have been many and notable. It is a far cry these days from the times when the housewife snatched acouple of minutes amid a hundred other kitchen duties to set a pan overthe fire to roast a handful of green coffee beans, and then took two orthree more minutes to pound or grind the crudely roasted product intocoarse granules for boiling. For a good many years, the keenest wits of the coffee merchants, notonly of the United States but of Europe as well, have been at work torefine the beverage as it comes to the consumer's cup; and their successhas been striking. Now the consumer can have his favorite brand not onlyroasted but packed air-tight to preserve its flavor; and made up, moreover, of growths brought from the four corners of the earth andblended to suit the most exacting taste. He can buy it already ground, or he can have it in the form of a soluble powder; he can even get itwith the caffein element ninety-nine percent removed. It is preservedfor his use in paper or tin or fiber boxes, with wrappings whoseattractive designs seem to add something in themselves to the quality. Instead of the old coffee pot, black with long service, he has modernshining percolators and filtration devices; with a new one coming outevery little while, to challenge even these. Last but not least, he isbeing educated to make it properly--tuition free. It would be surprising, with these and dozens of other refinements, if afar better average cup of coffee were not produced than was served fortyyears ago, and if the coffee drinker did not show his appreciation bycoming back for more. As a matter of fact, the figures show that he does come back for more. We do not refer to the figures of the last two years, which indeed arehigher than those for many preceding years, but to the only averagesthat are of much significance in this connection; namely, those forperiods of years going back half a century or more. Five-year averagesback to the Civil War show increasing per capita consumption forcontinental United States (see table). FIVE-YEAR PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION FIGURES _Five-year Per capita Five-year Per capita Period Pounds Period Pounds_ 1867-71 6. 38 1897-1901 10. 521872-76 7. 03 1902-06 11. 501877-81 7. 53 1907-11 10. 211882-86 9. 09 1912-16 10. 021887-91 8. 07 1917-21 11. 391892-96 8. 63 It will be seen that the gain has been a decided one, fairly steady, butnot exactly uniform. In the fifty years, John Doe has not quite come tothe point where he hands up his cup for a second helping and keeps ameaningful silence. Instead, he stipulates, "Don't fill it quite full;fill it about five-sixths as full as it was before. " That is asubstantial gain, and one that the next fifty years can hardly beexpected to duplicate, in spite of the efforts of our coffeeadvertisers, our inventors, and our vigorous importers and roasters. The most striking feature of this fifty-year growth was the big stepupward in 1897, when the per capita rose two pounds over the year beforeand established an average that has been pretty well maintained since. Something of the sort may have taken place again in 1920, when there wasa three-pound jump over the year before. It will be interesting to seewhether this is merely a jump or a permanent rise; whether our coffeetrade has climbed to a hilltop or a plateau. In this connection it should be noted that the government's per capitacoffee figures apply only to continental United States, and that incomputing them all the various items of trade of the non-contiguouspossessions (not counting the Philippines, whose statistics are keptentirely separate from those of the United States proper) are carefullytaken into account. But for the benefit of students of coffee figures it should be addedthat this method does not result in a final figure except for one yearin ten. The reason is that between censuses the population of thecountry is determined only by estimates; and these estimates (by theU. S. Bureau of the Census) are based on the average increase in thepreceding census decade. The increase between 1910 and 1920, forinstance, is divided by 120, the number of months in the period, andthis average monthly increase is assumed to be the same as that of thecurrent year and of other years following 1920. Until new figures areobtained in 1930, the monthly increase will continue to be estimated atthe same rate as the increase from 1910 to 1920, or about 118, 000. Thisfigure will be used in computing the per capita coffee consumption. Butwhen the 1930 figures are in, it may be found that the estimates weretoo low or too high, and the per capita figures for all interveningyears will accordingly be subject to revision. This will not amount tomuch, probably five-hundredths of a pound at most; but it is evidentthat between 1920 and 1930 all per capita consumption figures issued bythe government are to be considered as provisional to that extent atleast. In the 1920 _Statistical Abstract_ the government has revised its percapita coffee and tea figures to conform to actual instead of estimatedpopulation figures between 1910 and 1920, with the result that thesefigures are slightly different from those published in previous editionsof the _Abstract_. Figures from 1890 to 1910 have also been slightlychanged, as they were originally computed by using population figures asof June 1, whereas it is desirable to have computations based on July 1estimates to make them conform to present per capita figures. _Reviewing the 1921 Trade in the United States_ According to the latest available foreign trade summaries issued by thegovernment, the United States bought more coffee in 1921 than in anyprevious calendar year of our history, although the total imports didnot quite reach the highest fiscal-year mark. Our purchases passed the1920 mark by more than 40, 000, 000 pounds and were higher than those oftwo years ago by 3, 500, 000 pounds. But this record was made only in actual amounts shipped, as the value ofimported coffee was far below that of immediately preceding years. Coffee values, however, fell off less than the average values for allimports, the decrease for coffee being forty-three percent and for thecountry's total imports fifty-two percent. Exports of coffee were somewhat less in quantity than in 1920, and aboutthe same as in 1919; although the value, like that of imports, wasconsiderably less than in either previous year. Re-exports of foreign coffee were considerably below the 1920 mark, inboth quantity and value, and indeed were less than in several years. Theamount of tea re-exported to foreign countries was only about half thatshipped out in 1920, showing a continuation of the tendency of theUnited States to discontinue its services as a middleman, which raisedthe through traffic in tea several million pounds during the dislocationof shipping. Actual figures of amounts and values of gross coffee imports for thethree calendar years, 1919-1921, have been as follows: _Pounds_ _Value_1921 1, 340, 979, 776 $142, 808, 7191920 1, 297, 439, 310 252, 450, 6511919 1, 337, 564, 067 261, 270, 106 This represents a gain of three and three-tenths percent over 1920 inquantity and of only about one-fifth of one percent over 1919. Thedecrease in value in 1921 was forty-three percent from the figures for1920 and forty-five percent from those of 1919. Domestic exports of coffee, mostly from Hawaii and Porto Rico, amountedto 34, 572, 967 pounds valued at $5, 895, 606, as compared with 36, 757, 443pounds valued at $9, 803, 574 in the calendar year 1920, or a decrease ofsix percent in quantity and forty percent in value. In 1919 domesticexports were 34, 351, 554 pounds, having a value of $8, 816, 581, practically the same in quantity, but showing a falling off ofthirty-three percent in value. Re-exports of foreign coffee amounted to 36, 804, 684 pounds in 1921, having a value of $3, 911, 847, a decline of twenty-five percent from the49, 144, 691 pounds of 1920 and of fifty-four percent from the 81, 129, 691pounds of 1919; whereas in point of value there was a decrease offifty-six percent from 1920, which was $9, 037, 882, and of eighty-eightpercent from that of 1919, which was $16, 815, 468. The average value per pound of the imported coffee, according to thesefigures, works out at little more than half that of either 1920 or 1919, illustrating the precipitate drop of prices when the depression came on. The pound value in 1921 was 10. 6c. ; for 1920, 19. 4c. ; and for 1919, 19. 5c. These values are derived from the valuations placed on shipmentsat the point of export, the "foreign valuation" for which the muchdiscussed "American valuation" is proposed as a substitute. Theyaccordingly do not take into account costs of freight, insurance, etc. It is interesting to note that the average valuation of 10. 6c. A poundfor coffee shipped during the calendar year is a substantial drop fromthe 13. 12c. A pound that was the average for the fiscal year 1921, showing that the decline in values continued during the last half of thecalendar year. Coffee imports in 1921 continued to run in about the same well-wornchannels as in previous years, according to the figures showing thetrade with the producing countries. The United States, as heretofore, drew almost its whole supply from its neighbors on this side of theglobe; the countries to the south furnishing ninety-seven percent of thetotal entering our ports. The three chief countries of South Americacontributed eighty-five percent; and the share of Brazil alone wassixty-two and five-tenths percent. Brazil's progress to her normal pre-war position in our coffee trade israther slow, although she continues to show a gain in percentage eachyear. Formerly we obtained seventy percent to seventy-five percent ofour coffee from that country; but war conditions, diverting nearly allof Central America's production to our ports, reduced the proportion toalmost half. In 1919 this had risen to fifty-nine percent, in 1920 itwas somewhat over sixty percent, and in 1921 it attained a mark ofsixty-two and five-tenths percent. The actual amount shipped, which was839, 212, 388 pounds having a value of $77, 186, 271, was about sevenpercent higher than in 1920, which was 785, 810, 689 pounds valued at$148, 793, 593; and about the same percent higher than that of1919--787, 312, 293 pounds valued at $160, 038, 196. Although the actualpoundage showed an increase, it will be noted that the value fell offalmost one-half as compared with 1920, and more than one-half ascompared with the year before. The real feature of the year, and perhaps the most interestingdevelopment in the coffee trade of this country in recent years, is thesteady advance of Colombian coffee. In the year before the war, we obtained from our nearest South Americanneighbor 87, 176, 477 pounds of coffee valued at $11, 381, 675, which wasabout ten percent of our total imports. In 1919, the first year afterthe war, this amount was almost doubled, being 150, 483, 853 pounds with avalue of $30, 425, 162. In 1920, there was a further increase to194, 682, 616 pounds valued at $41, 557, 669, and in 1921 the high mark of249, 123, 356 pounds valued at $37, 322, 305 was reached. This was a gain oftwenty-eight percent over 1920 shipments; and, although the value wasless than in the year before, the decrease was only ten percent in ayear when the average fall in value was forty-three percent. It will be news to many people interested in the coffee trade that thevalue of Colombian coffee now imported into the United States is almosthalf the value of the Brazilian coffee--$37, 000, 000 as compared with$77, 000, 000. The number of pounds imported is a little less thanone-third the Brazilian contribution; but at the present rate ofincrease, it will pass the half mark in a few years. Colombia and Venezuela together now supply considerably more than halfas much coffee as Brazil in value, and more than one-third as much inquantity. The average value of Colombian coffee in 1921 was aboutfifteen cents a pound, as compared with eleven cents for Venezuelan, nine cents for Brazilian, ten cents for Central American, and ten andsix-tenths cents for total coffee imports. Shipments from Venezuela showed a drop in quantity of nine percent ascompared with 1920 imports, being 59, 783, 303 pounds valued at$6, 798, 709; in 1920 they were 65, 970, 954 pounds valued at $13, 802, 995;and in 1919, they were 109, 777, 831 pounds valued at $23, 163, 071. The figures relating to imports from Central America are of interest asshowing to what extent we are continuing to hold the trade of the waryears, when nearly all coffee shipped from that region came to theUnited States. Although there has probably been a considerable swingback to the trade with Europe, the 1921 figures show that a largepercent of the trade that this country gained during the war is beingretained. Imports in 1921 were considerably lower than in 1920 or in1919, but were still more than three times as heavy as in 1913, the lastyear of normal trade. The displacement of Central America's trade by the war, and the extentto which it has so far returned to old channels, are illustrated in thetable of Imports into the United States from Central America in the lastnine years on page 301. As Germany was very prominent in pre-war trade, it is likely that moreand more coffee will be diverted from the United States as Germanimports gradually increase to their old level. IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES FROMCENTRAL AMERICA _Year_ _Pounds_ _Value_1913 36, 326, 440 $4, 635, 3591914 44, 896, 856 5, 465, 8931915 71, 361, 288 8, 093, 5321916 111, 259, 125 12, 775, 9211917 148, 031, 640 15, 751, 7611918 195, 259, 628 19, 234, 1981919 131, 638, 695 19, 375, 1791920 159, 204, 341 30, 388, 5671921 118, 607, 382 12, 308, 250 Imports from Mexico in 1921 were greater by thirty-eight percent than in1920, but were less than in 1919, and were still much below the normaltrade before the war. The total was 26, 895, 034 pounds having a value of$3, 475, 122, as compared with 19, 519, 865 pounds valued at $3, 873, 217 inthe year before, and with 29, 567, 469 pounds valued at $5, 434, 884 in1919. The imports in 1913 were more than 40, 000, 000 pounds, in 1914 morethan 43, 000, 000 pounds, and in 1915 more than 52, 000, 000 pounds. West Indian coffees showed a gradual settling back to pre-war figures, which ranged from 3, 000, 000 to 12, 000, 000 pounds annually, but which in1918, the last year of the war, leaped to 52, 000, 000 pounds. In 1919they amounted to 42, 013, 841 pounds valued at $7, 575, 051; and in 1920, fell to 29, 204, 674 pounds valued at $5, 711, 993. In 1921 they continuedto drop, the total being 15, 398, 073 pounds valued at $1, 518, 784, adecrease of forty-seven and three-tenths percent in quantity. The year under review showed practically a return to normal forimportations from Aden, which up to 1917 ran about 3, 000, 000 pounds ayear. In that year the full effects of the war were felt in the Adendistrict, and shipments of coffee to this country dropped to 187, 817pounds. They rose to 432, 000 pounds in 1918; and in 1919, to 681, 290pounds valued at $141, 391. In 1920 there was a further rise to 889, 633pounds valued at $200, 505; and in 1921 they amounted to 2, 799, 824 poundsvalued at $476, 672. But this trade is of little importance compared withthat of the producing countries of this hemisphere, being less than onepercent of our total imports. Imports from the Dutch East Indies continued to decline, beingfifty-five percent less than in 1920. The total of 12, 438, 016 pounds, however, valued at $1, 771, 602, is still two or three times the normalpre-war importations. Exports of coffee in 1921--33, 389, 805 pounds of green coffee valued at$5, 590, 318 and 1, 183, 162 pounds of roasted valued at $305, 288--wereabout the same as those of the year before in quantity, although muchlower in value. The 1920 shipments were 34, 785, 574 pounds valued at$9, 223, 966 of green coffee and 1, 971, 869 pounds of roasted valued at$579, 608. In the re-export trade, shipments of coffee were lower than in severalyears, total amounts for 1921, 1920, and 1919 being 36, 804, 684 pounds, 49, 144, 091 pounds, and 81, 129, 641 pounds, and total values $3, 911, 847, $9, 037, 882, and $16, 815, 468. PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL COFFEE IMPORTS INTO UNITED STATES _Percentage of_ _increase (+) or_ _decrease (-) of_ _1921 imports_ _compared_ 1919 1920 1921 _with 1920_. / \ / \ / \From Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity ValueCentral America 9. 80 7. 40 12. 30 12. 00 8. 80 8. 60 -25. 50 -50. 00Mexico 2. 20 2. 10 1. 50 1. 50 2. 00 2. 40 +37. 80 -10. 30West Indies 3. 10 2. 90 2. 20 2. 20 1. 10 1. 00 -47. 30 -73. 40Brazil 58. 80 61. 30 60. 50 58. 90 62. 50 54. 00 +6. 80 -48. 10Colombia 11. 20 11. 60 15. 00 16. 40 18. 50 26. 10 +28. 00 -10. 20Venezuela 8. 20 8. 90 5. 10 5. 10 4. 40 4. 80 -9. 30 -50. 70Aden 0. 05 0. 05 0. 07 0. 08 0. 20 0. 30 214. 80 +137. 70Dutch East Indies 4. 20 3. 80 2. 10 2. 00 0. 90 1. 20 -55. 70 -65. 40Other countries 2. 45 1. 95 1. 23 1. 52 1. 60 1. 60 ... ... ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------- -------Total 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 +3. 40 -43. 40 Re-exports to France fell off from 16, 760, 977 pounds in 1920 to11, 429, 952 in 1921. Mexico took 3, 236, 245 pounds as compared with9, 892, 639 in the previous year, and Cuba also reduced her purchases from6, 319, 105 pounds to 2, 831, 109. Shipments to Denmark, 4, 099, 403 pounds, were practically the same as in 1920, 3, 951, 166 pounds, as were alsothose to Germany, 3, 200, 158 pounds as compared with 2, 917, 773 in 1920. In the trade of the two coffee-exporting possessions of the UnitedStates, Hawaii and Porto Rico, the 1921 figures show a considerableincrease in shipments from Hawaii to continental United States and toforeign countries, while exports from Porto Rico fell off slightly. Hawaii in 1921 sent 803, 905 pounds valued at $123, 347 to foreigncountries, which compared with 687, 597 pounds valued at $200, 180 in theyear before, and 4, 183, 046 valued at $650, 036 to continental UnitedStates, as against 1, 885, 703 pounds valued at $476, 033 in the previousyear. Porto Rico's crop, as usual, furnished the bulk of the domestic exportsof the United States to foreign countries--29, 546, 348 pounds valued at$5, 027, 741, as against 1920 exports of 31, 321, 415 pounds valued at$8, 455, 908. Shipments from Porto Rico to continental United Statesamounted to 211, 531 pounds valued at $35, 780, as against 418, 127 poundsvalued at $118, 663 in 1920. Following are the figures of re-exports of coffee by countries in thecalendar year 1921: RE-EXPORTS OF COFFEE FROM UNITED STATES, 1921 _Country_ _Pounds_Belgium 2, 717, 949Denmark 4, 099, 403France 11, 429, 952Germany 3, 200, 158Greece 539, 933Netherlands 920, 855Norway 237, 155Sweden 1, 935, 641Canada 1, 037, 628Mexico 3, 236, 245Cuba 2, 831, 109Other Countries 4, 618, 656 ---------- Total 36, 804, 684 Per capita consumption of coffee in continental United States showed aslight increase during the calendar year 1921 over that of 1920, thefigure being 12. 09 pounds as against 11. 70 for the previous year. Thiscalendar-year figure compares with the fiscal-year figure of 12. 21pounds, indicating that imports during the last half of 1920 weresomewhat heavier than during the last half of 1921. The various items for the two calendar years 1920 and 1921 are shown asfollows: 1921 1920 _Calendar year_, _Calendar year_, (_pounds_) (_pounds_)(a) Total imports into U. S. 1, 340, 979, 776 1, 297, 439, 310(b) Imports into non-contiguous territory from foreign countries 7, 410 27 ------------- ------------- (c) (a) minus (b) 1, 340, 972, 366 1, 297, 439, 283(d) Total exports from U. S. 34, 572, 967 36, 757, 443(e) Exports from non-contiguous territory to foreign countries 30, 363, 098 32, 028, 832 ---------- ---------- (f) (d) minus (e) 4, 209, 869 4, 728, 611(g) Total re-exports from U. S. 36, 804, 684 49, 144, 691(h) Re-exports from non-contiguous territory to foreign countries ... 20, 008 --------- ---------- (i) (g) minus (h) 36, 804, 684 49, 124, 683(j) Imports into continental U. S. From non-contiguous territory 4, 394, 577 2, 303, 830(k) Exports to non-contiguous territory from continental U. S. 798, 644 972, 303 ---------- --------- (l) (j) minus (k) 3, 595, 933 1, 331, 527Net consumption, continental U. S. : (c) minus (f) minus (i) plus (l) 1, 303, 553, 746 1, 244, 917, 516Population, July 1 107, 833, 279 106, 418, 170Per capita consumption, 1921 12. 09 11. 70 [Illustration] CHAPTER XXIII HOW GREEN COFFEES ARE BOUGHT AND SOLD _Buying coffee in the producing countries--Transporting coffee to the consuming markets--Some record coffee cargoes shipped to the United States--Transport over seas--Java coffee "ex-sailing vessels"--Handling coffee at New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco--The coffee exchanges of Europe and the United States--Commission men and brokers--Trade and exchange contracts for delivery--Important rulings affecting coffee trading--Some well known green coffee marks_ In moving green coffee from the plantations to the consuming countries, the shipments pass through much the same trade channels as otherforeign-grown food products. In general, the coffee goes from planter totrader in the shipping ports; thence to the exporter, who sells it to animporter in the consuming country; he in turn passing it on, to aroaster, to be prepared for consumption. The system varies in somerespects in the different countries, according to the development ofeconomic and transportation methods; but, broadly considered, this isthe general method. _Buying Coffee in the Producing Countries_ The marketing of coffee begins when the berries are swept up from thedrying patios, put in gunny sacks, and sent to the ports of export to besampled and shipped. In Brazil, four-wheeled wagons drawn by six mules, or two-wheeled carts carry it to the nearest railroad or river. Brazil, as the world's largest producer of coffee, has the most highlydeveloped buying system. Coffee cultivation has been the chiefagricultural pursuit in that country for many years; and large amountsof government and private capital have been invested in growing, transportation, storage, and ship-loading facilities, particularly inthe state of São Paulo. The usual method in Brazil is for the _fazendeiro_ (coffee-grower) orthe _commisario_ (commission merchant) to load his shipments of coffeeat an interior railroad station. If his consignee is in Santos, hegenerally deposits the bill of lading with a bank and draws a draft, usually payable after thirty days, against the consignee. When theconsignee accepts the draft, he receives the bill of lading, and is thenpermitted to put the coffee in a warehouse. _Storing at Santos_ At Santos most of the storing is done in the steel warehouses of theCity Dock Company, a private corporation whose warehouses extend forthree miles along the waterfront at one end of the town. Railroadswitches lead to these warehouses, so that the coffee is brought tostorage in the same cars in which it was originally loaded up-country. The warehouses are leased by _commisarios_. There are also many oldwarehouses, built of wood, still operated in Santos, and to these thecoffee is transferred from the railroad station either by mule carts orby automobile trucks. At the receiving warehouses, samples of each bag are taken; the tester, or sampler, standing at the door with a sharp tool, resembling acheese-tester, which he thrusts into the center of the bag as the menpass him with the bags of coffee on their heads, removing a doublehandful of the contents. The samples are divided into two parts; one forthe seller, and one that the _commisario_ retains until he has sold theconsignment of coffee covered by that particular lot of samples. [Illustration: THE LAST SAMPLE BEFORE EXPORT, SANTOS] _The Disappearing Ensaccador_ In the old days it was the custom every morning for the _ensaccadores_, or baggers, and the exporters or their brokers, to visit the_commisarios'_ warehouses and to bargain for lots of coffee made up bythe _commisario_. In the Santos market, until recent years, the _ensaccador_, orcoffee-bagger, often stood between the _commisario_ and exporter. WhenAmerican importing houses began to establish their own buying offices inthe Brazilian ports (about 1910) to deal direct with the _fazendeiro_and the _commisario_, the gradual elimination of the _ensaccador_ wasbegun. Today he has entirely disappeared from the Santos market, and isdisappearing from Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, and Victoria. Coffee reaches Santos in a mixed condition; that is, it has not beengraded, or separated according to its various qualities. This is thework of the _commisario_, who puts each shipment into "lots" in new"official" bags, each of which bears a mark stating that the contentsare São Paulo growth. If the coffee is offered for sale by the owner, the _commisario_ will then put it on the "street, " the section of Santosgiven over to coffee trading. The _commisario_ works with samples of the coffee he has to offer andonly puts out one set at a time. He names his "asking" price, knownlocally as the _pedido_, which is the maximum rate he expects to get, but seldom receives. A set of samples may be shown to twenty-five orthirty exporting houses in a day, one at a time. When the sample is inthe hands of a firm for consideration, no other exporter has the rightto buy the lot even at the _pedido_ price, and the _commisario_ can notaccept other offers until he has refused the bid. On the other hand, ifa house refuses to give up the samples, it is understood that it iswilling to pay the _pedido_ price. The firm first offering a priceacceptable to the _commisario's_ broker gets the lot, even though otherhouses have offered the same price. When a lot is sold, the samples are turned over to the successfulbidder, and he then asks the _commisario_ for larger samples forcomparison with the first set. [Illustration: STAMPING BAGS FOR EXPORT, SANTOS] _Commisarios Make as High as Nine Percent_ Having sold the coffee of a given planter, the _commisario_ often getsas much as nine percent for his share of the transaction. Unless thebags have been furnished to the planter at a good rental, the coffeemust be transferred to the _commisario's_ bags; and for this the planterpays a commission. [Illustration: COFFEE FROM THE FAZENDAS IS DELIVERED AT THECOMMISSARIOS' WAREHOUSES IN RIO] [Illustration: INTERIOR OF A SANTOS CLEANING AND GRADING WAREHOUSE] [Illustration: PREPARING BRAZIL COFFEE FOR EXPORT] [Illustration: GRADING COFFEE AT SANTOS] Formerly the coffee, being rebagged by the _ensaccador_, was manipulatedin what is called ligas; that is, mixing several neutral grades fromvarious lots to create an artificial grade; or, more properly speaking, a "type, " desirable for trading on the New York market. _Grading and Testing in Brazil_ Having bought a lot of coffee, the exporter's next step is to grade andto test it. Grading is generally done in the morning and late afternoon, the hours from one to half-past four being devoted to making offers. Theafternoon grading is done by sight. The morning examinations are morethorough, some progressive exporting houses even cup-testing thesamples. Samples are compared with house standards, and with therequirements that have been cabled from the home office in the consumingcountry. Some of the coffee is roasted to obtain a standard by which all"chops" (varieties) are then graded and marked according toquality--fine, good, fair, or poor. Quality is further classified by thenumerals from two to eight, which standards have been established on theNew York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, and are described farther on in thischapter. Some traders also use the terms large or small bean; fair, good, or poor roasters; soft or hard bean; light or dark; and similardescriptive terms. When a lot is ready for shipment overseas, the _commisario_ stamps eachbag with his identifying mark, to which the buyer or exporter adds hisbrand. If the _commisario_ is ordered before eleven in the morning toship a lot of coffee, he must be paid before three in the afternoon ofthe same day; if he receives the order after eleven, payment need not bemade before three in the afternoon of the following day. Generally theterms of sale are full settlement in thirty days, less discount at therate of six percent per annum for the unexpired time, if paid before theperiod of grace is up. _Dispatching and Capitazias_ The exporter collects his money by drawing a draft against his client ondeposit of bill of lading, cashing the draft through an exchange brokerwho deducts his brokerage fee. The exporter must obtain a consularinvoice, a shipping permit from both federal and state authorities, andpay an export tax, before the coffee goes aboard the ship. This processis known as "dispatching, " while the dock company's charges are known as_capitazias_. In practically all coffee-growing sections the small planter is helpedfinancially by the owners of processing plants or by the exportingfirms. The larger planters may even obtain advances on their crops fromthe importing houses in New York, Havre, Hamburg, or other foreigncenters. [Illustration: THE TEST BY CUPS, SANTOS] _The Exchange at Santos_ A new coffee exchange began business at Santos on May 1, 1917, sittingwith the Coffee Brokers Board of Control. This Board consists of fivecoffee brokers, four elected annually at a general meeting of thebrokers of Santos, and one chosen annually by the president of the stateof São Paulo. Among the duties of the Board are the classification andvaluation of coffee, adjustment of differences, etc. [Illustration: WHERE COFFEES ARE SIGHT-GRADED BEFORE BEING SUBMITTED TOCUP TESTS] [Illustration: HAND & RAND BUILDING: FIRST FLOOR, STORAGE; SECOND FLOOR, OFFICES] [Illustration: NEW YORK COFFEE IMPORTERS' MODEL ESTABLISHMENT AT SANTOS] [Illustration: PACK-MULE TRANSPORT IN VENEZUELA] _Transporting Coffee to Points of Export_ Transportation methods from plantation to shipside naturally vary withlocal topographical and economic conditions. In Venezuela, the bulk ofthe coffee is transported by pack-mule from the plantations and shippingtowns to the head of the railroad system, and thence by rail to theCatatumbo River, where it is carried in small steamers down the riverand across Lake Maracaibo to the city of Maracaibo. In Colombia, coffeeis sent down the Magdalena River aboard small steamers direct to theseaboard. In Central America, transportation is one of the most seriousproblems facing the grower. The roads are poor, and in the rainy seasonare sometimes deep with mud; so much so that it may require a week todrive a wagon-load of coffee to the railroad or the river shippingpoint. [Illustration: COFFEE-CARRYING CART, GUATEMALA] _Buying Coffee in Abyssinia_ Coffee is generally grown in Abyssinia by small farmers, who mostlyfinance themselves and sell the crop to native brokers, who in turn sellit to representatives of foreign houses in the larger trading centers. Trading methods between farmer and broker are not much more than the oldsystem of barter. In the southwestern section, where the Abyssiniancoffee grows wild, transport to the nearest trading center is by muletrain, and not infrequently by camel back. In the Harar district, thewomen of the farmers living near Harar the market center, carry thecoffee in long shallow baskets on their heads to the native brokers. Inthe more remote places the coffee farmer waits for the broker to call onhim. From the town of Harar the coffee is transported by mule or cameltrain to Dire-Daoua, whence it is shipped by rail to Jibuti, to be sentby direct steamers to Europe, or across the Gulf of Aden to Aden inArabia. [Illustration: COFFEE-LADEN OXEN FORDING STREAM, COLOMBIA] Ten different languages are spoken in Harar. In order successfully toengage in the coffee business there, it is necessary either to becomeproficient in all these tongues, or to engage some one who is. [Illustration: TRANSPORTING COFFEE BY MULEBACK IN THE CITY OF CUCUTA, COLOMBIA] [Illustration: Schooner from Encontrados to Maracaibo] [Illustration: One of the lake and river steamers] [Illustration: COFFEE CARGO CARRIERS THAT OPERATE ON LAKE MARACAIBO ANDTRIBUTARY RIVERS] [Illustration: DONKEY TRANSPORT TRAIN FOR COFFEE IN MEXICO] [Illustration: COFFEE TRANSPORT IN MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA] When the coffee is brought, partially cleaned, into Harar by donkey ormule train, it is first taken to the open air custom-house (coffeeexchange) in the center of the town, where a ten-percent duty (incoffee) is exacted by the local government, and one Abyssinian dollar(fifty cents) is added for every thirty-seven and a half pounds, thislatter being Ras Makonnen's share. As soon as the native dealer hasreleased to him what remains of his shipment, he takes it out of thecustom-house enclosure and disposes of it through the native brokers, who have their little "office" booths stretching in a long line up thestreet just outside the custom-house entrance. [Illustration: DONKEY COFFEE TRANSPORT ON THE WAY FROM HARAR TODIRE-DAOUA] There, a brokerage charge of one piaster per bag is paid by the buyer, and the coffee then becomes the property of the European merchant. Insome cases it is put through a further cleaning process; but usually itis shipped to Jibuti or Aden uncleaned. Arriving at Jibuti, there is aone-percent ad valorem duty to pay. At Aden, there is another tax of oneanna (two cents) to be paid to the British authorities. [Illustration: COFFEE CAMELS IN THE CUSTOM-HOUSE, HARAR] Since 1914, however, Abyssinian coffee has been exported largely throughthe Sudan, a much shorter and less expensive trip than that to AdisAbeba and Jibuti. Now the coffee is carried by pack-train to Gambela onthe Sobat River; and thence by river steamer to Khartoum, where it isloaded on railroad trains and sent to Port Sudan on the Red Sea. _Buying Coffee in Arabia_ Most of the coffee in Arabia is grown in almost inaccessible mountainvalleys by native Arabs, and is transported by camel caravan to Aden orHodeida, where it is sold to agents of foreign importing houses. Mocha, once the principal exporting city for coffee, was abandoned as a coffeeport early in the nineteenth century, chiefly because of the difficultyof keeping the roadstead of the harbor free from sandbars. [Illustration: SELLING COFFEE AT ADEN BY TAPPING HANDS UNDER COVER] In Aden there is a kind of open-air coffee "exchange" (as in Harar)where the camel trains unload their coffee from the interior. TheEuropean coffee merchant does not frequent it, but is represented bynative brokers, through whom all coffee business is transacted. Thisnative broker is an important person, and one of the most picturesquecharacters in Aden. He receives a commission of one and a half percentfrom both buyer and seller. Certain grades of coffee are purchasableonly in Maria Theresa dollars; so a knowledge of exchange values isessential to the broker's calling. [Illustration: PACKING AND TRANSPORTING COFFEE AT ADEN] In making coffee sales, the negotiations between buyer and seller arecarried on by means of finger taps under a handkerchief. The would-bepurchaser reaches out his hand to the seller under cover of the clothand makes his bid in the palm of the seller's hand by tapping hisfingers. The code is well understood by both. Its advantage lies in thefact that a possible purchaser is enabled to make his bid in thepresence of other buyers without the latter knowing what he is offering. _Buying Coffee in Netherlands India_ In the Dutch East Indies cultivation of _Coffea arabica_ has diminished, the decay of the industry beginning when Brazil and Central Americabecame the dominant factors in the green market. Not so many years agocoffee growing and coffee trading were virtually government monopolies. Under government control each native family was required to keep fromsix hundred to a thousand coffee trees in bearing, and to selltwo-fifths of the crop to the government. It was also compulsory todeliver the coffee cleaned and sorted to the official godowns, and tosell the crop at fixed prices--nine to twelve florins per picul previousto 1874, although forty to fifty florins were offered in the openmarket. Later, the price was advanced; until about 1900 the governmentpaid fifteen florins per picul for coffee in parchment. All governmentcoffee was sold at public auction in Batavia and Padang, these salesbeing held four times a year in Batavia and three times a year inPadang. Coffee from private estates, not under government control and operatedby European corporations or individuals, has now succeeded thegovernment monopoly coffee. Private-estate crops are sold by publictender, usually on or about January 28 of each year. If the owners donot get the price they desire in Batavia or Padang, the coffee is sentto Amsterdam for disposal. Some coffees always are sent to Holland;because the directors of the company get a commission on all salesthere, and also because the coffees are prepared especially for theDutch market. The Hollander wants his coffee blue-green in color. [Illustration: COFFEE CAMEL TRAIN ARRIVING AT THE HODEIDA CUSTOM-HOUSEFROM THE INTERIOR OF YEMEN] [Illustration: LOADING BY THE OLD-STYLE HAND-LABOR METHOD] [Illustration: HERE THE AUTOMATIC BELT POURS INTO THE HOLD A CONTINUOUSSTREAM OF BAGS OF COFFEE] [Illustration: OLD AND NEW METHODS OF LOADING COFFEE AT SANTOS] _Loading Coffee at Santos_ In Brazil, when the coffee has been rebagged and marked by both the_commisario_ and the exporter, the coffee is again sampled. Thesesamples are compared with those by which the purchase was made; and ifright, the bags are turned over to the dock-master, who sets hislaborers to work loading ship. Two methods are used at Santos. The oldfamiliar style of hand labor is still in evidence--men of allnationalities, but largely Spaniards and Portuguese, take the bags ontheir heads and carry them in single file up the gangplanks and into thehold of the ship. The dock company, however, operates a huge automaticloading machine, or belt, which saves a great deal of time and labor. Inother Brazilian ports all loading is done by manual labor. [Illustration: A COFFEE FREIGHTER ON THE CAUCA RIVER, COLOMBIA] Recently, at the suggestion of the Commercial Association of Santos, theminister of transport of São Paulo ordered that coffees destined forlegitimate traders should be transported during four days of the week, and those of a speculative nature during the remaining two days. Apremium of as much as five milreis a bag has been paid by speculators inorder to obtain immediate transport. _Shipping Coffee from Colombia_ As Colombia ranks next to Brazil in coffee, a brief description of itstransportation methods, which are unique, should be of interest tocoffee shippers. A goodly portion of Colombia's coffee exports comesfrom the district around the little city of Cucuta, whose official nameis San José de Cucuta. It is the capital of North Santander, is situatedin a beautiful valley of the Colombian Andes mountains that is wateredby several rivers, and is only about a half-hour's ride by motor fromthe Venezuelan frontier. Due to its geographical position, Cucuta serves as the most convenientinland port and commercial center for most of the department of NorthSantander. For the same reason, it is forced to depend on Maracaibo asits seaport, even though the Venezuelan government has a number ofannoying laws controlling the commerce thus conducted. The Colombianports of Baranquilla and Cartagena on the Atlantic are too distant fromCucuta to be available; and a large part of the traffic would have to bedone on mule-back across one of the most formidable ranges of theColombian Andes, involving high cost and delay in transportation. Yetits frontier position makes it possible for Cucuta to have importantcommercial relations with the neighboring republic of Venezuela, and toenjoy exceptional privileges from the Colombian central government. [Illustration: COFFEE STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA, COLOMBIA] A cargo of coffee leaving Cucuta has to go through the following stepson its way to a foreign market: 1. From Cucuta, it travels thirty-five miles by railroad to PuertoVillamizar, a Colombian river port on the Zulia river. 2. At Puerto Villamizar it is loaded into small, flat-bottomed, steellighters that are taken to Puerto Encontrados by man power. PuertoEncontrados, belonging to Venezuela, is on the Catatumbo river; and thetrip from Villamizar takes from two to four days, depending on the depthof water in the river. During high water, river steamers are also used, and make the trip in less than a day. 3. At Encontrados the cargo is loaded on river steamboats more or lessof the Mississippi river type, which take it to Maracaibo, Venezuela. Coffee is also carried to Maracaibo by small sailing vessels. 4. At Maracaibo it is taken by ocean vessel, which either carries itdirect to New York or to Curaçao, Dutch West Indies, where it istranshipped to steamers plying between New York and Curaçao. It isobvious that the many transhipments that coffee coming from Cucuta hasto undergo greatly retard its arrival at a foreign port; and a cargosometimes takes a month or more to reach New York. [Illustration: OLD AND NEW METHODS EMPLOYED IN LOADING HEAVY CARGO ONTHE SANTA CECILIA] Coffee from Cucuta is stored in the Venezuelan custom-house, from whichit must be shipped for export within forty-five days, or the shipperruns the risk of having it declared by the Venezuelan government for_consumo_ (home consumption) at a prohibitory tariff. Arrangements canbe made at considerable cost to have the coffee taken to a privatewarehouse; but it is no longer possible to make up the chops inMaracaibo, as was done formerly with all the Cucutas. The Venezuelancustoms will not even allow the Maracaibo forwarding agent the samechops, as a general rule. Special permission must be obtained to changeany bags that are stained or damaged. Schooners from Curaçao have, inthe past, carried a great deal of the Colombian coffee to Curaçao. _Port Handling Charges in Brazil_ It is almost impossible to list all the various charges for the handlingof coffee at the port of shipment in Brazil, the figures not beingaccessible to outsiders. Some figures, such as warehouse charges andvarious forms of tax, are obtainable, however. For every bag of coffeewhich is in warehouse over forty-eight hours from the time of itsarrival from the railroad there is a charge of two hundred reis (aboutfive cents). In São Paulo there is an export tax of nine percent advalorem levied by the state, and in Rio the state tax is eight and ahalf percent. Then there is a surtax of five francs per bag in Santos, and of three francs in Rio, which goes toward defraying the expenses ofvalorization. For every bag of coffee that passes over the dock the dockcompany charges one hundred reis (about two and a half cents). _Some Record Coffee Cargoes_ With its superior loading and shipping facilities Brazil has been ableto send extraordinarily large cargoes of coffee to the United Statessince the development of large modern freight-carrying steamships. While75, 000 or 90, 000 bag cargoes were of common occurrence just prior to theoutbreak of the World War, several shipments of more than 100, 000 bagswere made in the years 1915, 1916, and 1917. Up to January, 1919, therecord was held by the steamship Bjornstjerne Bjornson which unloaded136, 424 bags at New York on November 17, 1915. Other shipments of morethan 100, 000 bags were by the Rossetti (December, 1900), 125, 918 bags;the Wascana (March 3, 1915), 108, 781 bags; the Wagama (October, 1916), 105, 650 bags; the American (October 23, 1916), 124, 212 bags; the SantaCecilia (November 2, 1916), 105, 500 bags, and the Dakotan (January 6, 1917), which carried 136, 387 bags. _Transport Overseas_ To bring green coffee to the consuming markets, both steamships andsailing vessels are used, although the latter have almost wholly givenway to the speedier and more capacious modern steamers. Because of itslarge consumption, a constant stream of vessels is always on the way tothe markets of the United States. The majority of these unload at NewYork, which in 1920 received about fifty-nine percent of all the coffeeimported into this country. New Orleans came next, with abouttwenty-five percent; and San Francisco third, with about twelve percent. The approximate time consumed in transporting green coffee overseas fromthe principal producing countries to the United States by freightsteamships is shown in the table in the next column. In some cases, that of Guadeloupe, for instance, the vessels stop at anumber of ports, and this lengthens the time. This is also true ofvessels running on the west coast of Central America and of those fromAden. During the World War, one shipment of Timor coffee consumed three and ahalf years coming from Java to New York. It was aboard the Germansteamship Brisbane, which cleared from Batavia, July 4, 1914, andfearing capture, took refuge in Goa, Portuguese India, where it layuntil Portugal joined the Allies. Then the Portuguese seized the vessel, and turned it over to the British, who moved it to Bombay. Here thecargo was finally transhipped to the City of Adelaide, reaching New Yorkin January, 1918, three and a half years after the coffee left Batavia. TRANSPORTATION TIME FOR COFFEE[J] Rio de Janeiro to New York 11 to 16 daysSantos " " " 14 to 18 "Bahia " " " 17 "Victoria " " " 19 "Maracaibo " " " 10 "Puerto Cabello " " " 10 "La Guaira " " " 8 "Costa Rica " " " 10 "Salvador " " " 18 "Mexico " " " 9 "Guatemala " " " 11 "(PuertoBarrios)Colombia " " " 10 "Haiti " " " 7 "Porto Rico " " " 5 "Guadeloupe " " " 10 "Hawaii " " " 28 "(via P. C. )Java " " " 30 "(via Suez)Sumatra " " " 30 "(via Suez)Singapore " " " 35 "(via Suez)India " " " 35 "(via Suez)Aden " " " 45 "(via Suez)Porto Rico " New Orleans 7 "Guadeloupe " " " 10 "Haiti " " " 7 "Guatemala " " " 8 "Costa Rica " " " 7 "Colombia " " " 6 "Mexico " " " 4 "Salvador " " " 15 "Guatemala " San Francisco 10 "Costa Rica " " " 18 "Salvador " " " 14 "Mexico " " " 8 "Hawaii " " " 8 "Singapore " " " 30 "India " " " 33 " [J] The American Legion and the Southern Cross, of the Munson Line, makethe journey from Rio de Janeiro to New York in eleven days. These arefreight-and-passenger vessels, and have carried as many as 5, 000 bags ofcoffee at one time. _Java Coffee "Ex-Sailing Ships"_ Up to 1915 it was the custom to ship considerable Java coffee to NewYork in slow-going sailing vessels of the type in favor a hundred yearsago. Java coffees "ex-sailing ships" always commanded a premium becauseof the natural sweating they experienced in transit. Attempts to imitatethis natural sweating process by steam-heating the coffees that reachedNew York by the faster-going steamship lines, and interference therewithby the pure-food authorities, caused a falling off in the demand for"light, " "brown, " or "extra brown" Dutch East Indian growths; andgradually the picturesque sailing vessels were seen no more in New Yorkharbor. At the end they were mostly Norwegian barks of the type of theGaa Paa. It usually took from four to five months to make the trip from Padang orBatavia to New York. Crossing the Equator twice, first in the IndianOcean, then in the South Atlantic, the trip was more than equal tocircumnavigating the earth in our latitude. In the hold of the vesselthe cargo underwent a sweating that gave to the coffee a rare shade ofcolor and that, in the opinion of coffee experts, greatly enhanced itsflavor and body. The captain always received a handsome gratuity if thecoffee turned "extra brown. " [Illustration: UNLOADING JAVA COFFEE FROM A SAILING VESSEL AT A BROOKLYNDOCK The ship is the Gaa Paa, which made the voyage from Padang in fivemonths in 1912] The demand for sweated, or brown, Javas probably had its origin in thegood old days when the American housewife bought her coffee green androasted it herself in a skillet over a quick fire. Coffee slightly brownwas looked upon with favor; for every good housewife in those days knewthat green coffee changed its color in aging, and that of course agedcoffee was best. And so it came about that Java coffees were preferably shipped inslow-going Dutch sailing vessels, because it was desirable to have along voyage under the hot tropical sun suitably to sweat the coffee onits way to market and to have it a handsome brown on arrival. Thesweating frequently produced a musty flavor which, if not toopronounced, was highly prized by experts. When the ship left Padang orBatavia the hatches were battened down, not to be opened again until NewYork harbor was reached. Many of the old-style Dutch sailing vessels were built somewhat afterthe pattern of the Goed Vrouw, which Irving tells us was a hundred feetlong, a hundred feet wide, and a hundred feet high. Sometimes she sailedforward, sometimes backward, and sometimes sideways. After dark, thelights were put out, all sail was taken in, and all hands turned in forthe night. The last of the coffee-carrying sailing vessels to reach the UnitedStates was the bark Padang, which arrived in New York on Christmas day, 1914. [Illustration: THE BUSH TERMINAL SYSTEM OF DOCKS AND WAREHOUSES Much of the green coffee received in New York is discharged and storedhere, at one of the most modern waterfront and terminal developments inthe world] [Illustration: AIRPLANE VIEW OF NEW YORK DOCK COMPANY'S PIERS ANDWAREHOUSES This is the Fulton Street section of the Brooklyn waterfront, where morethan half the coffee received in New York is unloaded. The storagewarehouses are to be seen back of the piers] [Illustration: RECEIVING PIERS FOR COFFEE AT NEW YORK] _Handling Coffee at New York_ The handling of the cargoes of coffee when they arrive at theirdestination is a source of wonder to the layman. There is probably nobetter place to study the handling of coffee than in New York City--theworld's largest coffee center. Millions of bags of coffee pass intoconsumption every year through its docks, and scarcely a day goes bywhen there are not one or more ships discharging coffee upon the dockslining the Brooklyn shore, the center of the coffee-warehouse districtfor New York. In 1921, the New York Dock Company alone had 159 bondedwarehouses with a storage capacity of some 65, 000, 000 cubic feet; and 34piers, the longest measuring 1, 193 feet and containing more than 175, 000square feet. These piers have a total deck space of sixty-one and a halfacres. The wharfage distance is more than nine and a third miles. Morethan twenty steamship lines berth their vessels there regularly, andmany of them are coffee ships. The warehouses have direct connectionswith all the principal railway trunk lines running into the New Yorkdistrict; and the whole property of the company stretches along thewaterfront opposite lower Manhattan for about two and one-half miles. Although coffee is admitted to the United States free of duty, it issubject to practically the same formalities as dutiable goods. Beforethe cargo can be "broken out, " a government permit to "land and deliver"must be placed in the hands of the customs inspector on the dock. Thisdone, the ship's samples, which consist of the samples sent by theexporter to the importer, are taken to the United States appraiser'soffice for inspection, and are then delivered to the importer'srepresentative. Meanwhile the shipping documents covering the cargo, including bills of lading and consular invoices, have been sent to thepost office for delivery to banks and bankers' agents, who check anddeliver them to the customs officers for entry. The government requiresthat this entry shall be made within forty-eight hours of the vessel'sarrival, else the cargo will be stored in a United States bondedwarehouse under what is known as "general order" which makes theconsignee liable for storage and cartage charges. [Illustration: UNLOADING COFFEE AT ONE OF THE COVERED PIERS OF THE NEWYORK DOCK COMPANY] When a coffee ship arrives in New York, not much time is lost indischarging the cargo. As soon as the vessel is securely moored to thepier, and the government's permission to "land and deliver" is secured, the hatches are removed, the coffee is hauled out of the hold by blockand tackle and swung off in slings to the pier, where dock laborerscarry the bags to their proper places. If each cargo consisted of oneconsignment to a single importer, and contained only one variety ofcoffee, unloading would be a comparatively simple affair. In generalpractise, however, the cargoes consist of a large number of consignmentsand a variety of grades, necessitating a careful sorting as unloadingprogresses. Accordingly, even before the unloading begins, the dock ischalked off into squares, each square having a number, or symbol, representing a particular consignment. As the bags come up out of thehold, the foreman of the laborers, who has a key to the brand marks onthe bags, indicates where each bag is to be placed. Coffee to bereshipped, either by lighter or rail, is heaped in piles by itself untilloaded on to the lighters or freight cars. [Illustration: STORING COFFEE BY MARKS AND CHOPS] [Illustration: HOISTING COFFEE INTO THE STORAGE WAREHOUSES ADJOINING THEBROOKLYN PIERS] [Illustration: RECEIVING AND STORING COFFEE AT NEW YORK] The next step is to transfer the cargo to the warehouse, and toseparate each consignment according to the various kinds of coffeemaking up the invoices. When the importer gives his orders to store, hesends also a list of the different kinds of coffees in his consignment, called "chops" by the trade, with directions how to divide the shipment. To do this, the floor of the warehouse is chalked off into squares, aswas done on the dock; but now the numbers, or symbols, in each spaceindicate the chops in each invoice, or consignment. [Illustration: TESTER AT WORK, BUSH TERMINAL, NEW YORK] [Illustration: LOADING LIGHTERS, BUSH DOCKS, NEW YORK] The importer naturally is eager to sample the newly arrived coffee. Sampling is generally done by trained warehouse employees, who areequipped with coffee triers, sampling instruments resemblingapple-corers, which they thrust into the bags. The instrument is hollow, and the coffee flows into the hand of the sampler, who places eachsample in a paper bag which is marked to indicate the chop. The totalsample of each chop usually consists of about ten pounds of coffee, which the importer compares with the exporter's sample. When sampling for trade delivery, about two-thirds of the bags in a chopare tried. But when sampling for delivery on Coffee Exchange contract, every bag must be tested, and care taken that each chop is uniform incolor, kind, and quality. Coffee for Exchange delivery must be stored ina warehouse licensed by the Exchange; and the warehouseman isresponsible for the uniformity of grade of each chop. When approximately ninety percent of the cargo has been unloaded andstored, the warehouse issues what has become known as the "last bagnotice. " In the majority of cases the coffee has been sold beforearrival; and on receipt of the last bag notice, the importer cantransfer ownership of the coffee and save interest. In a cargo of 75, 000 to 100, 000 bags of coffee that have been hurriedlyloaded in the producing country and unloaded at destination in equalhaste, a small portion of the cargo is almost certain to be damaged. Generally the damage is slight. If a bag is torn or stained, the coffeeis placed in a new bag. If the contents have become mildewed, thedamaged portion is taken to a warehouse for reconditioning; while thesound coffee is thoroughly aired to remove the odor and is then placedin a clean bag. The reconditioned lot is put into a separate package andforwarded to the buyer with a "reconditioning statement" that shows whathas been done. [Illustration: THE NEW TERMINAL SYSTEM ON STATEN ISLAND On the left are three piers of the Pouch Terminal at Clifton; on theright, four of the American Dock Terminal at Tompkinsville; and betweenthese are thirteen piers of the new Municipal Terminal] Bags that have become torn in transit, and parts of their contentsspilled, are called "slacks. " These are weighed as they arrive on thedock by a licensed public weigher; and a sufficient quantity of thecoffee remaining on the floor of the ship's hold is put into the bag tomake it of the proper weight. The expense of reconditioning andrebagging is generally borne by the marine insurance companies. When theentire cargo is unloaded, and the slacks and bad-order bags are weighedand marked, the warehouseman tallies up the records of his clerks, andrenders a corrected chop list to the consignee. [Illustration: MOTOR TRACTOR MOVING COFFEE AT THE BUSH TERMINAL DOCKS, BROOKLYN] _Electric Tractors and Trailers_ Another district along the water front of Brooklyn where coffee isdischarged in large quantities is that between Thirty-third andForty-fourth Streets, south Brooklyn, occupied by the Bush TerminalStores. This plant is laid out with railroad spurs on every pier, sothat its own transfer cars, or the cars of the railroads running out ofNew York, can be run into the sheds of the docks where coffee is beingdischarged from the ships. The methods employed by the Bush Terminal aresimilar to those just described, except that all the coffee is handledby electrically-manipulated cars or trucks, in some instances thepowerful little tractors hauling many "trailers" to various parts of theyards. _Handling Charges at New York_ Before the World War, it cost approximately one-half cent a bag tohandle green coffee from the vessel to warehouse and in storage in NewYork. The rate advanced nearly one hundred percent in the latter part of1919, then dropped slightly, although it is still (1922) above thepre-war price. Other handling charges are shown in the followingtabulation: COFFEE HANDLING CHARGES AT NEW YORK Pre-war prices Present prices Cents per bag Cents per bag (132 lbs. ) (132 lbs. )Storage 3 to 4 5 to 8Labor 3 to 4 5 to 8Sampling for damage 1 1Cleaning 35 20Dumping and mixing 10 15Dumping and airing 10 15Shoveling and airing 10 15Transferring coffee from floor to floor 4 8Marking 1 1Labor at vessel $9 per M $12. 50 to $15 per M The warehousemen in 1919 charged four cents per bag for loading intorailroad cars. This charge was discontinued in 1921. The cost ofweighing increased from two and one-half cents per bag in 1914 to fourand one-half cents in 1919, and then dropped to the present price ofthree to three and one-half cents. Other handling charges at the port ofNew York are: OTHER HANDLING CHARGES, 1922 Cents per bag (132 lbs. )Drawing samples, each 10 lbs 17 to 20Grading for variation 4Matching in 12Reducing or evening off slack 9Transferring to new bag 10Trucking to weigher in store 3Collecting and preparing sweepings 25Delivering sample below Canal Street 75Each additional sample 10 to 15New bags 15Old bags 6 [Illustration: UNLOADING COFFEE WITH MODERN CONVEYOR, NEW ORLEANS] A plan intended to cut down handling costs in New York, and to expeditedeliveries, was inaugurated by the National Coffee Roasters Associationat the beginning of 1920. The Association formed a freight-forwardingbureau, and invited members to have their coffee shipments handledthrough the bureau. The charges for forwarding direct importations aretwo cents per bag. Cartage charges vary from six to eighteen cents perhundred pounds. Claims are handled without charge. _The Seven Stages of Transportation_ The foregoing story has taken the reader through the seven most directroutes that lead from the plantation to the roaster: first, from thepatio to the railroad or river; then to the city of export; into thewarehouses there; then into the steamers; out of them, and upon thewharf at the port of destination; from the wharf into the warehouses;and, finally, from the warehouses to the roasting rooms. It will beunderstood that in some instances where the plantation is hidden away inthe mountains, it is necessary to relay the coffee; and again, at thisend, the coffee is very often transhipped. In such cases, more handlingsare required. [Illustration: UNLOADING A COFFEE SHIP BY BLOCK AND TACKLE AT THE PORTOF NEW ORLEANS] [Illustration: IN FOREGROUND--LOADING COFFEE BY MEANS OF AN AUTOMATICTRAVELING-BELT CONVEYOR, ON GOVERNMENT BARGES FOR ST. LOUIS] [Illustration: COFFEE-HANDLING SCENES ON THE WHARVES AT NEW ORLEANS] _Handling Coffee at New Orleans_ Coffee ships are unloaded in New Orleans, the second coffee port in theUnited States, in about the same general manner as in New York, with theimportant exception that the block-and-tackle system for transferringthe bags from the ship to the dock has been largely supplanted by theautomatic traveling-belt conveyor system. Another notable feature is NewOrleans' steel-roofed piers, whereon the coffee can be stored untilready for shipment to the interior. Because of the class oflabor--mostly negro--employed in unloading ships, New Orleans has foundit expedient to retain the old flag system to indicate the part of thepier where each mark of coffee is to be piled as taken from the vessel. These little flags vary in shape, color and printed pattern, eachrepresenting a particular lot of coffee, and they are firmly fixed atthe part of the pier where those bags should be stacked. Trainedcheckers read the marks on the bags as the laborers carry them past, andtell the carrier where the bag should be placed. To the illiteratelaborers the checker's cries of "blue check, " "green ball, " "red heart, ""black hand, " and the like, are more understandable than suchindications as letters or numbers. [Illustration: SHOWING HOW COFFEE IS STORED UNDER STEEL-COVERED SHEDS ATNEW ORLEANS] _Handling Coffee at San Francisco_ San Francisco ranks third in the list of United States coffee ports, having received its greatest development in the four years of the WorldWar, when the flow of Central American coffees was largely diverted fromHamburg to the Californian port. In the course of these four years, theannual volume of coffee imports increased from some 380, 000 bags to morethan 1, 000, 000 bags in 1918. The bulk of these importations came fromCentral America, though some came from Hawaii, India, and Brazil andother South American countries. Because of its improved unloading anddistributing facilities, San Francisco claims to be able to handle acargo of coffee more rapidly than either New York or New Orleans. Handling Central American coffees in San Francisco is distinctlydifferent from the business in Brazil. In order to secure the CentralAmerican planter's crops, the importers find it necessary to finance hisoperations to a large extent. Consequently, the Central American tradeis not a simple matter of buying and selling, but an intricate financialoperation on the part of the San Francisco importers. Practically allthe coffee coming in is either on consignment, or is already sold toestablished coffee-importing houses. Brokers do not deal direct with theexporters; and practically none of the roasters now import direct. [Illustration: DISCHARGING COFFEE FROM A STEAMER JUST ARRIVED FROMCENTRAL AMERICA] [Illustration: HOW A LARGE CARGO OF COFFEE IS HANDLED ON THE PIER AS ITIS UNLOADED FROM THE SHIP] [Illustration: UNLOADING AND STORING COFFEE AT SAN FRANCISCO] In recent years San Francisco has adopted the practise of buying alarge part of her coffee on the "to arrive" basis; that is the purchasehas been made before the coffee is shipped from the producing country, or while in transit. This practise applies, of course, only to wellknown marks and standard grades. Coffee that has not been sold beforearrival in San Francisco is generally sampled on the docks duringunloading, although this is sometimes postponed until the consignment isin the warehouse. It is then graded and priced, and is offered for saleby samples through brokers. San Francisco is better equipped with modern unloading machinery andother apparatus than either New Orleans or New York, even more liberaluse being made there than in New Orleans of the automatic-belt conveyorsboth for transferring the bags from the ships to the docks and forstacking them in high tiers on the pier. Another notable feature of themodern coffee docks is that the newer ones are of steel and concreteand, as in New Orleans, are covered to protect the coffee from wind andstorm. _Europe's Great Coffee Markets_ Europe has three great coffee-trading markets--Havre, Hamburg, andAntwerp. Rotterdam and Amsterdam are also important coffee centers, butrank far below the others named. In point of volume of stocks, Havre ledthe world before the war; while in respect to commercial transactions, it ranked second, with New York first. In pre-war days, the largest partof the world's visible supply of coffee was stored in the Havre bondedwarehouses, being available for shipment to any part of Europe on shortnotice, or even to the United States in emergencies. Even during theWorld War, this French port remained a powerful factor in internationalcoffee trading. Coffee trading in Havre, both exchange and "spot"transactions, follows about the same general lines as in New York andthe other great coffee markets. Coffee "futures" are dealt in on theHavre Bourse. Green coffee is sold in London by auction in Mincing Lane. On arrival, it is stored in bonded warehouses, and is released for domestic use onlywhen customs duty at the rate of four and one-half pence per pound hasbeen paid. The bulk of the coffee comes in parchment on consignment; andbefore sale, it must be hulled and sorted in the milling establishments, most of which are on the banks of the Thames. [Illustration: ONE OF THE MODERN DEVICES USED IN SAN FRANCISCO FORHANDLING GREEN COFFEE] The auctions are held four times a week, usually on Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. The sales are advertised in the marketpapers--chief among which is the _Public Ledger_--and also by theauctioneers, who issue catalogs of their offerings. A few hours beforethe beginning of the sale, samples are laid out for inspection byprospective buyers, who may cup-test them if they desire. The actualselling is done by competitive cash bidding, the highest bidder becomingthe owner. Two classes of brokers do the bidding, one for home trade andthe other for exporters. Home trade takes about a tenth of the coffee, the remainder being soldfor export. If the coffee is bought for re-export, it can be transferredto the shipping port, still in bond, and shipped out of the countrywithout paying duty. During the World War, auctions were held abouttwice a week; but after the signing of the armistice in November 1918, the London traders resumed the four times a week practise. [Illustration: COFFEE AUCTION SAMPLES ON DISPLAY AT AMSTERDAM] [Illustration: GREEN COFFEE STORED ON THE DOCKS AT HAVRE, FRANCE] [Illustration: HANDLING GREEN COFFEE AT TWO EUROPEAN PORTS] _Coffee Exchanges and Trading Methods_ Green-coffee buyers in the large importing centers of the United Statesand Europe recognize two distinct markets in their operations. One ofthese is called the "spot" market; because the importers, brokers, jobbers, and roasters trading there deal in actual coffee in warehousesin the consuming country. In New York the spot market is located in thedistrict of lower Wall Street, which includes a block or two each sideon Front and Water Streets. Here, coffee importers, coffee roasters, coffee dealers, and coffee brokers conduct their "street" sales. The other market is designated as the "futures" market; and the tradingis not concerned with actual coffee, but with the purchase or sale ofcontracts for future delivery of coffee that may still be on the treesin the producing country. Futures, or "options" as they are frequentlycalled, are dealt in only on a coffee exchange. The principal exchangesare in New York, Havre, and Hamburg. New Orleans and San Franciscoexchange dealers trade on their local boards of trade. Coffee-exchange contracts are dealt in just like stocks and bonds. Theyare settled by the payment of the difference, or "margin"; and theoption of delivering actual coffee is seldom exercised. Generally, theoperations are either in the nature of ordinary speculation on margin orfor the legitimate purpose of effecting "hedges" against holdings orshort sales of actual coffees. The New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange--the most important in the world, because of the volume of its business--deals in all coffees from North, South, and Central America, the West Indies and the East Indies (exceptthose of the Robusta variety) and uses Type No. 7 as the basis for allExchange quotations. All other types are judged in relation to it. Indetermining the number of a type, the coffee is graded by the number ofimperfections contained in it. [Illustration: NEW YORK COFFEE AND SUGAR EXCHANGE The building fronts on Hanover Square and extends through to BeaverStreet. The exchange rooms are indicated by the arched windows on thesecond floor. The rest of the building is devoted to offices. Theexchange was founded in 1881, and was the first national coffee tradingorganization in the world. ] These imperfections are black beans, broken beans, shells, immaturebeans ("quakers"), stones, and pods. For counting the imperfections, theblack bean has been taken as the basis unit, and all imperfections, nomatter what they may be, are calculated in terms of black beans, according to a scale, which is practically as follows: BLACK-BEAN SCALE 3 shells equal 1 black bean5 "quakers" equal 1 " "5 broken beans equal 1 " "1 pod equals 1 " "1 medium size stone equals 1 " "2 small stones equal 1 " "1 large stone equals 2 to 3 " " [Illustration: THE COFFEE PIT IN THE NEW YORK COFFEE AND SUGAR EXCHANGE] By this scale a coffee containing no imperfections would be classifiedas Type No. 1. The test is made on one-pound samples. If a sample showssix black beans, or equivalent imperfections, it is graded as No. 2; ifthirteen black beans, as No. 3; if twenty-nine black beans, as No. 4; ifsixty black beans, as No. 5; if one hundred and ten black beans, as No. 6, and if more than one hundred and ten black beans, as No. 7 or No. 8. These two are graded by comparison with recognized exchange types. Coffees grading lower than No. 8 are not admissible to this country. The quotation relationship of other types with the basic Rio No. 7 isshown in the table below. By this scale one can determine that when Rio No. 7 is quoted at 17. 10, Rio No. 2 is 18. 60, Santos No. 3, 19. 10, and Bogota No. 5, 18. 10. Thequotations are on the pound and cents basis. SCALE OF QUOTATION RELATIONSHIP BRAZILIAN COFFEE-- SANTOS COFFEE OTHER KINDS--NOT NOT SANTOS BRAZILIANType Type TypeNo. 1--180 points above No. 1--260 points above No. 1--300 points aboveNo. 2--150 points above No. 2--230 points above No. 2--250 points aboveNo. 3--120 points above No. 3--200 points above No. 3--200 points aboveNo. 4---90 points above No. 4--150 points above No. 4--150 points aboveNo. 5---60 points above No. 5--100 points above No. 5--100 points aboveNo. 6---30 points above No. 6-- 50 points above No. 6--50 points aboveNo. 7---Basis No. 7--Basis No. 7--BasisNo. 8---50 points below No. 8--50 points below No. 8--50 points below A point is the hundredth part of a cent In the spot market, a trader may also buy or sell coffee "to arrive";that is, a consignment that is aboard ship on the way to the market. Coffee is shipped to New York either on a consignment basis and soldfor a commission, or it may have been bought in the shipping port and bealready the property of an importer. When shipped on consignment, awholesaler usually buys on the in-store contract, which provides thatthe purchaser must take delivery at the warehouse, though he isgenerally given a month's storage privilege before removal of thecoffee. The practise among New York importers at present is to buycoffee on either the basis of F. O. B. Delivery steamer at loading port, or delivery C. & F. (cost and freight), or C. I. F. (cost, insurance, andfreight), port of destination. Payment is made by letter of credit drawnon a New York or London bank, entitling the exporter to draw at ninetydays' sight against the shipping documents, so that the shipment will bein the hands of the purchaser long before the draft is made. Frequentlya jobber acts as his own importer of Brazil coffee, buying direct fromthe exporter without utilizing the agency of a broker or a regularimporting firm. Brazil coffee is bought with the stipulation that differences betweensamples and the coffee actually delivered may be adjusted either on"Brazil grading, " "half difference, " or "full difference"; and with thefurther provision that, if the delivery is a full type higher or lowerthan specified in the contract, the entire shipment may be rejected. Under the "Brazil grading" provision, the buyer must accept delivery ifthe coffee is better than the next lower type, even though not up to thetype ordered; and if the coffee is of a higher type than contracted for, he need not pay premium for it. In buying on the "half difference" or"full difference" basis, the buyer is entitled to payment for half thedifference or the full difference, respectively, for any undergrading, or must pay the seller accordingly if there is any overgrading. When abuyer specifies special features of description, in addition to type, some sellers protect themselves against claims for difference on thisscore by inserting in the contract a clause to the effect that thedescription is given in good faith, but is not guaranteed by the seller. [Illustration: TWO OF THE COFFEE EXCHANGE BLACKBOARDS The one on the right is a record of transactions in the coffee pit. Assoon as a trade is made, it is noted in the proper column on the lowerpart, the entry showing the time of the transaction, the number of"250-pound bag lots, " and the price. The left-hand board gives Santosand Rio future quotations. For a detailed description of these and otherexchange quotation boards, see page 457] _How the New York Exchange Functions_ When the New York Coffee Exchange was incorporated in 1881, its charterstated its purposes to be "to provide, regulate and maintain a suitablebuilding, room or rooms for the purchase and sales of coffees and othersimilar grocery articles in the city of New York, to adjustcontroversies between members, to inculcate and establish just andequitable principles in the trade, to establish and maintain uniformityin its rules, regulations and usages, to adopt standards ofclassification, to acquire, preserve and disseminate useful and valuablebusiness information, and generally to promote the above mentioned tradein the city of New York, increase its amount, and augment the facilitieswith which it may be conducted. " In the promotion of trade at New York the Exchange has been highlysuccessful. From time to time it has been criticized; and, more thanonce, coffee traders in the East and in the West have raised a questionas to its value to non-speculating members. There are those who believeit serves a useful purpose, and others who call it a huge pool room. Tosay that, on the whole, it is not of benefit to the trade would beuntrue. As one of its champions pointed out in 1914, when it shut downfor a period of four months on account of the World War: The ability to discount the future is a necessity, and demands the facilities that a unit of centralization like the Exchange affords. There is no difference between a purchase of coffee and one of a future month on options. The experience gained here and abroad demonstrates that any check placed upon such dealings is detrimental, with far-reaching effects upon the whole body of the trade. Unquestionably the Exchange is a powerful factor as a regulator of extremes in the market. The experience gained in Germany, where an embargo was placed upon transactions in futures, is illuminating. The disastrous effects were so plain that the authorities were forced to abandon their objections and permit a resumption of the business along the old lines. But a good thing can be abused, and the opportunity to gamble in options availed of by so many is the increment that disturbs the legitimacy of the market and creates the opposition to the whole proposition. When the Exchange is ready to insist that every transaction in futures must be a legitimate one, and that every trader under its jurisdiction using the facilities of the Exchange is made to realize that any operations that are purely of a gambling nature will subject him to severe discipline, then the Coffee Exchange will begin to stem the tide of an ever-growing opposition by the general public. [Illustration: THE "COFFEE AFLOAT" BLACKBOARD] The New York State legislative committee on speculations in securitiesand commodities had the following to say on the Coffee Exchange in itsreport to Governor Charles E. Hughes in 1909: It [the Coffee Exchange] was established in order to supply a daily market where coffee could be bought and sold and to fix quotations therefor, in distinction from the former method of alternate glut and scarcity, with wide variations in price--in short, to create stability and certainty in trading in an important article of commerce. This it has accomplished; and it has made New York the most important primary coffee market in the United States. But there has been recently introduced a non-commercial factor known as "valorization, " a governmental scheme of Brazil, by which the public treasury has assumed to purchase and hold a certain percentage of the coffee grown there, in order to prevent a decline of the price. This has created abnormal conditions in the coffee trade. All transactions must be reported by the seller to the superintendent of the Exchange, with an exact statement of the time and terms of delivery. The record shows that the average annual sales in the past five years have been in excess of 16, 000, 000 bags of 130 pounds each. Contracts may be transferred or offset by voluntary clearings by groups of members. There is no general clearing system. [319] There is a commendable rule providing that, in case of a "corner, " the officials may fix a settlement price for contracts to avoid disastrous failures. The original initiation fee was $250. Seats on the Exchange once soldfor as low as $110. In January, 1916, there was a sale at $3, 000; inOctober, 1916, there was a sale for $5, 000; in April, 1921, three seatswere sold for $5, 500 each; but the record price of $8, 600 was paid in1919. Seats are now (1922) worth about $6, 000. The Exchange includes in its membership 323 brokers, importers, dealers, and roasters. Membership is passed upon by a committee on membership;but any one twenty-one years old, resident or non-resident, of goodcharacter and commercial standing, is eligible when proposed andseconded by Exchange members. The committee refers the application withits recommendation to the board of managers, which takes a ballot. Theadverse vote of one-third of all votes cast rejects. The Exchange elects annually a president, a vice-president, and atreasurer, who perform the usual duties of Exchange officers. The realgoverning body is the board of managers, consisting of the president, vice-president, treasurer, and twelve other members. This governingboard, meeting monthly, appoints the necessary subordinate officers andemployees, and fixes their compensation, and may "summon before them anyofficer or member for any purpose whatsoever. " It appoints the secretaryof the Exchange from among its own number, a superintendent of theExchange, and the numerous committees which are in active charge ofspecified activities. It also licenses the necessary coffee graders, warehousemen, weighmasters, and samplers of the Exchange. A brief discussion of the duties of the superintendent and the variouscommittees will help to explain the methods of the Exchange market. Thesuperintendent, under the direction of the board of managers, has chargeof the details of its work and of that of the various committees. Hekeeps all the books and documents of the Exchange; collects and paysover to the treasurer all moneys due the Exchange not otherwise providedfor; receives, deposits, and pays over all margins on coffee contracts;has active charge of the Exchange rooms and the bulletin board; andmanages and appoints, with the consent of the board of managers, theassistants needed to perform the details of the work under his charge. One of the functions of the Exchange is to grade and to classify coffee, in which it takes every possible precaution. The rules provide for eightstandard grades; and only licensed graders are permitted to pass uponthe product handled on the Exchange. There are twenty-five of thesegraders; one of whom is appointed as a supervisor of types, to providefresh standards and to "maintain them as nearly as possible on anequality. " When these standards are approved by the board and theExchange, they remain in force for a year. When coffee is received at a licensed warehouse, two official gradersare chosen, one by the buyer and one by the seller. These gradersreceive four cents a bag if employed by a member; and eight cents a bag, if employed by a non-member. If the graders disagree, their differences are referred to the board ofcoffee arbitrators, consisting of ten experts appointed by the board ofmanagers. The superintendent selects by lot three of these arbitrators, who decide on the basis of the samples submitted, but will not make adecision lowering the grade below that of the lowest submitted norhigher than the highest. If the disputants do not change the grading tocome within the arbitrators' findings, the samples are sent to theentire board of arbitrators, exclusive of those who may have been theoriginal graders, and final decision is made by majority vote. As soonas the coffee is graded, a certificate is issued stating the grades, andbearing the signatures of the superintendent and graders. Thiscertificate is conclusive evidence of the grade as far as the partiesinvolved are concerned, for the subsequent twelve months. The buyerreceives the original, and the seller a duplicate. The rules provide that weights decided upon at the initial delivery aregood during the life of the grading certificate for re-delivery, withdefinite allowances to the receiver, on re-delivery, of a quarter of apound a bag a month, instead of having to re-weigh and re-sample forevery separate delivery, as formerly. As claims and trade controversies occasionally arise, the Exchange hasprovided means for their peaceful settlement. The board of managerselects annually an arbitration committee of five members, who swear todecide disputes fairly. This is the only committee on the Exchange thathas power to adjudicate disputes between members and non-members; andits services must be sought by the disputants, who must agree to abideby its decision. An adjudication committee of seven is annually chosenfrom the membership by the managers, to adjust all claims andcontroversies between members arising out of any merchandisetransaction, "if notice in writing of such claim or controversy, and ofthe intention to demand an adjudication thereon, be served by eitherparty thereto within ten days from the ascertainment thereof. " Within three days of the serving of this notice, each disputant selectsan Exchange member as his adjudicator; and these two name the third, whomust be a member of the adjudicating committee. Even this decision maybe appealed to the board of managers, which, if it finds the grounds ofappeal good (as decided by majority vote), appoints an appeal committeeof five, of whom three must be members of the board. This lastcommittee's decision is final. No new testimony bearing on the case maybe introduced after the case has been closed by the adjudicators. Arbitration is voluntary with both parties; while adjudication iscompulsory upon the application of either. Another committee of trade importance is the spot quotation committee offive Exchange members. Each day at two o'clock, except on Saturday, whenit meets at 11:45, this committee by a majority vote establishes theofficial daily market quotation of No. 7 coffee. There is likewise acommittee on quotations of futures. This committee of five meets daily"immediately after the first call and at the close of the Exchange andreports to the superintendent the tone and price of the contract market, to be posted on the blackboard and transmitted to other Exchanges andcommercial bodies. " A committee of five on trade and statistics has the important functionof reporting to the board as to regulations for the "purchase, sale, transportation and custody of merchandise, " and it attempts to establishuniformity in such matters between different markets. It has charge alsoof "all matters pertaining to the supply of newspapers, market reports, telegraphic and statistical information for the use of the Exchange. Inthe early 80's the Exchange abolished the old method of keeping coffeestatistics, and the basis then adopted has since been accepted by allthe large coffee markets of the world. " The minimum rates of commission on coffee "per contract of 250 bags, formembers of the Exchange residing in the United States, are based upon aprice" as follows, quoting from the Exchange bylaws adopted June 8, 1920: COFFEE EXCHANGE COMMISSION RATES (Per contract of 250 bags) Floor Commission brokerage for buying for buying or selling or sellingBelow 10 cents $6. 25 $1. 5010 cents up to 19. 99 cents 7. 50 1. 7520 cents and above 10. 00 2. 00 For non-members residing within the United States, double the above rates of commission shall be charged. For members and non-members residing outside of the United States a commission of $2. 50 shall be charged in addition to the above rates. Whenever before thirty minutes after the close of the exchange a member gives to another member for clearance purchases and sales of contracts corresponding in all respects except as to price, made during the day by himself or for his account _when present on the floor_ of the Exchange, a charge for each contract shall be made equal to the corresponding floor brokerage rate for buying and selling, in addition to any floor brokerage incurred. Members procuring business for other members may, by agreement, be entitled to one-half the commission rates for non-members prescribed in this Section, less the corresponding brokerage charge, whether paid or not. When a transferable notice is given or received by a customer in fulfillment of a contract the brokerage in that case shall be not less than one-half of the corresponding buying or selling commission prescribed in Section 103. Other committees are the finance committee (two) to audit bills andclaims against the Exchange, to direct deposits and investments, and toaudit the monthly and yearly accounts of the treasurer; a law committee(three), to deal with matters of legislation; a membership and floorcommittee (five); and a nominating committee (five). Organized as aboveoutlined, and with a well established code of trade rules, the Exchangeannually transacts a large number of sales in a business-like way. There is considerable trading in future contracts; and a standard formhas been adopted by the Exchange. No future contracts are valid unlessthey are made in the following form: BRAZILIAN COFFEE--NOT SANTOS Office of _____________ New York__________ 19__Sold for M_______________________ To M_______________________ Thirty-two thousand five hundred pounds in about 250 bags coffee, growth of North, South or Central America, West Indies or East Indies, excepting coffee known as "Robusta, " and also any coffee of new or unknown growth, deliverable from licensed warehouse in the port of New York, between the first and last days of ________ next, inclusive. The delivery within such time to be at seller's option, upon a notice to buyer of either five, six or seven days, as may be prescribed by the trade rules. The coffee to be of any grade, from No. 8 to No. 1 inclusive (no coffee to grade below No. 8) provided the average grade of Brazilian coffees shall not be above No. 3. Nothing in this contract, however, shall be construed as prohibiting a delivery averaging above No. 3 at the No. 3 grade. At the rate of __________ cents per pound for No. 7, with additions or deductions for other grades according to the rates of the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, Inc. , existing on the afternoon of the day previous to the date of the notice of delivery. Either party to have the right to call for margins as the variations of the market for like deliveries may warrant, which margins shall be kept good. This contract is made in view of, and in all respect subject to the rules and conditions established by the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, Inc. , and in full accordance with section 102 of the bylaws. _____________________________ Brokers Across the face is the following: For and in consideration of one dollar to __________________ in hand paid, receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, ______________ accept this contract with all its obligations and conditions. All deliveries on such future contracts must be made from licensedwarehouses. There is a separate "to arrive contract"; but this likewiserequires delivery at a licensed warehouse, unless the buyer and theseller have a mutual understanding to deliver the coffee from dock orex-ship. Margins to protect the contract may be called for by eitherparty. The largest deposit for margins was made in 1904, when$22, 661, 710 was deposited with the superintendent as required by theExchange rules. The basic grade in a future sale is No. 7; but variations are providedas follows: 30 points for Rio, Victoria, and Bahia of all grades between7 and 1, and of 50 points between 7 and 8; 50 points is allowed onSantos and all other coffees except between grades 1 and 2 and 2 and 3Santos, which are allowed 30 points. Thus the buyer and the seller whenentering upon a transaction know exactly what the difference will bebetween the standard No. 7 and the coffee that can be delivered. Theright to deliver any grade in a future transaction has done much tolessen the probability of corners in coffee; but this protection isfurther given by the stringent rule that the maximum fluctuations on theExchange can be only two cents a pound on coffee in one day and one centon sugar. If greater changes should threaten, the Exchange operationswould automatically cease. False or fictitious sales are prohibited, and all contracts must bereported to the superintendent. All contracts are binding and call foractual delivery. The future contract, besides being used for the delivery of coffeeduring stated months in the future at a given price, is also used forhedging purposes. As in the grain and cotton markets, dealers protectthemselves against price fluctuations by hedging in the future market. Importers, for instance, when purchasing coffee abroad, frequently sellan equal amount for future delivery on the Exchange. When the time fordelivery arrives, it is simply a question of calculation of the marketconditions whether it is more advantageous to repurchase the sales madeas a hedge, or as a kind of insurance to protect themselves againstloss, and free the coffee so engaged, or to make delivery of the coffeeas it comes in. The board of managers has power to close the Exchange or to suspendtrading on such days or parts of days as would in their judgment be forthe Exchange's best interest. The Clearing Association is a recent outgrowth of the Exchange, and iscomposed exclusively of Exchange members. Every member has to bring hiscontracts up to market closing every night, either by making a depositwith the Association to cover his balances, or by withdrawing in case heshould be over. Members deposit $15, 000 at the time of joining as aguaranty fund; and if the surplus is not sufficient to take care ofbalances, the bylaws provide for the levying of assessments. The daily quotations on the coffee exchanges of New York, Havre, and(before the war) of Hamburg, determined to a large extent the price ofgreen coffee the world over. The prices prevailing on the New YorkCoffee and Sugar Exchange are studied by coffee traders in allcountries, the fluctuations being reflected in foreign markets as thereports come from the United States. Quotations are cabled from onegreat market to another; and as each must heed those of the others tosome extent, the coffee trade thus obtains a world price, and theeffect on supply and demand is universal rather than local, as would bethe case if quotations were not exchanged. In 1921 the Exchange adopted an amendment to the trade rules, andabolished the one day transferable notice for both coffee and sugar. _Foreign Coffee Quotations_ Brazil coffee cable quotations are the market prices, in Rio or Santos, of ten kilograms of coffee, the price being stated in milreis, themonetary unit of Brazil money. The basic grade of coffee at Rio is theNo. 7 of the New York Coffee Exchange; and at Santos, the internationalstandard of good average ("g. A. ") Santos. One kilogram (often writtenkilo, or abbreviated to K. ) is equal to two and one-fifth pounds; andthe ten-kilogram standard of quantity is, therefore, equivalent totwenty-two pounds, or just one-sixth of a standard Brazil bag. The money value is not so simple, since Brazilian paper currency isunstable; and the milreis quotation means nothing unless it isconsidered in connection with the rate of exchange for the same day, i. E. , the current gold value of the milreis. This gold value is alwaysgiven with the daily quotations from Brazil, and is expressed in Britishpence. The par value of the milreis (1000 reis) is 54. 6 cents (gold) ofUnited States money; but its present actual value is only about 15cents, and it has been as low as 11-1/4 cents. Our dollar sign is usedto denote milreis, placing it after the whole number, and before thefractional part expressed in one-thousandths. Thus, 8-1/4 milreis wouldbe written 8$250 RS. Suppose, for example, a Rio quotation is given at 8$400, with exchangeat 7-1/2 d. This means that 22 pounds of coffee have a gold value of 63British pence (8. 4 × 7-1/2 = 63. 0), or 5/3, as the Englishman wouldwrite it, which is equal to $1. 27-1/2, making the coffee worth 5. 8 centsper pound. Of course the person familiar with Brazil quotations will notneed to make this reduction to the pound-cent term in order tounderstand the figures. They will have a proper relative meaning to himin their original form; and it must not be overlooked that it is in thisform only that they express correctly the value of the coffee in Brazil. It may make a great difference to the Brazilian planter or exporterwhether an increased gold value of his coffee arises through a highermilreis bid or an appreciated exchange, simply on account of localcurrency considerations. That is to say, the purchasing power of amilreis in Brazil will not necessarily vary exactly as the rate ofexchange on London. London quotations are made in shillings and pence, on one hundred-weight(cwt) of coffee. This "cwt" is not 100 pounds but 112 pounds, onetwentieth of the English ton (our long ton) of 2, 240 pounds. And in allEnglish coffee statistics the coffee quantities are expressed in thiston. A London quotation of 30/9 (30 shillings and 9 pence) for example, is equivalent to $7. 44 for 112 pounds of coffee, or 6. 64 cents per poundat the normal rate of exchange, $4. 80 to $4. 86 the pound sterling. At Havre, the coffee price is given in francs, on a quantity of 50kilograms. This is 110 pounds and almost as much, therefore, as theBritish cwt. In normal times the franc is equal to 19. 3 cents. A Frenchquotation of 37-1/2, for instance, means, therefore, $7. 19 for 110pounds of coffee, or 6. 53 cents per pound. The Hamburg quotation (formerly from Brazil per fifty kilos) is made onone pound German, equal to 1/2 kilogram, and is expressed in pfennigs. One pfennig is one-hundredth of a mark, and the mark once was equal to23. 8 cents. A German quotation of, say, 31, means, therefore, 7. 38 cents(31 × . 238 = 7. 378) for 1. 1 pounds, or 6. 71 cents per pound. _Three Kinds of Brokers_ In the coffee trade there are three kinds of brokers--floor, spot, andcost and freight. Floor brokers are those who buy and sell options on the Coffee Exchangefor a fixed consideration per lot of 250 bags. The coffee commissionrate put into effect June 8, 1920, for round term (buying and selling)by the New York Coffee Exchange was as follows: COMMISSION RATE ON 250 BAGS (For Round Term--Buying and Selling) Up to 10¢ to 9. 99c 19. 99c 20c & up per lb. Per lb. Per lb. Members $12. 50 $15. 00 $20. 00Non-members 25. 00 30. 00 40. 00Foreign members 17. 50 20. 00 25. 00Foreign non-members 30. 00 35. 00 45. 00Floor brokerage--Buying or selling 1. 50 1. 75 2. 00 There is at present (1922) a stamp tax of two cents on each hundreddollars value, or fraction thereof, figured on each separate lot. [Illustration: SUN-CURING THE WASHED GREEN BEANS ON CEMENT DRYINGPATIOS] [Illustration: NEAR VIEW OF HEAVILY LADEN TREES READY FOR THE PICKERS] [Illustration: TYPICAL COFFEE SCENES IN COSTA RICA] Spot brokers are those who deal in actual coffee, selling from jobberto jobber, or representing out-of-town houses; the seller paying acommission of about fifteen cents a bag in small lots, and half of onepercent in large lots. Cost and freight brokers represent Brazilian accounts, and generallyreceive a brokerage of one and one-quarter percent. On out-of-townbusiness, they usually split the commission with the out-of-town or"local" brokers. The out-of-town brokers sometimes, however, deal directwith the importer. All brokers except floor brokers are sometimes called"street brokers. " Most of the large New York, New Orleans, and SanFrancisco brokerage houses also do a commission business, handling oneor more Brazilian or other coffee-producing-country accounts. _Important Rulings Affecting Coffee Trading_ The United States have no coffee law as they have a tea law--prescribing"purity, quality and fitness for consumption"--but buyers and sellers ofgreen coffees are required to observe certain well defined federal rulesand regulations relating specifically to coffee. Up to the year 1906, when the Pure Food and Drugs Act became law, the green coffee trade waspractically unhampered; and several irregularities developed, callinginto existence federal laws that were designed to protect the consumeragainst trade abuses, and at the same time to raise the standards ofcoffee trading. Under these regulations it is illegal to import into this country acoffee that grades below a No. 8 Exchange type, which generally containsa large proportion of sour or damaged beans, known in the trade as"black jack, " or damaged coffee, as found in "skimmings. " "Black jack"is a term applied to coffee that has turned black during the process ofcuring, or in the hold of a ship during transportation; or it may be dueto a blighting disease. Another ruling is intended to prevent the sale of artificially "sweated"coffee, which has been submitted to a steaming process to give the beansthe extra-brown appearance of high grade East Indian and Mocha coffeeswhich have been naturally "sweated" in the holds of sailing vesselsduring the long journey to American ports. Up to the time that the PureFood and Drugs Act went into effect, artificial "sweating" was resortedto by some coffee firms; and out of that practise grew a suit[320] thatresulted in a federal court decision sustaining the Pure Food Act, andclassifying the practise as adulteration and misbranding. The Act also is intended to prevent the sale of coffees under tradenames that do not properly belong to them. For example, only coffeesgrown on the island of Java can properly be labeled and sold as Javas;coffees from Sumatra, Timor, etc. , must be sold under their respectivenames. Food Inspection Decision No. 82, which limited the use of theterm Java to coffee grown on the island of Java, was sustained in aservice and regulatory announcement issued in January, 1916. Likewisethe name Mocha may be used only for coffees of Arabia. Before thepure-food law was enacted, it was frequently the custom to mix BourbonSantos with Mocha and to sell the blend as Mocha. Also, Abyssiniancoffees were generally known in the trade as Longberry Mocha, or juststraight Mocha; and Sumatra growths were practically always sold asJavas. Traders used the names of Mocha and Java because of the highvalue placed upon these coffees by consumers, who, before Brazildominated the market, had practically no other names for coffee. One of the most celebrated coffee cases under the Pure Food Act wastried in Chicago, February, 1912. The question was, whether in view ofthe long-standing trade custom, it was still proper to call anAbyssinian coffee (Longberry Mocha) Mocha. The defendant was chargedwith misbranding, because he sold as Java and Mocha a coffee containingAbyssinian coffee. The court decided that the product should be calledAbyssinian Mocha;[321] but since then, general acceptance has obtainedof the government's viewpoint as expressed in F. I. D. No. 91, which wasthat only coffee grown in the province of Yemen in Arabia could properlybe known as Mocha coffee. Another important ruling, concerning coffee buyers and sellers, prohibits the importation of green coffees coated with lead chromate, Prussian blue, and other substances, to give the beans a more stylishappearance than they have normally. Such "polished" coffees find greatfavor in the European markets, but are now denied admittance here. The Board of Food and Drug Inspection decided in 1910 against a tradecustom that had prevailed until then of calling Minãs coffee Santos whenshipped through Santos, instead of Rio. [322] For years a practise obtained of rebagging certain Central Americangrowths in New York. In this way Bucaramangas frequently weretransformed into Bogotas, Rios became Santos, Bahias and Victorias weresold as Rios, and the misbranding of peaberry was quite common. Acelebrated case grew out of an attempt by a New York coffee importer andbroker to continue one of these practises after the Pure Food Act madeit a criminal offense. The defendants, who were found guilty ofconspiracy, and who were fined three thousand dollars each, mixed, re-packed and sold under the name P. A. L. Bogota, a well known Colombianmark, eighty-four bags of washed Caracas coffee. [323] After an exchange of views with the United States Board of Food and DrugInspection, the New York Coffee Exchange decided that, after June 1, 1912, it would abolish all grades of coffee under the Exchange type No. 8. The practise in Holland of grading Santos coffees--by selecting beansmost like Java beans, and polishing and coloring them to addverisimilitude--known as "manipulated Java, " became such a nuisance in1912 that United States consuls refused to certify invoices to theUnited States unless accompanied by a declaration that the produce was"pure Java, neither mixed with other kinds nor counterfeited. " The United States Bureau of Chemistry ruled in February, 1921, that_Coffea robusta_ could not be sold as Java coffee, or under any form oflabeling which tended either directly or indirectly to create theimpression that it was _Coffea arabica_, so long and favorably known asJava coffee. This was in line with the Department of Agriculture'sprevious definition that coffee was the seed of the _Coffea arabica_ or_Coffea liberica_, and that Java coffee was _Coffea arabica_ from Java. _Coffea robusta_ was barred from deliveries on the New York CoffeeExchange in 1912. During the greater part of the year 1918, the United States governmentassumed virtually full control of coffee trading. It was a war-timemeasure, and was intended to prevent speculation in coffee contracts andfreight rates, to cut down the number of vessels carrying coffee to thiscountry so as to provide more ships for transporting food and soldiersto Europe, and to put the coffee merchants on rations during the stressof war. On February 4, 1918, importers and dealers were placed underlicense; and two days later, rules were issued through the FoodAdministration fixing the maximum price for coffee for the spot month inthe "futures" markets at eight and a half cents, prohibiting dealersfrom taking more than normal pre-war profits, or holding supplies inexcess of ninety days' requirements, and greatly limiting resales. OnMay 8, the United States Shipping Board fixed the "official" freightrate from Rio de Janeiro to New York at one dollar and fifty cents perbag, which, without control, had risen to as high as four dollars andmore, as compared with the ordinary rate of thirty-five cents before thewar. On January 12, 1919, two months after the armistice was signed, therules were withdrawn, and the coffee trade was left to carry on itsbusiness under its own direction. _Some Well Known Green Coffee Marks_ Practically every bag of good quality green coffee is imprinted with abrand which indicates by whom it was shipped. These imprints are knownin the trade as "green coffee marks. " Many of them, through long usage, have become celebrated in international trade. One of the most famouswas HLOG. This stood for "Heaven's Light Our Guide, " and was owned byJohn O'Donohue's Sons. For many years it was used on Mocha coffee, butit is now out of existence. Other well-known Mocha marks are M R(Maurice Ries) with the figure of a camel, a star, or deer's headbetween the letters; L F or L B (Livierato Frères); C F or C B(Caracanda Frères). Bogota marks includes PAL (in triangle) Bogota (P. A. Lopez & Co. );Camelia; Pinzon & Co. ; Salazar; AOL (in triangle) Bogota; and CarmencitaManizales Excelso (Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co. ). [Illustration: SOME WELL KNOWN GREEN-COFFEE MARKS] Among the best known Medellin marks are FAC & H (F. A. Correa & Sons):PEC & C (Pedro Estrado Co. ); LMT & C (Louis M. Torro & Co. ); A & C (A. Angel & Co. ); E C S Medellin Excelso (Eppens, Smith Co. ); BalzacbroMedellin Excelso (Balzac Bros. ); La Rambla (Banco Lopez); and Don CarlosMedellin Excelso (Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co. ). Caracas marks show J P P & H (Juan Pablo Perez & Sons); HLB & C (H. L. Boulton & Co. ); FST & C (Filipe S. Toledo & Co. ); JLG (J. L. Garrondona);and many others. Kolster (Kolster & Co. ) is a well known Puerto Cabellomark. Maracaibos bear numerous marks, chief among which are: M & C (Menda &Co. ); Cogollo (Cogollo & Co. ); Fossi (Fossi & Co. ); B M & C (Breur. Moller & Co. ); B & C (Blohm & Co. ); FST & C (Filipe S. Toledo & Co. ); VD R & C (Van Dessel, Rodo & Co. ); and J E C & C over R G E (J. E. Carret& Co. ). A prominent Mexican mark is P A N (Rafael del Castillo & Co. ). Brazil coffee is usually marked merely with the initials of the firm orbank financing the shipment. Some representative Brazilian marks are:Aronco (in rectangle) Brazil; J A & Co (in rectangle) Brazil Rosebud; JA & Co (in rectangle) Brazil Bourbona--all used by J. Aron & Company; SS C (in circle) Rio; S S C (in triangle) Santos; both used bySteinwender, Stoffregen & Co. ; Sions M/M Bourbns (Sion & Co. ); andNossack V S S C (in swastika), used by Nossack & Co. There are hundreds of other marks. In most countries they change sooften that one rarely stands out above the rest. [Illustration] CHAPTER XXIV GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS _The trade values, bean characteristics, and cup merits of the leading coffees of commerce, with a "Complete Reference Table of the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the World"--Appearance, aroma, and flavor in cup-testing--How experts test coffee--A typical sample-roasting and cup-testing outfit_ More than a hundred different kinds of coffee are bought and sold in theUnited States. All of them belong to the same botanical genus, andpractically all to the same species, the _Coffea arabica_; but each hasdistinguishing characteristics which determine its commercial value inthe eyes of the importers, roasters, and distributers. The American trade deals almost exclusively in _Coffea arabica_, although in the latter years of the World War increasing quantities of_robusta_ and _liberica_ growths were imported, largely because of thescarcity of Brazilian stocks and the improvement in the preparationmethods, especially in the case of _robustas_. Considerable quantitiesof _robusta_ grades were sold in the United States before 1912, buttrading in them fell off when the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchangeprohibited their delivery on Exchange contracts after March 1, 1912. All coffees used in the United States are divided into two generalgroups, Brazils and Milds. Brazils comprise those coffees grown in SãoPaulo, Minãs Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Victoria, and otherBrazilian states. The Milds include all coffees grown elsewhere. In 1921Brazils made up about three-fourths of the world's total consumption. They are regarded by American traders as the "price" coffees, whileMilds are considered as the "quality" grades. Brazil coffees are classified into four great groups, which bear thenames of the ports through which they are exported; Santos, Rio, Victoria, and Bahia. Santos coffee is grown principally in the state ofSão Paulo; Rio, in the state of Rio de Janeiro and the state of MinãsGeraes; Victoria, in the state of Espirito Santo; and Bahia in the stateof Bahia. All of these groups are further subdivided according to theirbean characteristics and the districts in which they are produced. _Brazil Coffee Characteristics_ SANTOS. Santos coffees, considered as a whole, have the distinction ofbeing the best grown in Brazil. Rios rank next, Victorias coming thirdin favor, and Bahias fourth. Of the Santos growths the best is thatknown in the trade as Bourbon, produced by trees grown from Mocha seed(_Coffea arabica_) brought originally from the French island colony ofBourbon (now Réunion) in the Indian Ocean. The true Bourbon is obtainedfrom the first few crops of Mocha seed. After the third or fourth yearof bearing, the fruit gradually changes in form, yielding in the sixthyear the flat-shaped beans which are sold under the trade name of FlatBean Santos. By that time, the coffee has lost most of its Bourboncharacteristics. The true Bourbon of the first and second crops is asmall bean, and resembles the Mocha, but makes a much handsomer roastwith fewer "quakers". The Bourbons grown in the Campinas district oftenhave a red center. [Illustration: _Coffee Map of Brazil_ _Showing the Principal Coffee-Producing States and Shipping Ports_ Copyright 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co. ] As regards flavor, a good Bourbon Santos is considered the best coffeefor its price, and is the most satisfactory low-cost blending coffee tobe obtained. It is used with practically any of the high-priced coffeesto reduce the cost of the blend. When properly made, this coffeeproduces a drink that is smooth and palatable, without tang or specialcharacter, and is suitable to the average taste. When aged, BourbonSantos decreases in acidity, and increases somewhat in size of bean. The Santos coffee described as Flat Bean usually has a smooth surface, varying in size from small to large bean, and in color from a paleyellow to a pale green. The cup has a good and smooth body of neutralcharacter, and the bean can be used straight or in a blend withpractically any Mild coffee. Another Santos growth, known in the trade as Harsh Santos, grows nearthe boundary between São Paulo and Minãs Geraes. It often has some ofthe Rio characteristics, and commands a lower price than other Santoscoffees. Some trade authorities are of the opinion that Santos coffees are anexception to the rule that most green coffees improve with age. Theyargue that careful cup-testing will reveal that a new crop Santos is tobe preferred to an old crop. RIOS. Rio coffee is not generally liked in the United States, though informer years it had some following even in the better trade. The demandfor all grades of Rios has been decreasing, Santos taking their place inthe United States. Rio coffee has a peculiar, rank flavor. It has aheavy, pungent, and harsh taste which traders do not consider of valueeither in straight coffee or in blends. However, its low pricerecommends it to some packers, and it is often found in the cheapestbrands of package coffees and also in many compounds. In color, the beanruns from light green to dark green; but when it is stored for anylength of time--a common practise in the past--the color changes to agolden yellow; and the coffee is then known as golden Rio. The beanalso expands with age. [Illustration: BOURBON SANTOS BEANS--ROASTED] All Rio coffee is described by the name Rio; but the American traderecognizes eight different grades, designated by numerals from one toeight. These grades are determined by standards adopted by the New YorkCoffee and Sugar Exchange, and are classified by the number ofimperfections found in the chops exported. No. 1 Rio contains noimperfections, such as black beans, shells, stones, broken beans, podsor immature beans ("quakers"). Such a chop is rarely found. No. 2 hassix imperfections. No. 3 has thirteen. No. 4 has twenty-nine, No. 5 hassixty, No. 6 has one hundred and ten, No. 7 has two hundred, and No. 8has about four hundred, although on the Exchange these last two aregraded by standard types. [Illustration: FLAT AND BOURBON SANTOS BEANS--ROASTED] VICTORIAS. Up to about the year 1917, Victoria coffees were held in evenless favor by American traders than were Rios. As a rule the bean waslarge and punky, of a dark brown or dingy color, and its flavor wasdescribed as muddy. Then, the coffee growers began to introduce modernmachinery for handling the crops, with the result that the character ofthe produce has been much improved, and the demand for it has beensteadily growing. Many roasters who formerly used Rios straight fortheir lower grades, have changed to Victorias, not only to improve theappearance of the roast, but to soften the harsh drinking qualities ofthe low-grade Rios. [Illustration: RIO BEANS--ROASTED] BAHIAS. Until recent years Bahia coffee has been decidedly unpopular inthe United States, largely because of its peculiar smoky flavor, due todrying the coffee by means of wood fires, instead of by the usual sunmethod. This practise has been abandoned; Bahia coffee has shown amarked improvement in quality; and importations into the United Stateshave increased. The Bahia coffee produced in the Chapada district isconsidered to be the best of the group. The bean is light-colored and offair size. Other types are Caravella and Nazareth, both of which arebelow the standards demanded by the majority of the American trade. [Illustration: _Coffee Map of São Paulo, Minãs, and Rio_] MARAGOGIPE. This is a variety of _Coffea arabica_ first observedgrowing near the town of Maragogipe on All Saints Bay, county ofMaragogipe, Bahia, Brazil, where it is called _Coffea indigena_. Thegreen bean is of huge size, and varies in color from green to dingybrown. It is the largest of all coffee beans, and makes an elephantineroast, free from quakers, but woody and generally disagreeable in thecup. However, Dr. P. J. S. Cramer of the Netherlands government'sexperimental garden in Bangelan, Java, regards it very highly, referringto it as "the finest coffee known", and as having "a highly developed, splendid flavor. " This coffee is now found in practically all theproducing countries, and shows the characteristics of the other coffeesproduced in the same soil. _The Characteristics of Mild Coffees_ Among the Mild coffees there is a much greater variation incharacteristics than is found among the Brazilian growths. This is dueto the differences in climate, altitude, and soil, as well as in thecultural, processing, storage, and transportation methods employed inthe widely separated countries in which Milds are produced. Mild coffees generally have more body, more acidity, and a much fineraroma than Brazils; and from the standpoint of quality they are far moredesirable in the cup. As a rule they have also better appearance, or"style", both in the green and in the roast, due to the fact thatgreater care is exercised in picking and preparing the higher grades. Milds are important for blending purposes, most of them possessingdistinctive individual characteristics, which increase their value asblending coffees. _Not All Coffees Improve with Age_ Although it has long been held that green coffee improves with age, andthere is little doubt that this is true in so far as roasting merits areconcerned; the question has been raised among coffee experts as towhether age improves the drinking qualities of all coffees alike. Rio coffees should improve with age, as they are naturally strong andearthy. Age might be expected to soften and to mellow them and othershaving like characteristics. If, however, the coffee is mild in cupquality in the first instance, then it may be asked if age does notweaken it so that in time it must become quite insipid. Several yearsago, a New York coffee expert pointed out that this was what happened toSantos coffees. The new crop, he said, was always a more pleasant andenjoyable drink than the old crop, because it was a more pronounced mildcoffee in the cup. MEXICANS. Considering those coffees grown nearest the American marketfirst, we come to the coffees of Mexico. All coffees grown in thisrepublic are known as Mexicans. They are further divided according tothe states and districts in which they are produced, and as to whetherthey are prepared according to the wet or the dry method. The types bestknown in the American market are Coatepec, Huatusco, Orizaba, Cordoba, Oaxaca, and Jalapa. The lesser known are the Uruapan, Michoacan, Colima, Chiapas, Triunfo, Tapachula, Sierra, Tabasco, Tampico, andCoatzacoalcos. Some of these are rarely seen in the markets of theUnited States. The coffee most cultivated in Mexico is supposed to have come from Mochaseed. Of this species is the Oaxaca coffee, which is valued because ofits sharp acidity and excellent flavor, two qualities that make itdesirable for blending. The bean of the Sierra Oaxaca (common unwashed)is not large, nor is the appearance stylish. The Pluma Oaxaca (washed)coffee, however, is a fancy bean and good for blending purposes. Coatepec coffees are among the finest grown in Mexico, and take rankwith the world's best grades. They are quite acidy, but have a desirableflavor; and when blended with coffees like Bourbon Santos, make asatisfactory cup. The Orizaba, Huatusco, and Jalapa growths resemble Coatepecs, of whichthey are neighbors in the state of Vera Cruz. They are thin in body butare stylish roasters, and have a good cup qualities. As a class they donot possess the heavy body and acidity of genuine Coatepecs. SomeHuatuscos are exceptions. Orizaba is superior to Jalapa. Chiapas andTapachula coffees are generally more like Guatemalan growths than anyothers produced in Mexico, which is natural in view of the proximity ofthe districts to the northern boundary of Guatemala. The Sierra, Tampico, Tabasco, and Coatzacoalcos coffees are uncertain in quality;mostly they are low grade, some of them frequently possessing a groundy, flat, or Rioy flavor. [Illustration: _Mild Coffee Map--No. 1_ _Showing the Mild Coffee-Producing Countries of the Western Hemisphere_ Copyright 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co. ] Cordoba coffees lack the acidity and tang of the Oaxacas, but make ahandsome roast. They are considered too neutral to form the basis of ablend, but can be used to balance the tang of other grades. CENTRAL AMERICANS. Central American coffee is the general trade nameapplied to the growths produced in Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, the countries comprising CentralAmerica. GUATEMALA. This country sends the largest quantity to the United States, and also produces the best average grades of the Central Americandistricts. Guatemalas are mostly washed and are very stylish. The beanhas a waxy, bluish color. It splits open when roasting and shows a whitecenter. Low-grown Guatemalas are thin in the cup, but the coffees grownin the mountainous districts of Cobán and Antigua are quite acidy andheavy in body. Some Cobáns border on bitterness because of the extremeacidity. The Antiguas are medium, flinty beans; while Cobáns are larger. Both grades are spicy and aromatic in the cup, and are particularly goodblenders. Properly roasted to a light cinnamon color, and blended with ahigh-grade combination, Cobáns make one of the most serviceable coffeeson the American market. Guatemalas are generally classified as noted in the Complete ReferenceTable. [Illustration: MEXICAN BEANS--ROASTED] [Illustration: GUATEMALA BEANS--ROASTED] HONDURAS. While the upland coffee of Honduras is of good quality, thegeneral run of the country's production seldom brings as high a price asSantos of equal grade. Nearly all Honduras coffee consists of small, round berries, bluish green in color. Very little of this growth comesto the United States; the bulk of the exports going to Europe, where itcommands a high price, especially in France. SALVADOR. Salvador coffee is inferior to Guatemala's product, grade forgrade. Only a small proportion is washed; and the bulk of the crops is"naturals"; that is, unwashed. The bean is large and of fair averageroast. The washed grades are fancy roasters, with very thin cup. Thelargest part of the production goes to Europe; some twenty-five percentof the exports are brought into the United States through San Francisco. NICARAGUA. The ordinary run of Nicaragua coffee (the naturals) is lookedupon in the United States as being of low quality, though the washedcoffees from the Matagalpa district have plenty of acid in the cup andusually are fine roasters. Matagalpa beans are large and blue-tinged. Germany, Great Britain, and France take about all the Honduras coffeeexported, only about six percent of the total coming to the UnitedStates. These coffees are described more in detail in the CompleteReference Table. COSTA RICA. Good grades of Costa Rican coffee, such as are grown in theCartago, San José, Alajuela, and Grecia districts at high altitudes, arehighly esteemed by blenders. They are characterized by their fineflavor, rich body, and sharp acidity. It is frequently declared thatsome of these coffees are often acidy enough to sour cream if usedstraight. Due to careless methods of handling, sour or "hidey" beans aresometimes found in chops of Costa Ricans from the lowlands. PANAMA. Panama grows coffee only for domestic use, and consequently itis little known in foreign markets. The bean is of average size andtends toward green in color. In the cup it has a heavy body and a strongflavor. The coffee grown in Boquette Valley is considered to be of finequality, due no doubt to the care given in cultivation by the Americanand English planters there. _South America_ COLOMBIANS. Colombia produces some of the world's finest coffees, ofwhich the best known are Medellins, Manizales, Bogotas, Bucaramangas, Tolimas, and Cucutas. Old-crop Colombians of the higher grades, whenmellowed with age, have many of the characteristics of the best EastIndian coffees, and in style and cup are difficult to distinguish fromthe Mandhelings and the Ankolas of Sumatra. Such coffees are scarce onthe American market, practically all the shipments coming to the UnitedStates being new crop and lacking some of the qualities of the mellowedbeans. Compared with Santos coffee, good grade Colombians giveone-fourth more liquor to a given strength with better flavor and aroma. They are classed and graded as noted in the Complete Reference Table. Medellins are a fancy mountain-grown coffee, and are esteemed for theirgood qualities. The beans vary in size, and the color ranges from lightto dark green, making a rather rough roast. In the cup they have a fine, rich, distinctive flavor, and in the American grading are regarded asthe best of the Colombian commercial growths. Manizales rank next to Medellins, and have nearly the samecharacteristics. [Illustration: BOGOTA (COLOMBIA) BEANS--ROASTED] Bogotas of good grade are noted for their acidity, body, and flavor. When the acidity is tempered with age, the coffee can be drunk"straight" which can not be done with many other growths. The Bogotagreen bean ranges from a blue-green bean to a fancy yellow. It is long, and generally has a sharp turn in one end of the center stripe. It is asmooth roaster, and has a rich mellow flavor. Bucaramangas, grown in the district of that name, are regarded favorablyin the American markets as good commercial coffees for blendingpurposes; the naturals have heavy body, but lack acidity and decidedflavor, and are much used to give "back-bone" to blends. The fanciessometimes push the superior East Indian growths hard for first place. Tolimas are considered a good grade average coffee, and arecharacterized by a fair-sized bean, attractive style, and good cupquality. Cucuta coffees, though grown in Colombia, are generally classified amongthe Maracaibos of Venezuela, because they are mostly shipped from thatport. They are described, accordingly, with the Venezuelan coffees. VENEZUELA. The coffees of Venezuela are generally grouped under theheads of Caracas, Puerto Cabello, and Maracaibo, the names of the portsthrough which they are exported. Each group is further subdivided by thenames of the districts in which the principal plantations lie. La Guairacoffee includes that produced in the vicinity of Caracas and Cumana. Caracas coffee is one of the best known in the American market. Thewashed Caracas is in steady demand in France and Spain. The bean isbluish in color, somewhat short, and of a uniform size. The liquor has arather light body. Some light-blue washed Caracas coffees are verydesirable, and have a peculiar flavor that is quite pleasant to theeducated palate. Caracas chops rarely hold their style for any length oftime, as the owners usually are not willing to dry properly andthoroughly before milling. When, however, the price is right, Americanbuyers will use some Caracas chops instead of Bogotas. At equal pricesthe latter have the preference, as they have more body in the cup. Puerto Cabello and Cumana coffees are valued just below Caracas. Theyare grown at a lower altitude, and are somewhat inferior in flavor. Not less than one-third of Puerto Cabello coffees come across thethirty-mile gulf to the westward from the port of Tucacas, in a littlesteamer called the Barquisimento, which is famous all along the coast asthe "cocktail shaker. " C. H. Stewart[324] solemnly asserts that "Barky"can do the "shimmy" when lying at anchor in quiet waters. [Illustration: MARACAIBO BEANS--ROASTED] Merida and Tachira coffees are considered the best of the Maracaibogrades, Tovars and Trujillos being classed as lower in trade value. Though Cucuta coffee is grown in the Colombian district of that name, itis largely shipped through Maracaibo; and hence is classed among theMaracaibo types. It ranks with Meridas and fine grade Boconos, andsomewhat resembles the Java bean in form and roast, but is decidedlydifferent in the cup. Washed Cucutas are noted for their large size, roughness, and waxy color. They make a good-appearing roast, splittingopen, and showing irregular white centers. New-crop beans are sometimessharply acid, though they mellow with age and gain in body. Until recent years, Tachira coffee was always sold as Cucuta; but nowthere is a tendency to ship it under the name Tachira-Venezuela, whiletrue Cucuta is marked Cucuta-Colombia. Tachiras closely resemble thetrue Cucutas, grade for grade. Up to about 1905 the coffees grown nearSalazar, in Colombia, came to market under the name of Salazar; butsince then, they have been included among the Cucuta grades and are soldunder that name. The state of Tachira lies next to the Colombian boundary, and itsmountains produce much fine washed coffee. This has size and fair style, as a rule, but does not possess cup qualities to make it much sought. Itages well and, being of good body, the old crops, other things beingequal, frequently bring a tidy premium. The Rubio section of Tachira produces the best of its washed coffees. Here are several of the largest and best-equipped estates in allVenezuela. Washed when fresh, the coffees from these estates are usuallysold somewhat under the fancy Caracas; but the trillados of the Tachirarank with the best of the country, owing to their large bean, solidcolor, and good quality. They roast well, and cup with good body, thoughnot much character. Good Tachira trillados are sold on the same basis asthe Cucutas, which they resemble. The Meridas are raised at higher altitudes than Cucutas, and good gradesare sought for their peculiarly delicate flavor--which is neither acidynor bitter--and heavy body. They rank as the best by far of theMaracaibo type. The bean is high-grown, of medium size, and roundish. Itis well knit, and brings the highest price while it still holds itsbluish style, as it then retains its delicate aroma and character. Thetrillados of Merida run unevenly. Tovars rank between Trujillos and Tachiras. They are fair to good bodywithout acidity; make a duller roast than Cucutas, but contain fewerquakers. They are used for blending with Bourbon Santos. Boconos arelight in color and body. They are of two classes; one a round, small tomedium, bean; and the other larger and softer. Their flavor is ratherneutral, and they are frequently used as fillers in blends. Trujilloslack acidity and make a dull, rough roast, unless aged. They are blendedwith Bourbon Santos to make a low-priced palatable coffee. Some coffeesof merit are produced at Santa Ana, Monte Carmelo, and Bocono inTrujillo. _Other South American Countries_ The coffees from other South American countries, even where there is anappreciable production, are not important factors in internationaltrade. The coffee of Ecuador, shipped through the port of Guayaquil, goes mostly to Chile, a comparatively small quantity being exported tothe United States. The bean is small to medium in size, pea-green incolor, and not desirable in the cup. The coffee is about equal tolow-grade Brazil, and is used principally as a filler. Peru produces anever-lessening quantity of coffee, the bulk of the exports in pre-waryears going to Germany, Chile, and the United Kingdom. It is alow-altitude growth, and is considered poor grade. The bean ranges frommedium to bold in size, and from bluish to yellow in color. Bolivia isan unimportant factor in the international coffee trade, most of itsexports going to Chile. The chief variety produced is called the Yunga, which is considered to be of superior quality; but only a small quantityis grown. Guiana's coffee trade is insignificant. The three best-knowntypes are the Surinam, Demerara, and Cayenne, named after the portsthrough which they are shipped. _The West Indies_ Coffee either is, or can be, grown practically everywhere in the WestIndies; but the chief producing districts are found on the islands ofPorto Rico, Haiti (and Santo Domingo), Jamaica, Guadeloupe, and Curaçao. Coffees coming from these islands are generally known by the name of thecountry of production, and may be further identified by the names of thedistricts in which they are grown. PORTO RICO. Since the United States took possession of Porto Rico, soilexperts have endeavored to raise the quality of the coffee grown there, especially the lower grades, which had peculiarly wild characteristics. Today, the superior grades of Porto Rican coffees rank among the bestgrowths known to the trade. The bean is large, uniform, and stylish;ranging in color from a light gray-blue to a dark green-blue. Some ofthese are artificially colored for foreign markets. The coffee roastswell, and has a heavy body, similar to the fanciest Mexicans andColombians. Its cup is not as rich, but it makes a good blend. PortoRican coffees command a higher price in France than in the UnitedStates, which accounts for the larger proportion of exports to Europe, excepting when the French market was cut off during the World War. JAMAICA. Jamaica produces two distinct types of coffee, the highland andthe lowland growths. Among the first-named is the celebrated BlueMountain coffee, which has a well developed pale blue-green bean thatmakes a good-appearing roast and a pleasantly aromatic cup. It isfrequently compared with the fancy Cobáns of Guatemala. The lowlandcoffee is a poorer grade, and consists largely of a mixture of differentgrowths produced on the plains. It is a fair-sized bean, green to yellowin the "natural", and blue-green when washed. In the cup it has a grassyflavor, but is flat when drunk with cream. It is used chiefly as afiller in blends, and for French roasts. HAITI AND SANTO DOMINGO. The coffees of these two republics have likecharacteristics, being grown on the same island and in about the sameclimatic and soil conditions. Careless cultivation and preparationmethods are responsible for the generally poor quality of these coffees. When properly grown and cured, they rank well with high-grade washedvarieties, and have a rich, fairly acid flavor in the cup. The bean isblue-green, and makes a handsome roast. GUADELOUPE. Guadeloupe coffee is distinguishable by its green, long, andslightly thick bean, covered by a pellicle of whitish silvery color, which separates from the bean in the roast. It has excellent cupqualities. MARTINIQUE. This island formerly produced a coffee closely resemblingthe Guadeloupe; but no coffee is now grown there, though some Guadeloupegrowths are shipped from Martinique, and bear its name. OTHER WEST INDIAN ISLANDS. Among the other West Indian islandsproducing small quantities of coffee are Cuba, Trinidad, Dominica, Barbados, and Curaçao. The growths are generally good quality, bearing aclose resemblance to one another. In the past, Cuba produced a finegrade; but the industry is now practically extinct. _Asia_ ARABIA. For many generations Mocha coffee has been recognized throughoutthe world as the best coffee obtainable; and until the pure food lawwent into effect in the United States, other high-grade coffees werefrequently sold by American firms under the name of Mocha. Now, onlycoffees grown in Arabia are entitled to that valuable trade name. Theygrow in a small area in the mountainous regions of the southwesternportion of the Arabian peninsula, in the province of Yemen, and areknown locally by the names of the districts in which they are produced. Commercially they are graded as follows: Mocha Extra, for all extraqualities; Mocha No. 1, consisting of only perfect berries; No. 1-A, containing some dust, but otherwise free of imperfections; No. 2, showing a few broken beans and quakers; No. 3, having a heavierpercentage of brokens and quakers and also some dust. [Illustration: MOCHA BEANS--ROASTED] Mocha beans are very small, hard, roundish, and irregular in form andsize. In color, they shade from olive green to pale yellow, the bulkbeing olive green. The roast is poor and uneven; but the coffee'svirtues are shown in the cup. It has a distinctive winy flavor, and isheavy with acidity--two qualities which make a straight Mocha brewespecially valuable as an after-dinner coffee, and also esteemed forblending with fancy, mild, washed types, particularly East Indiangrowths. As in other countries, the coffees grown on the highlands in Yemen arebetter than the lowland growths. As a rule, the low altitude bean islarger and more oblong than that grown in the highlands, due to itsquicker development in the regions where the rainfall, though not great, is more abundant. While Mocha coffees are known commercially by grade numbers, theplanters and Arabian traders also designate them by the name of thedistrict or province in which each is grown. Among the better gradesthus labeled are, the Yaffey, the Anezi, the Mattari, the Sanani, theSharki, and the Haimi-Harazi. For the poorer grades, these names areused: Remi, Bourai, Shami, Yemeni, and Maidi. Of these varieties, theMattari, a hard and regular bean, pale yellow in color, commands thehighest price, with the Yaffey a close second. Harazi coffee heads themarket for quantity coupled with general average of quality. INDIAN AND CEYLON. Coffees from India and Ceylon are marketed almostexclusively in London, little reaching the American trade. Of the Indiangrowths, Malabars, grown on the western slope of the Ghaut mountains, are classed commercially as the best. The bean is rather small andblue-green in color. In the cup it has a distinctive strong flavor anddeep color. Mysore coffee ranks next in favor on the English market. Itis mountain grown, and the bean is large and blue-green in color. Tellicherry is another good grade coffee, closely resembling Malabar. Coorg (Kurg) coffee is an inferior growth. It is lowland type, and inthe cup is thin and flat. The bean is large and flat, and tends towarddark green in color. Travancore is another lowland growth, ranking aboutwith Coorg, and has the same general characteristics. See the CompleteReference Table for details. Ceylon, although it once was one of the world's most importantproducers, has been losing ground as a coffee-producing country since1890. Ceylon coffees are classified commercially as "native", "plantation", and "mountain". The native is a poor-grade, lowlandgrowth, with large flat bean and low cup quality. The plantation, sonamed because more carefully cultivated on highland plantations, is astylish roaster, and gives a rich flavor and strong fragrance in thecup. The mountain, grown at high altitudes, is a small, steel-blue bean, and is considered by British traders as equal to the best varietiesgrown anywhere. It was formerly shipped to Aden to be mixed with Mocha. [Illustration: _Coffee Map of Africa and Arabia_ _Showing the Principal Coffee-Producing Countries on the Continent andAdjacent Islands. _ Copyright 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co. ] FRENCH INDO-CHINA. The coffee of French Indo-China is highly prized inFrance, where the bulk of the exports goes. The coffee tree grows wellin the provinces of Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia, and Cochin-China. Tonkin isthe largest producer, and grows the best varieties. In the cup, Tonkincoffee is thought by French traders to compare favorably with Mocha. Ofthe several varieties of _Coffea arabica_ grown in Indo-China, the_Grand Bourbon_, _Bourbon rond_, and the _Bourbon Le Roy_, are the bestknown. The first-named is a large bean of good quality; the second is asmall, round bean of superior grade; and the third is a still smallerbean of fair cup quality. [Illustration: JAVA (Washed)] [Illustration: SUMATRA (Mandheling)] [Illustration: ARABIAN (Mocha)] [Illustration: COLOMBIAN (Bogota)] [Illustration: GUATEMALA (Washed)] [Illustration: MEXICAN (Washed)] [Illustration: COSTA RICA (Washed)] [Illustration: SANTOS (Peaberry)] [Illustration: VENEZUELA (Maracaibo)] [Illustration: SANTOS (Flat Bean)] [Illustration: SANTOS (Bourbon)] [Illustration: RIO (Natural)] [Illustration: PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF GREEN COFFEE BEANS, NATURAL SIZEAND COLOR] _Africa_ ABYSSINIA. The coffee grown in Abyssinia is classified commercially intotwo varieties: Harari, which is grown principally in the district aroundHarar; and Abyssinian, produced mainly in the provinces of Kaffa, Sidamo, and Guma. Harari coffee is the fruit of cultivated trees; whileAbyssinian comes from wild trees. The first-named produces a long andwell-shaped berry, and is often referred to as Longberry Harari. Thebean is larger than the Mocha, but similar in general appearance. Itscolor shades from blue-green to yellow. Good grades of Harari have cupcharacteristics resembling Mocha, and by some are preferred to Mocha, because of their winier cup flavor. The Abyssinian coffee is consideredmuch inferior to Harari; and chops generally contain many imperfections. The bean is dark gray in color. Little Abyssinian coffee comes to theUnited States. Many other African countries produce coffee; but little of it everreaches the North American market. Uganda, in British East Africa, growsa good grade of _robusta_ coffee which is valued on the London market. Liberian coffee, grown on the west coast, used to be mixed with BourbonSantos to some extent; but it is generally considered low grade, although it makes a handsome, elephantine roast. The product of Guineais a very small bean, half-way between a peaberry and a flat bean, andhas a dingy brown color. It is considered worthless as a drink. Amedium-sized, strong-flavored bean that is rich in the cup, is grown inthe African Congo district. In Angola a fair quantity of coffee isproduced. In the cup it has a strong and pungent flavor, but lackssmoothness and aroma. Zanzibar produces a pleasing coffee in verylimited quantities. The bean is medium size, and regular in shape. Mozambique's coffee is greenish in color, of medium size, and mellow. The production is small. Madagascar produces an insignificant quantityfor export, although the coffee is considered fair average, with richflavor, and considerable fragrance. Bourbon coffee, grown on the islandof Réunion, commands a high price in the French market, wherepractically all exports go. It is a small, flinty bean, and gives a richcup and fragrance. [Illustration: WASHED JAVA BEANS--ROASTED] _East Indian Islands_ Some of the coffees from the East Indian islands rank among the best inthe world, particularly those from Sumatra. East India coffees aredistinguished by their smooth, heavy body in the cup, the fancy gradesgiving an almost syrupy richness. JAVA. Java coffees are generally of a smaller bean than those fromSumatra, and are not considered as high grade. The bulk of the new-cropgrowths have a grassy flavor which most people find unpleasant whendrunk straight. Under the old culture system, coffee was bought by thegovernment, and held in godowns from two to three years, until it hadbecome mellow with age. In late years, this system has been abandoned;and the planters now sell their product as they please, and in mostcases without mellowing, excepting as they age during the long seavoyage from Batavia to destination. Before the advent of large fleets ofsteamers in the East Indian trade, the coffee was brought to America insailing vessels that required from three to four months for the trip. During the voyage, the coffee went through a sweating process whichturned the beans from a light green to a dark brown, and considerablyenhanced their cup values. The sweating was due to the coffee beingloaded while moist, and then practically sealed in the vessel's holdduring all its trip through the tropical seas. As a consequence, thecargo steamed and foamed; and as a rule, part of the coffee becamemoldy, the damage seldom extending more than an inch or two into themats. Sweated coffees commanded from three to five cents more than thosethat came in "pale". [Illustration: _Mild Coffee Map--No. 2_ _Showing the Mild Coffee-Producing Countries of Asia, Netherlands India, and Australasia_ Copyright, 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co. ] Before the Java coffee trade began to decline in the latter part of thenineteenth century, _Coffea arabica_ was grown abundantly throughout theisland. Each residency had numerous estates, and their names were givento the coffees produced. The best coffees came from Preanger, Cheribon, Buitenzorg, and Batavia, ranking in merit in the order named. All Javacoffees are known commercially either as private growth, or as blue beanwashed, the former being cured by either the washing or the dry hullingmethod, while the latter are washed. Private growths are usually a paleyellow, the bean being short and round and slightly convex. It makes ahandsome even roast, showing a full white stripe. The washed variety isa pale blue-green, the bean closely resembling the private growth inform and roast. These coffees have a distinctive character in the cupthat is much different from any other coffee grown. Their liquor isthin. All the better known coffees of Java, which are designated by thedistricts in which they are grown, are listed in the Complete ReferenceTable. Coffee from few of the many districts comes to the North Americanmarket. Among those that are sold in the United States are the Kadoe andSemarang, both of which are small, yellowish green; and the Malang, agreen, hard bean which makes a better roast than Kadoe and Semarang, butis inferior to them in the cup. SUMATRA. Sumatra has the reputation of producing some of the finest andhighest-priced coffees in the world, such as Mandheling, Ankola, AyerBangies, Padang Interior, and Palembang. Mandheling coffee is a large, brownish bean which roasts dull, but is generally free from quakers. Itis very heavy in body, and has a unique flavor that easily distinguishesit from any other growth. The Ankola bean is shorter andbetter-appearing than Mandheling, but otherwise bears a closeresemblance. Its flavor is only slightly under Mandheling; and, likethat coffee, is recommended for blending with the best grades of Mocha. While the Ayer Bangies bean is somewhat larger than the other two justmentioned, it is not so dark brown in color, and is not quite so heavyin body; the flavor is very delicate. These three growths are known inthe trade as the "Fancies" and are considered the best of Sumatra'sproduction. The Sumatra coffee best known to the American trade is the PadangInterior, which is shipped through the port of Padang on Sumatra's westcoast. The bean is irregular in form and color, and makes a dull roast. However, the flavor is good, although it lacks the richness of theFancies. Another celebrated coffee grown on the west coast is the BoekitGompong, grown on the estate of that name near Padang. It is ahigh-grade coffee, making a handsome roast, and possessing a delicateflavor. The foregoing coffees are produced on what were formerly termedgovernment estates, and during the heyday of government control weresold by auction and came mostly to the United States. Among the private estate coffees, Corinchies take first rank forquality, some traders saying that they are the best in internationalcommerce. They closely resemble Ankolas, but range a cent or two lowerin price. Next in order of merit is Timor coffee, grown on the island ofthat name. It is not as attractive in appearance, roast, or cup qualityas the Corinchie. A grade below Timors is Boengie coffee, which isseldom seen on the North American market. Kroe coffee is better knownand more widely used in the United States. The bean is large, but has anattractive appearance. Kroes are of heavy body, of somewhat groundyflavor when new crop, and are good roasters and blenders. Other EastIndian coffees are Teagals, Balis, and Macassars, all of which aresecond-rate growths as compared with the bulk of Sumatras, grade forgrade. The Macassars are produced in the district of that name on islandof Celebes. The best coffee grown in Celebes comes from the province ofMenado, and is known by that name. It is thought to be of a superiorquality, and commands a high price in Europe. _The Pacific Islands_ The Philippine Islands have not figured in international coffee tradesince 1892, although in preceding years the Philippines exported severalmillion pounds of an average good grade of coffee. While coffee is oneof the shade trees used by householders in Guam, none of the fruit isexported. Coffee production is an unimportant industry in Samoa, Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and other Pacific islands, andnone is grown for export. HAWAII. Since the beginning of the twentieth century the Hawaiianislands have taken a position of increasing importance, shipping sometwo million pounds of good quality coffee to the United States, theirbiggest customer. Coffee grows to some extent on all the islands of thegroup, but fully ninety-five percent is raised in the districts of Kona, Puna, and Hamakua on the main island of Hawaii. All Hawaiian coffee ishigh grade; and is generally large bean, blue-green in color when newcrop, and yellow-brown when aged. It makes a handsome roast, and has afine flavor that is smooth and not too acid. It blends well with anyhigh-grade mild coffee. Kona coffee, grown in the district of that name, commands the highest price. Old-crop Kona coffee is said by some tradeauthorities to be equal to either Mocha or Old Government Java. _Appearance, Aroma, and Flavor in Cup-Testing_ Before the beginning of the twentieth century, practically all thecoffees bought and sold in the United States were judged for meritsimply by the appearance of the green or of the roasted bean. Since thattime, the importance of testing the drinking qualities has becomegenerally recognized; and today every progressive coffee buyer has hissample-roasting and testing outfit with which to carry out painstakingcup tests. Both buyers and sellers use the cup test, the former todetermine the merits of the coffee he is buying, and the latter toascertain the proper value of the chop under consideration. Frequently atest is made to fix the relative desirability of various growthsconsidered as a whole, using composite samples that are supposed to giverepresentation to an entire crop. The first step in testing coffee is to compare the appearance of thegreen bean of a chop with a sample of known standard value for thatparticular kind of coffee. The next step is to compare the appearancewhen roasted. Then comes the appearance and aroma test, when it isground; and finally, the most difficult of all, the trial of the flavorand aroma of the liquid. Naturally the tester gives much care to proper roasting of the samplesto be examined. He recognizes several different kinds of roasts which heterms the light, the medium, the dark, the Italian, and the Frenchroasts, all of which vary in the shadings of color, and each of whichgives a different taste in the cup. The careful tester watches the roastclosely to see whether the beans acquire a dull or bright finish, and tonote also if there are many quakers, or off-color beans. When the properroasting point is reached, he smells the beans while still hot todetermine their aroma. In some growths and grades, he will frequentlysmell of them as they cool off, because the character changes as theheat leaves them, as in the case of many Maracaibo grades. After roasting, the actual cup-testing begins. Two methods are employed, the blind cup test, in which there is no clue to the identity of thekind of coffee in the cup; and the open test, in which the tester knowsbeforehand the particular coffee he is to examine. The former is mostgenerally employed by buyers and sellers; although a large number ofexperts who do not let their knowledge interfere with their judgment, use the open method. In both systems the amount of ground coffee placed in the cup iscarefully weighed so that the strength will be standard. Generally, thecups are marked on the bottom for identification after the examination. Before pouring on the hot water to make the brew, the aroma of thefreshly ground coffee is carefully noted to see if it is up to standard. In pouring the water, care is exercised to keep the temperature constantin the cups, so that the strength in all will be equal. When the wateris poured directly on the grounds, a crust or scum is formed. Beforethis crust breaks, the tester sniffs the aroma given off; this is calledthe wet-smell, or crust, test, and is considered of great importance. Of course, the taste of the brew is the most important test. Equalamounts of coffee are sipped from each cup, the tester holding each sipin his mouth only long enough to get the full strength of the flavor. Hespits out the coffee into a large brass cuspidor which is designed forthe purpose. The expert never swallows the liquor. Cup-testing calls for keenly developed senses of sight, smell, andtaste, and the faculty for remembering delicate shadings in each sense. By sight, the coffee man judges the size, shape, and color of the greenand roasted bean, which are important factors in determining commercialvalues. He can tell also whether the coffee is of the washed or unwashedvariety, and whether it contains many imperfections such as quakers, pods, stones, brokens, off-colored beans, and the like. By his sense ofsmell of the roast and of the brew, he gauges the strength of the aroma, which also enters into the valuation calculation. His palate tells himmany things about a coffee brew--if the drink has body and is smooth, rich, acidy, or mellow; if it is winy, neutral, harsh, or Rioy; if it ismusty, groundy, woody, or grassy; or if it is rank, hidey (sour), muddy, or bitter. These are trade designations of the different shades offlavor to be found in the various coffees coming to the North Americanmarket; and each has an influence on the price at which they will besold. The up-to-date cup-tester requires special equipment to get the bestresults. A typical installation consists of a gas sample-roastingoutfit, employing at least a single cylinder holding about six ounces ofcoffee, and perhaps a battery of a dozen or more; an electric grindingmill; a testing table, with a top that can be revolved by hand; a pairof accurately adjusted balance scales; one or more brass kettles; a gasstove for heating water; sample pans; many china or glass cups; silverspoons; and a brass cuspidor that stands waist high and is shaped likean hour glass. Since the World War, there have been some notable changes in the buyingof coffees, particularly in European markets. For example, the old ideaof buying fancy coffees at fancy prices is probably gone for good inEurope. [Illustration: TYPICAL SAMPLE-ROASTING AND CUP-TESTING OUTFIT In the middle of the picture is a standard revolving table (3-1/2 feetin diameter), with scale mounted over the center, and with a "MitchellTray" for holding one cup independent of the table-top movement. Thereare two cuspidors, a double kettle outfit, a 6-cylinder sample roasterand a motor-driven sample grinder; also a set of sample separator sievesin the overhead rack, a bag sampler (lying on the lower shelf of thecounter), and some coffee crushers (one on the end of the counter andone on the revolving table)] COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL KINDS OF COFFEE GROWN IN THE WORLD _Together with Their Trade Values and Cup Characteristics_ _t_, indicates town or trading center; _m n_, market name; _d_, districtor state. ---------------+------------+---------------+--------------|--------------- | | |State, or |Trade ValuesGrand Division | Country |Shipping Ports |District, | and Cup | | |Market Names |Characteristics | | | Gradings |---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+---------------North America |Mexico |Vera Cruz |Mexicans |_In general_: | |on Gulf of Mex. | |Mexicans are | | | |mild or mellow. | | | |The green beans | | | |are greenish to | | | |yellow (when | | | |aged) and of | | | |large size. The | | | |washed coffees | | | |make a handsome | | | |roast, showing | | | |pronounced white | | | |central stripe. | | | |In the cup they | | | |have a full rich | | | |body, fine | | | |acidity, and a | | | |wonderful | | | |_bouquet_. | | | | | | |Vera Cruz, d |Acid, of | | |Coatepec, m n |excellent heavy | | |(pro. , |and rich | | | co-at-e-pec) |flavor;fine for | | | |blending. | | | | | | |Huatusco, t |Fine appearing | | |(pro. , |washed coffee; | | | wha-toos-co) |next to | | | |Coatepec for | | | |acid and | | | |blending | | | |qualities. | | | | | | |Orizaba, t |Regarded as | | | |next to | | | |Huatusco; | | | |good cup | | | |quality. | | | | | | |Jalapa, t |Stylish | | |(pro. , |roaster; | | | ha-lap-a) |frequently | | | |light body. | | | | | | |Cordoba, t |Neutral, smooth | | | |in flavor, | | | |without acid | | | |tang; good | | | |body. | | | | | |Puerto Mexico |Tabasco, d & |Of uncertain | |on Gulf of Mex. | m n |character; many | | |Coatzacoalcos, |of them Rioy, | | | t & m n |flat, and | | | |groundy. | | | |Unsatisfactory | | | |in the cup. | | | | | |Salina Cruz |Chiapas, d |Resembles | | on Pacific | Soconusco, t, |Guatemala | | | m n | | |Coatzacoalcos | or |coffees; | |(Puerto Mexico)| Tapachula, |smooth in | |on Gulf of Mex. | t, m n |character, | | | |and without | | | |decided tang. | | | | | | |Oaxaca, d, m n|Small bean; | | | & t (pr. , |excellent | | | wah-hock-ah)|quality, sharply | | | Sierra Oaxaca|acid, fine | | | (common - |flavor, but not | | | unwashed) |stylish in | | | Pluma Oaxaca |appearance. | | | (hidalgo- |The Pluma is a | | | washed) |very fancy bean | | | |coffee, also | | | |acid and fine | | | |for blending. | | | | | |Acapulco |Guerrero, d |Inferior in | | on Pacific | Sierra, m n |quality; low | | | |growth and | | | |woody. | | | | | |Manzanillo |Michoacan, d |A superior | | on Pacific | Unrapan, t |coffee, but not | | | |produced in | | | |commercial | | | |quantity. | | | | | | Do. |Colima, d, m n|Very like | | | & t |Uruapan. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------+------------+---------------+--------------|--------------- | | |State, or |Trade ValuesGrand Division | Country |Shipping Ports |District, | and Cup | | |Market Names |Characteristics | | | Gradings |---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+---------------North America |Mexico |Vera Cruz |Puebla, d |Low-grade (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | |Sierra, m n |mountain coffee. | | | | | |Tampico |Tamaulipas, d |An inferior | | | Tampico, m n |grade. | | | & t | | | | | | | | Tepic |So called | | | |"Mexican Mocha. " | | | |Raised for local | | | |consumption. Not | | | |a commercial | | | |factor. | | |------------------------------- | | | Classes for all Mexicans | | |1. Commons (customary or | | | natural). | | |2. Washed (W. I. P. ) | | |3. Caracolillo (peaberry. )---------------+------------+---------------+-------------------------------Central America|Guatemala |Puerto Barrios |Guatemala |_In general_: | | and Livingston| |Guatemalas are | | on Caribbean | |mild or mellow | | | |and mostly | | | |washed. | | | |The green beans | | | |are greenish to | | | |yellow (when | | | |aged), and of | | | |large size. The | | | |mountain-grown | | | |coffees make a | | | |handsome roast, | | | |are of full | | | |heavy body and | | | |excellent cup | | | |quality. The | | | |lower-altitude | | | |coffees are light | | | |in cup, but | | | |flavory. | | | | | |Ocos, |Cobán, t & m n|Waxy, bluish | |Champerico, and| |bean; handsome | |San José | |uniform roast | | on Pacific | |with white | | | |center. Heavy | | | |body, fine | | | |acidity. | |Belize |Alta Verapaz, |Gray-blue bean; | | (Br. Honduras)| d |fine mellow | | | Sehenaju, t |flavor. See | | | |Belize. | | |Antigua, d |Medium flinty | | |Costa Cuca, d |bean; lighter in | | |Costa Grande, d|body; flavory, | | |Barberena, d |acid. | | |Tumbador, d | _Classes for_ | | |Costa de Cucho|_All Guatemalas_ | | |Chicacao |Most Guatemalas | | | Xolhuitz, d |are washed and | | |Pochuta |may be | | | Malacatan, d|classified as | | |San Marcos, d |follows: | | |Chuva, d |1. Small flinty | | |Escuintla, d |bean, extremely | | |San Vincente, d|acid and flavory, | | |Pacaya, d |produced in the | | |Moran, d |highest altitudes | | |Amatitlan, d |of the Antigua, | | |Palmar, d |Moran, and | | |Motagua, d |Amatitlan | | | |districts. | | | |2. Waxy, bluish | | | |bean, flinty, | | | |but large roast; | | | |heavy body with | | | |fine acidity. | | | |Produced in the | | | |mountainous | | | |regions of the | | | |Cobán, Costa | | | |Cuca, Tumbador, | | | |and Chuva | | | |districts. | | |3. Waxy, bluish bean, handsome | | |uniform roast, heavy-bodied but | | |non-acid coffees produced in | | |almost every district of the | | |republic at an altiture of from | | |2, 000 to 3, 000 feet. | | | | | |4. Stylish, green bean, | | |handsome large uniform roast, | | |very white center, mild cupping | | |coffees produced practically | | |everywhere in the republic at | | |an altitude of from 1, 500 to | | |2, 500 feet. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------+------------+---------------+--------------|--------------- | | | State, or |Trade ValuesGrand Division | Country |Shipping Ports |District, | and Cup | | |Market Names |Characteristics | | | Gradings |---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+---------------Central America|Guatemala | |5. The lower altitudes of the (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | |various districts produce either | | |medium bean, neutral cupping, | | |colory coffees, or the Bourbon | | |type of small bean, greenish | | |coffee. | | |------------------------------ |British |Belize |Belize, m n |A Cobán coffee | Honduras | | |from the | | | |Honduras Alta | | | |Verapaz district | | | |in Guatemala. | | | | | |Trujillo and |Honduras |_In general_: | |Puerto Cortés | Santa Barbara|Honduras coffees | | on Caribbean | d |are small, | | | Copan, d |rounded, and | | | Cortez d |bluish-green. | |Amapala | La Paz, d |They are of a | | on Pacific | Choluteca, d |hard flinty | | | El Paraiso, d|character; make a | | | |fair roast and | | | |are neutral in | | | |flavor. While the | | | |upland grades are | | | |of good quality, | | | |the run of the | | | |country's | | | |production | | | |seldom brings as | | | |high a price as | | | |Santos of equal | | | |grade. | | | | |Salvador |Acajutla |Salvador |_In general_: | |La Union | Usulutan, d |Salvador's | | La Libertad | La Libertad, |coffees are | | | d |mostly inferior | | | Santa Ana, d |in quality to | | | Santa Tecla, |those of | | | d |Guatemala. The | | | La Paz, d |bulk of the crop | | | Ahuachapan, d|is natural | | | Juayua, d |unwashed. Green | | | Santiago de |beans are smooth | | | Maria, d |and handsome and | | | Sonsonate, d |make a cinnamon | | | San Miguel, d|roast. Flavor is | | | San Salvador, |neutral. Useful | | | d |as a filler. The | | | San Vincente, |washed coffee is | | | d |a fancy roaster, | | | Cuscatlan, d |with a very thin | | | Morazan, d |cup. | | | Cabanas, d | | | | Chalatenango, |Classes and | | | d |Gradings for All | | | La Union, d |Salvadors: Washed | | | |1. Flinty, colory, | | | |greenish to bluish | | | |bean, fine white | | | |centered roasters, | | | |extremely stylish | | | |coffees with | | | |full-bodied cup | | |--------------|merit. | | |2. Grayish green to bluish green | | |neutral-cupping coffees. | | | | | | _Unwashed_ | | | | | |1. Screened, large bean, fine | | |roaster. | | | | | |2. Average run, unscreened, | | |so-called Current Unwashed. All | | |unwashed coffees vary greatly | | |in cup merit, much the same as | | |with Santos coffees. | | |--------------+---------------- |Nicaragua |Corinto |Nicaragua |_In general_: The | | on Pacific | |washed coffees of | | | |Nicaragua have | | | |merit, and are | | | |fine roasters; but | | | |the naturals, | | | |comprising the | | | |bulk of the crop, | | | |are of ordinary | | | |quality. | | | | | |San Juan del |Matagalpa, d |Large, handsome, | |Norte | |blue, washed bean | | (Greytown) | |making fancy | | on Caribbean | |roast with plenty | | | |of acid in the | | | |cup. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------+------------+---------------+--------------|--------------- | | |State, or |Trade ValuesGrand Division | Country |Shipping Ports |District, | and Cup | | |Market Names |Characteristics | | | Gradings |---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+---------------Central America|Nicaragua | |Jinotega, d | (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | |Los Pueblos, d| | | |Los Altos, d | | | +--------------+ | | | _Classes for All Nicaraguas_: | | | | | |1. Large, handsome, pale | | |greenish to blue, washed coffee | | |of the Matagalpa district, | | |often showing fancy roast and | | |acidly full-bodied cup. | | | | | |2. Washed coffees of the lower | | |regions; small in size, but | | |greenish, colory, fine roasters | | |and neutral cupping. | | | | | |3. Unwashed coffee (bulk of the | | |output) the merit of which | | |depends entirely on the | | |respective crop. Often a large | | |proportion of the crop is mild | | |cupping and as desirable as any | | |other unwashed coffee; while | | |another crop may produce a large | | |quantity of Rio-flavored coffees. | | +------------------------------- |Costa Rica |Puerto Limon |Costa Rica |_In general_: The | | on Caribbean | Cartago, d |high-altitude | |Punta Arenas | San José d |coffees of Costa | | on Pacific | Alajuela, d |Rica are | | | Grecia, d |blue-greenish, | | | Tres Rios, d |large, rich in | | | Heredia, d |body, of fine, | | | |mild flavor, | | | |sharply acid, | | | |and superior for | | | |blending | | | |purposes. These | | | |coffees are famous | | | |for their fine | | | |preparation and | | | |careful | | | |screening. The | | | |lower regions | | | |produce coffees | | | |of more | | | |neutral-cupping | | | |qualities. |Panama |Panama City |Panama |_In general_: The | | | Chiriqui, d |green bean is of | | | Boquete, m n |average size, | | | |greenish in | | | |color. In the | | | |cup it has a | | | |heavy body and a | | | |strong flavor. | | | |Grown chiefly for | | | |domestic | | | |consumption. Not | | | |a commercial | | | |factor. ---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+----------------West Indies |Cuba |Havana |Cuba |_In general_:(Greater | |Santiago | Oriente, d |Cuban coffee is Antilles) | | | Guatanamo, t |of good quality. | | | Santa Clara, |The bean is of | | | d |medium size, | | | Pinar del Rio|light green, and | | | d |makes a uniform | | | Vuelta Abaja|roast. The flavor | | | m n |resembles the fine | | | |washed coffees of | | | |Santo Domingo. Not | | | |commercially | | | |important. | | | | |Haiti |Port au Prince |Haiti |_In general_: The | |Cap Haitien | St. Marc, d |Haitian washed | | | Gonaive, d |coffee is a blue | | | Cap Haitien, |bean and makes an | | | d |attractive roast. | | | Jacmel, d |It has a rich, | | | Les Cayes, d |fairly acid, | | | Jeremie, d |mildly-sweet | | | |flavor; of average | | | |quality. The | | | |naturals are used | | | |extensively for | | | |French roasts. ---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------West Indies |Santo |Santo Domingo |Santo Domingo |_In general_: Santo (Greater | Domingo |Porto Plata | Cape, m n | Domingo coffee is Antilles) | | | Mocha, d | a large, flat, (Cont'd) | | | Santiago, d | pointed, | | | Porto Plata, d | greenish-yellow | | | Bani, d | bean. The | | | Barahona, d | high-grown washed | | | | is of good body and | | | | fair flavor. The | | | | low grade is | | | | strong, approaching | | | | Rio in flavor. The | | | | natural coffees are | | | | used extensively | | | | for French roasts. | | | | |Jamaica |Kingston |Jamaica |_In general_: | (British) | | Classes: | Jamaica coffee is | | | Blue Mountain | bluish-green when | | | (high-grown) | washed, and green | | | Settlers' | to yellow when | | | (ordinary, or | patio-dried. The | | | plain-grown) | washed high-grown | | | | makes a fancy | | | | roast, and is rich, | | | | full and mellow in | | | | the cup. The | | | | ordinary | | | | plain-grown makes | | | | a bright roast, | | | | and has a fairly | | | | good cup quality. | | | | The naturals are | | | | used extensively | | | | for French roasts. | | | | |Porto Rico |San Juan |Porto Rico |_In general_: Porto | (U. S. ) |Ponce | Sierra | Rico coffee | |Mayaguez | Luquillo, | is a large, | |Arecibo | m n | handsome, washed | |Aguadilla | Yauco, d, t | bean, light | | | & m n | gray-blue to dark | | | Ciales, d & t | greenish blue in | | | Cayey, d & t | color, and makes | | | Utuado, d & t | a fancy roast | | | | without quakers. | | | Lares, d & t | Strong or heavy | | | Moca, d & t | body; peculiar | | | Adjuntas, d & | flavor similar | | | t | to a washed | | | Las Larias, d | Caracas, but | | | & t | smoother. | | | Maricao, d & | | | | t | | | | San Sebastian | _Classes for All | | | d | Porto Ricos_ | | | Mayaguez, d & | | | | t |Caracolillo, a round | | | Ponce, d & t | bean peaberry; | | | | Primero, a superior | | | | grade of good size | | | | and color, usually | | | | hand-picked; | | | | Segundo, second | | | | grade, inferior to | | | | Primero in size and | | | | color; Trillo, | | | | lowest grade, sold | | | | locally. | | | |(Lesser |British West| | | Antilles) | Indies | | | |Antigua |Saint John |Antigua |_In general_: While |Dominica |Portsmouth |Dominica | the quantity grown | | | (Soufrière) | is small, the |Barbados |Bridgetown |Barbados | coffee is of good |Trinidad |Port of Spain |Trinidad | quality, and |Tobago |Scarborough |Tobago | includes ten | | | | different | | | | varieties. That | | | | grown in Barbados | | | | is similar to that | | | | of Martinique, but | | | | a larger bean. This | | | | group is not an | | | | important | | | | commercial factor. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------West Indies |Guadeloupe |Pointe-à-Pitre|Guadeloupe |_In general_: The (Lesser | (French) | |Classes: | Guadeloupe coffee Antilles) | | | 1. Bonifieur, | bean is glossy, (Cont'd) | | | or Café Lustre | hard, long, and | | | (glossy) | has an even green | | | 2. Habitant, | color, somewhat | | | or Café plus | grayish. It is of | | | Pellicule | excellent quality. | | | (with | The Saints Bean is | | | pellicles) | superior. The | | | | Ordinary is a | | | | smaller, rounder, | | | | curved bean. | | | | Guadeloupe coffees | | | | are mostly sold as | | | | Martinique. | | | | |Martinique |Fort-de-France|Martinique |_In general_: The | (French) | | Grades: | Martinique bean is | | | Fine Green | green, long, | | | Common Green | somewhat thick, and | | | Good Commercial| is usually shipped | | | Common " | in the silver skin. | | | Picked " | It is of fine | | | Common | quality, but | | | | commercially | | | | unimportant. | | | | Guadeloupe coffees | | | | are not | | | | infrequently sold | | | | as Martinique. | | | | |Curaçao |Willemstad |Curaçao |_In general_: The | (Dutch) | | | Curaçao coffee bean | | | | is small, of light | | | | color and flavor. | | | | It makes a bright | | | | cinnamon roast; | | | | useful as a filler. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------South America|Colombia |Puerto |Colombians, m |_In general_: The | | Colombia | n | Colombian coffee | | (Savanilla) | | bean is greenish, | |Barranquilla | | yellow, and brown, | |Cartagena | | depending on age, | |Santa Marta | | and is rich and | | on Atlantic | | mild in the cup. | | | | The fancy grades | |Buenaventura | | compare favorably | |Tumaco | | with the world's | | on the | | best growths. They | | Pacific | | produce one-quarter | | | | more liquor of | | | | given strength than | | | | Santos coffees, and | | | | possess much finer | | | | flavor and aroma. | | | | | | |Antioquia, d |Light to dark green; | | | Medellin, t | handsome roasters; | | | & m n | not as smooth as | | | | some Central | | | | American types, but | | | | best of Colombians; | | | | fine flavor and | | | | body. | | | | | | |Caldas, d |Similar to Medellins | | | Manizales, | in cup quality, but | | | t & m n | not as heavy-bodied | | | | or as acid. | | | | | | | Jerico |A favorably regarded | | | | Colombian. | | | | | | |Magdalena, d |Full, solid, blue, | | | Santa Marta, | washed bean, making | | | t & m n | a fancy roast, but | | | | too acid to be | | | | used straight. | | | | | | |Cundinamarca, |The green bean is | | | d | blue-green to fancy | | | Bogota, t & | yellow and Java | | | m n | brown, depending on | | | | age; long, with a | | | | sharp turn in one | | | | end of the center | | | | stripe. It makes-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------South America|Colombia | | | a smooth roast. The (Cont'd) | (Cont'd). | | | fancy has a rich, | | | | mellow flavor. | | | Cauca, t & | Sometimes sold as | | | m n | imitation Bogota or | | | | Bucaramanga; but | | | | inferior in | | | | appearance, roast, | | | | and drink. | | | | | | | Santander, d |Large bean, spongy | | | Bucaramanga | and open, making a | | | t & m n | dull Java-style | | | | roast. The naturals | | | | lack acidity and | | | | flavor; but have a | | | | heavy body. The | | | | fancies are almost | | | | the equals of fine | | | | Javas and Sumatras. | | | | | | | Cucuta, t & |Attractive in style | | | m n | and cup. | | | | (See Venezuela. ) | | | | | | | Ocana, t |Sometimes sold as an | | | Savanilla, | imitation Bogota or | | | m n | Bucaramanga; but | | | | inferior in | | | | appearance and cup. | | | | | | | Tolima, d |Fair size bean, | | | Ibague, t | attractive in | | | Honda, t | style and cup. | | | | | | | _Classes for All Colombians_: | | | Café Trillado (natural or sun dried), | | | Café Lavado (washed). | | | | | | _Gradings for All Colombians_: | | | Excelso (excellent), fantasia | | | (excelso and extra), extra (extra), | | | primera (first), segunda (second), | | | caracol (peaberry), monstruo (large | | | and deformed), consumo (defective), | | | pasilla (siftings). | | |-----------------+----------------- |Venezuela |La Guaira |Venezuela |_In general_: The | |Puerto Cabello| | coffee of Venezuela | |Maracaibo | | is greenish-yellow | | | | to yellow; large | | | | bean, ranging next | | | | to Santos in | | | | quality and price. | | | | It is mild or | | | | mellow in the cup. | | | | The unwashed, or | | | | _trillado_, | | | | comprises the bulk | | | | of the crop. | | | | | | | Caracas, d |Short, bluish bean, | | | | uniform in color, | | | | and making a light | | | | cinnamon roast, but | | | | containing quakers. | | | | The natural has a | | | | fair cup quality. | | | | The washed gives | | | | the best results in | | | | roast and cup. | | | | | | | Puerto |The washed is a | | | Cabello, d | handsome bean, but | | | | inferior in flavor | | | | to Caracas. The | | | | unwashed is flinty; | | | | fair roast, no | | | | special merit | | | | in cup. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------South America|Venezuela | |Cumana, d |Valued just below (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | | | Caracas. | | | | | | |Coro, d |Valued a trifle | | | | below Rio of the | | | | same grade. | | | | | | |Trujillo, d & |A low grade, making | | | m n | a dull rough roast. | | | | | | | Santa Ana |Light in color and | | | | body. | | | | | | | Monte Carmelo |Light in color and | | | | body. | | | | | | | Bocono |Light in color and | | | | body; neutral | | | | flavor. Two | | | | classes. | | | | | | |Merida, d & |The best of the | | | m n | Maracaibos. The | | | | washed makes a good | | | | roast, and has a | | | | peculiar delicate | | | | flavor much prized | | | | by experts. It | | | | ranks among the | | | | world's best. | | | | | | | Tovar, m n |Ranks between | | | | Trujillos and | | | | Tachiras. Fair to | | | | good body; without | | | | acidity. Used as | | | | filler in blends. | | | | | | | Tachira, m |Formerly sold as | | | n | Cucuta, (San | | | | Cristobal) to which | | | | it is nearest | | | | in quality, | | | | appearance, and | | | | flavor. | | | | | | | Cucuta, t & |Grown in Colombia. | | | m n | Resembles Java bean | | | Salazar, m | in form and roast. | | | n | The natural makes | | | | a full roast. The | | | | washed is a | | | | stylish, large | | | | bean, a beautiful | | | | roaster, splitting | | | | open with irregular | | | | white center; | | | | sharply acid in the | | | | cup. | | | | | | | Angostura |A small bean, light | | | | in color and body, | | | | without much weight | | | | or character. | | | | | | | Carupano |A low grade valued | | | | at about the same | | | | as a Brazil coffee | | | | of similar grade. | | | | |British |Georgetown |Demerara, m |_In general_: Not a | Guiana | | n | commercial factor. | | | | |Dutch Guiana|Paramaribo |Surinam, m |_In general_: The | (Surinam) | | n | production is | | | | limited and | | | | commercially | | | | unimportant. | | | | |French |Cayenne |Cayenne, m |_In general_: | Guiana | | n | Similar to | (Cayenne) | | | Martinique. The | | | | production is | | | | limited and | | | | commercially | | | | unimportant. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------South |Brazil | |Brazils, m n |_In general_: The American | | | | coffees of Brazil, (Cont'd) | | | | which are generally | | | | known in the trade | | | | as "Brazils" (to | | | | distinguish them | | | | from "Milds, " the | | | | higher grades), | | | | are the "price" | | | | coffees of the | | | | world. Brazil | | | | produces about 70% | | | | of the world's | | | | supply. | | | | | |Santos |São Paulo, d |The largest coffee | | | | district, producing | | | | between 50% and 60% | | | | of the world's | | | | supply. | | | | | | |Classes: | | | | Bourbon, |Small bean, | | | Santos m n | resembling Mocha, | | | | but making a | | | | handsomer roast | | | | with fewer quakers. | | | | In color it varies | | | | from dark to light | | | | green, and from | | | | yellow to a pale | | | | straw, often with | | | | a red center. True | | | | Bourbons are first | | | | crop beans. In the | | | | cup they are smooth | | | | and palatable | | | | without tang. | | | | | | | Flat Bean |Smooth surface, | | | Santos m n | small to large, | | | | pale green and | | | | greenish-yellow to | | | | pale yellow. It is | | | | a sixth year crop | | | | of Bourbon Santos. | | | | Good full smooth | | | | body. Used straight | | | | and in combination | | | | with all milds. | | | | | | | Mocha-Seed |A grade of Bourbon | | | Santos m n | designed as a | | | | substitute for true | | | | Mocha on the | | | | European markets. | | | | | | | Campinas, d |The oldest coffee | | | & t | district in São | | | | Paulo. There are | | | | 136 others. | | | | | | _Gradings for All São Paulo_: | | | 1--Fine 4--Regular | | | 2--Superior 5--Ordinary | | | 3--Good 6--Escalba | | +-----------------+----------------- | |Rio de |Minãs Geraes |Various shades of | | Janeriro | Rio, m n | green, medium to | | | | large. Peculiar | | | | pungent flavor and | | | | aroma. | | | | | | _Gradings for All Rios_: | | | (N. Y. Coffee Exchange) | | | 1--No imperfections | | | 2--6 imperfections | | | 3--13 imperfections | | | 4--20 imperfections | | | 5--60 imperfections | | | 6--110 imperfections | | | 7--About 200 imperfections | | | 8--About 400 imperfections | | | | | | (On Havre Exchange) | | | Washed--Inferior and ordinary | | | Unwashed--Superior, 1st good, 1st | | | regular, 1st ordinary, 2nd good, | | | 2nd ordinary. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------South America|Brazil |Victoria |Espirito Santo |Large, dingy-green (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | | d | or brown bean | | | Victoria, t | making a roast free | | | Capitania, m | from quakers but | | | n | but muddy in the | | | | cup. | | | | | |Bahia |Bahia, d, t, & |Low grade, having a | | | m n | peculiar smoky | | | | flavor. | | | | | | | Chapada, t & | Light-colored, | | | m n | fair-sized bean; | | | | attractive roast, | | | | but no cup | | | | character. | | | | | | | Caravellas, t |Similar to Chapada. | | | & m n | | | | | | | | Nazareth, t & |Small bean, fair | | | m n | roast, undesirable | | | | cup. | | | | | | | Maragogipe, |A variety of | | | t & m n | _Coffea arabica_; | | | | large bean, | | | | elephantine roast, | | | | woody in the cup. | | | | | |Ceará | Ceará, t |Small, flinty, green | | | Cuaruaru, m | bean; value like | | | n | Santos of the same | | | | grade. | | | | |Ecuador |Guayaquil |Ecuador |_In general_: The | | | | Ecuador coffee bean | | | | is small, pea-green | | | | in color, and not | | | | high grade. It | | | | resembles Ceará, | | | | and when old makes | | | | a bright roast. It | | | | is poor in cup | | | | quality and useful | | | | only as a filler. | | | | Not an important | | | | commercial factor. | | | | |Peru |Callao |Peru |_In general_: The | |Mollendo | Choquisongo, d | green coffee bean | | | Cajamarca, d | of Peru ranges from | | | Perene, d | medium to bold in | | | Paucartambo, d | size, and from | | | Chauchamayo, d | bluish to yellow in | | | Huanuaco, d | color. The highland | | | Pacasmayo, d | variety has been | | | | compared with the | | | | high-grade | | | | Mexicans, but the | | | | lowland growths are | | | | not favorably | | | | regarded. | | | | Unimportant | | | | commercially. | | | | |Bolivia | |Bolivia |_In general_: | | | La Paz, d | Bolivia's coffee, | | | Apolobamba, | though of superior | | | t | quality and | | | Yungas, m | sometimes compared | | | n | favorably with | | | Cochabamba, d | Arabian growths, is | | | Santa Cruz, d | an unimportant | | | Sara | factor in | | | Velasco | international | | | Chiquitos | coffee trading. | | | Cordillera | | | | El Beni, d | | | | Chuquisca, d | | | | | |Argentina | |Argentina |_In general_: | | | Salta, d | Argentina's coffee | | | Jujuy, d | is grown chiefly | | | | for home | | | | consumption. | | | | Unimportant | | | | commercially. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------South America|Paraguay | |Paraguay |_In general_: (Cont'd) | | | Altos, d | Paraguay's coffee | | | Asuncion, d | is all marketed in | | | | Asuncion, where it | | | | is sold as | | | | Brazilian coffee. | | | | It is commercially | | | | important. | | | |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Asia |Arabia |Aden |Mocha |_In general_: | |Hodeida | | Arabian, or Mocha, | |Maidi | | beans are very | |Leheya | | small, hard, round | | | | irregular in form | | | | and size; in color, | | | | olive green shading | | | | off to pale yellow. | | | | The roast is poor | | | | and irregular. In | | | | the cup they have | | | | a unique acid | | | | character, heavy | | | | body; in flavor, | | | | smooth and | | | | delicious. | | |Yemen | | | | Marttari, d |From the Beni-Mattar | | | (Mohtari) | country; the best; | | | | a yellow-green | | | | translucent bean. | | | | | | | Yaffey, d |From the Yaffey | | | | country near Taiz; | | | | second best. | | | | | | | Sharki, d |A long light yellow | | | (Shergi) | bean, from the | | | | east, "Esh Shark" a | | | | superior Mocha with | | | | a rich full body. | | | | | | | | | | | Sanani, d |From the Sanaa | | | | region; a green | | | | bean. A grade lower | | | | than Sharki. | | | | | | | Haimi-Harazi, |A quality green bean | | | d | from a mountain | | | (Hemi or | near Mattari. | | | Heimah) | | | | | | | | Anezi, d |From the El Anz | | | (Anisi) | country. Pale | | | | yellow and very | | | | hard. | | | | | | | Sharsh, d |Superior qualities | | | Menakha, d | of the above due | | | Hifash, d | to different | | | | methods of curing. | | | | | | | Remi, d |A poorer grade, | | | (Reimah) | reddish bean, from | | | | Djebel Remi. | | | | | | | Bourai, d |A poorer grade from | | | (Bura) | Djebel Boura. | | | | | | | Shami, d |A poorer grade from | | | | from the north; Esh | | | | Sham. | | | | | | | Yemeni, d |A poorer grade from | | | (Taizi) | the south; El | | | | Yemen. | | | | | | | Maidi, d |A poorer grade from | | | | the port of Maidi. | | | | | | |Abyssinia |Formerly known as | | | (Africa) | Longberry Mocha, | | | | but still shipped | | | | through Aden _via_ | | | | Jibuti. See | | | | Africa--Abyssinia. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Asia |Arabia | |_Gradings for All Mochas_: Mocha (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | | Extra--For all extra qualities as | | | Yaffey, Anezi, Matari, Sharki. Mocha | | | No. 1--For Anezi, Matari, Sharki; | | | only perfect berries. No. 1A, same as | | | No. 1, but with some dust. Mocha No. | | | 2--Some broken and quakers. Mocha No. | | | 3--Broken, quakers and dust. | | | Magrache--Triage or screenings. | | |-----------------+----------------- |India |Madras | Indias, m n |_In general_: The | |Calicut | | Indian coffee bean | |Mangalore | | is small to large | |Tellicherry | | and blue-green in | |Tuticorin | | color. In the cup | |Bombay | | it has a | | | | distinctive strong | | | | flavor and deep | | | | color. | | | | | | | Mysore, d |Mountain-grown, | | | Mysore, t | large, blue-green | | | | bean, heavy body. | | | | | | | Madras, d |Small bean, solid | | | Malabar, m | and meaty; handsome | | | n (Wynaad) | roast, peculiar | | | | rich flavor. | | | | | | | Nilgiri, d |Small to large bean | | | Nilgiris, m | with slight acidity | | | n | in the cup; | | | | plantation Ceylon | | | | character. | | | | | | | Madura, d |No marked | | | (Palni Hills) | characteristics. | | | | | | | Salem, d |Same as Nilgiris. | | | (Shevaroys) | | | | | | | | Coimbatore, d |Same as Nilgiris. | | | | | | | Tellicherry, |A good grade | | | d | resembling Malabar; | | | | somewhat similar | | | | Nilgiris. | | | | | | | Coorg (or |A large, flat, dark | | | Kurg), d | green bean, thin in | | | | the cup; a lowland | | | | variety. | | | | | | | Travancore, d |Similar to | | | | Nilgiris. | | | | | | | Cochin, d |A native cherry. | | | Cochin, m | | | | n | | | | | | | | Bombay, d |Commercially | | | Kanara | unimportant. | | | | | | | Bengal, d |Commercially | | | Chittagong | unimportant. | | | | | | | Assam |Commercially | | | | unimportant. | | | | | | | South Sylhet |Commercially | | | | unimportant. | | | | |Burma |Rangoon |Burma |Large spongy bean; | | | Tavoy, d | grassy cup. Not a | | | | commercial factor. | | | | | | | _Classes for All Indias_: | | | 1--Native cherry (sun dried and | | | then hulled) | | | 2--Plantation (washed) | | | Sizes: Nos. 1, 2 and 3; Peaberry | | | and Triage-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Asia |Ceylon |Colombo |Ceylon |_In general_: (Cont'd) | | | Gampola, d | Ceylon's coffees | | | Dumbara, d | are no longer the | | | Kotmale, d | commercial factor | | | Pussellawa, d | they were before | | | | the coffee blight | | | | practically | | | | destroyed the | | | | industry. Those | | | | left, however, | | | | still retain much | | | | of their original | | | | character, the | | | | hill-grown washed | | | | being unique in | | | | appearance and | | | | flavor. In the old | | | | days they were | | | | classed as native, | | | | or plain-grown, | | | | plantation, | | | | mountain, and | | | | Liberian. | | | | |Malay States|Penang | Straits |_In general_: The | (British) | (Georgetown) | Liberian, m | coffee from the | |Singapore | n | Malay States is | | | Straits | mostly Liberian | | | Robusta, m | and Robusta and is | | | n | not important | | | | commercially, | | | | although the | | | | Robusta variety | | | | promises to become | | | | an important | | | | factor. | | | | | | | Perak, d |Most important of | | | | the Federated | | | | States coffees. | | | | | | | Selangor, d |Native state coffee. | | | | | | | Negri- |Nine states | | | Sembilan, d | Federation district | | | | coffees. | | | | | | | Bali, d & m |From the island in | | | n | Netherlands East | | | | Indies (See p. | | | | 374. ) | | | | | | | Timor, d & |From the island in | | | m n | Netherlands East | | | | Indies (See p. | | | | 374. ) | | | | |French |Haiphong |Indo-China, m |_In general_: The | Indo-China| | n | coffees of French | | | Tonkin | Indo-China, while | | | Annam | comparatively new, | | | Cambodia | give promise; but | | | Cochin-China | as yet are not | | | | commercially | | | | important. The | | | | original arabica | | | | plantings have been | | | | succeeded by | | | | liberica and | | | | robusta growths. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Malay |Sunda | | East Indies, |_In general_: Archipelago | Islands | | m n | Included in this | | | | group are the | | | | best-known coffees | | | | from Sumatra, Java, | | | | Timor, Celebes, | | | | etc. | | | | |Netherlands | | | | East Indies| | | |Sumatra |Padang |Sumatra |_In general___: | |Kroe (West | | Included among the | | Coast) | | coffees of Sumatra | |Batavia (Java)| | are several that | | | | are conceded to be | | | | the finest the | | | | world produces. The | | | | green beans are | | | | large, uniform, and | | | | vary in color from | | | | pale straw to deep | | | | mahogany. They have | | | | a smooth, heavy | | | | body, the-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Malay |Netherlands |Padang | | fancies possessing Archipelago | East Indies|Kroe (West | | an almost syrupy (Cont'd) |Sumatra | Coast) | | richness. They are | (Cont'd) |Batavia (Java)| | graded as Private | | | | Estate (washed or | | | |dry hulled) and Blue | | | | Bean (washed). | | | | | | |Padang, d & |The best coffee in | | | t | the world"; also | | | Mandheling, m | the highest priced. | | | n | Formerly a | | | | Government coffee. | | | | Yellow to brown, | | | | large-sized bean; | | | | dully roast, but | | | | free from quakers. | | | | It is of heavy | | | | body, exquisite | | | | flavor and aroma. | | | | | | | Ankola, m n |Formerly a | | | | Government coffee. | | | | Large fat bean, | | | | making a dull | | | | roast. Second only | | | | to Mandhelings; it | | | | has a heavy body | | | | and rich, musty | | | | flavor. | | | | | | | Siboga, m n |A harder bean | | | | Ankola; sometimes | | | | called Private | | | | Estate Ankola. | | | | | | | Ayer Bangies, |Formerly a | | | m n | Government | | | | coffee. Large | | | | even bean, with | | | | Mandheling and | | | | Ankola; of a | | | | delicate flavor | | | | but not much | | | | body. | | | | | | | Corinchie, m |Formerly a native | | | n | cultivation. The | | | | bean is large, | | | | handsome, brown in | | | | color. It makes an | | | | attractive roast. | | | | Good body, plenty | | | | of bitter acid, | | | | delicious flavor. | | | | | | | Interior, m |Formerly all | | | n | Government coffee. | | | | The true type of | | | | Old Government | | | | Java. Poor roast, | | | | good cup. | | | | | | | Painan |Formerly a | | | | Government coffee. | | | | Mixed green and | | | | brown beans; poor | | | | roast. Heavy body, | | | | pungent flavor. | | | | Grades next to | | | | Inferior. | | | | | | | Kroe, t & m |Formerly a native | | | n | cultivated coffee. | | | | Large even bean, | | | | fine roast, heavy | | | | body, somewhat | | | | groundy flavor. | | | | | | | Lahat, t & |Former native | | | m n | cultivation. | | | | Smaller than Kroe; | | | | good roaster, flat | | | | cup. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Malay |Netherlands |Padang | Palembang, t |Former PrivateArchipelago | East Indies|Kroe (West | & m n | Estates. Smaller(Cont'd) |Sumatra | Coast) | | than the Padang | (Cont'd) |Batavia (Java)| | bean; light color, | | | | strong cup. | | | | | | | Indrapoera, |Former Private | | | t & m n | Estates. An | | | | inferior grade of | | | | Sumatra. | | | | | | | Benkoelen, |Formerly a native | | | t & m n | cultivation. Good | | | | roast and cup. | | | | | | | Libaya, m n |Formerly a native | | | | cultivation. | | | | | | | Boekit Gompong, |Formerly a Private | | | m n | Estate. A perfect | | | | coffee, of heavier | | | | body than | | | | Mandheling, good | | | | roast; very | | | | delicate flavor. | | | | | | | Kagoe Kaleh, |Formerly a Private | | | m n | Estate. | | | | | | | Batang Baros, |Formerly a Private | | | m n | Estate. | | | | | | | Telok Goenoeng, |Formerly a Private | | | m n | Estate. | | | | | | | Aker Gedang, |Formerly a Private | | | m n | Estate. Small bean, | | | | good roast, fine | | | | flavor. | | | | | | | Soerian, m |Formerly a Private | | | n | Estate. Large bean, | | | | fine roast, good | | | | cup. Ranks next to | | | | Boekit Gompong. | | | | | | | Liki, m n |Formerly a Private | | | | Estate. Fine roast, | | | | light cup. It ranks | | | | next to Soerian. | | | | | | | Loebor Sampir, |Formerly a Private | | | m n | Estate. | | | | | | | Soengei, m |Former Private | | | n | Estate. | | | Landei, m n |Former Private | | | | Estate. | | | Ramboetan, m |Former Private | | | n | Estate. | | | Gadoeng Batoe, |Former Private | | | m n | Estate. | | | | | | | Merapi, m n |Formerly a Private | | | | Estate. Large bean, | | | | good roast, good | | | | cup. | | | | | | | Si Barasap, m |Formerly a Private | | | n | Estate. | | | | | | | Laboe Raya, m |Formerly a Private | | | n | Estate. Large bean, | | | | good roast, good | | | | cup. | | | | | |Balawan-Deli |East Coast |These coffees are | |Panai | Deli, d | comparatively new. | | | Bintangmariah, | They partake of the | | | d | qualities common to | | | Oelakmedan, d | the general run of | | | Panai, d | Sumatras without | | | | distinguishing | | | | characteristics. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Malay |Netherlands |Batavia |Java, m n |_In general_: JavaArchipelago | East Indies| | | coffees do not (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | | | compare with |Java | | | Sumatras in | | | | quality. They are | | | | smaller in the | | | | bean, with a grassy | | | | flavor in the cup. | | | | Blue to pale | | | | yellow, short round | | | | bean. The washed | | | | makes a good smooth | | | | roast, light in the | | | | cup. | | | | | | | Preager, d |Best of the Java | | | | growths. | | | | | | | Cheribon, d |Ranks next to | | | | Preanger. | | | | | | | Kadoe, d |Small | | | | yellowish-green | | | | shelly bean; light | | | | in cup. | | | | | | | Semarang, d |Ranks next to Kadoe | | | | in roast and cup | | | | quality. | | | | | | | Malang, d |Hard green bean; | | | | better roaster than | | | | the above, but | | | | inferior in cup | | | | quality. | | | | | | | Bantam, t & |Medium-sized | | | m n | yellowish bean. | | | | | | | Buitenzorg, |One of the best of | | | t & m n | the Javas. | | | | | | | Krawang, t & |Irregular bean; fair | | | m n | roaster; fair cup. | | | | | | | Tegal, t & |One of the best of | | | m n | the Java growths. | | | | | | | Banjoemas, t |Medium-sized bean; | | | & m n | creamy and fragrant | | | | in the cup. | | | | | | | Pekalongan, |With characteristics | | | t & m n | like Pasuruan. | | | | | | | Baquilan, t |No marked | | | & m n |characteristics. | | | | | | | Japara, t & |Bean light in weight | | | m n | and color; cup | | | | neutral. | | | | | | | Surakarta, t |Large bean, handsome | | | & m n | roast, creamy body, | | | | aromatic flavor in | | | | the cup. | | | | | | | Jokjakarta, |Similar to | | | t & m n | Surakarta. | | | | | | | Madiun, t & |Yellow bean, light | | | m n | in weight and body, | | | | but good cup. | | | | | | | Rembang, t & |Similar to Kadoe. | | | m n | | | | | | | | Surabaya, t |Similar to Kadoe. | | | & m n | | | | | | | | Kediri, t & |Small hard bean; | | | m n | good drinker. | | | | | | | Pasurauan, t |Brown, uniform | | | & m n | bean; fragrant in | | | | cup. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Malay |Netherlands |Batavia | Probolingo, |Small hard bean: Archipelago | East Indies| | t & m n | poor roast. (Cont'd) |Java | | | | (Cont'd) | | Bejreki, t |Bold yellow bean; | | | & m n | full body and | | | | flavor. | | | | | | | Banjoewangi, |Heavy bean; rich | | | t & m n | flavor. | | | | | | | Pamanukin, t |A Liberian growth. | | | & m n | | | | | | | | Robusta, m |Small, | | | n |yellowish-green, | | | |round bean; quality | | | |approximately that | | | |of middling Arabian, | | | |ranking a little | | | |under good average | | | |Santos. Natural, | | | |poor roast. Washed, | | | |good roast. Fair | | | |cup. | | | | |Bali (Dutch)|Singaraja | Bali, m n |Fair-size bean of | | (Boeleleng) | | little merit. | | | | Poor roast. | | | | |Timor |Kupang | Timor, m n |Medium bean of good | (Dutch & | | | quality. | Portuguese)| | | | | | | |Celebes | | Celebes, m |In general: With the | (Dutch) | | n | exception of the | | | | Minahassa product, | | | | the coffees grown | | | | in the Celebes have | | | | little merit and | | | | are of | | | | inconsiderable | | | | importance. | | | | | |Menado | Minahassa, |Large, deep-yellow | | | m n | bean, making a | | | | handsome roast, and | | | | having an aromatic | | | | cup. | | | | | |Macassar | Boengie, |Inferior in | | | m n | appearance, but | | | | fair roast and | | | | cup quality. | | | | | |Bonthain | Bontbain, |Medium, flat, | | | m n | reddish bean, poor | | | | roast; undesirable | | | | cup. | | | | | | | Sindjai, |Not commercially | | | m n | important. | | | | |Moluccas |Ternate | Boengie, |Superior to the Java | (Dutch) | | m n | _arabica_. | | | | |Borneo | | | | British |Sandakan | Borneo, |_In general_: The | North | | m n | coffees of Borneo | Sarawak |Kuching | Borneo, m n | are mostly Liberian | Dutch |Banjermasin | Borneo, m n | growths and are not | | | | a trade factor. | | | | |New Guinea |Ternate | New Guinea, |_In general_: These | (Dutch) | (Moluccas) | m n | coffees are of the | |Dorey | | mild variety, but | | | | the production is | | | | commercially | | | | unimportant. | | | |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Melanesia |New |Noumea |New Caledonia |A fair Robusta | Caledonia | | La Foa | coffee, but | (France) | | | commercially | | | | unimportant. | | | | |New Hebrides| | | | (Great | | | | Britain | | | | and France)| | | | | | | |Efate |Vila |New Hebrides |A fair coffee, but | | | | not a trade factor. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Micronesia |Samoan | | | | Islands | | | | Tutuila |Pago Pago |Samoa |Commercially | | (U. S. ) | | unimportant. | | | | |Fiji | | | | (British) | | | | Vita Levu |Suva |Fiji |Medium-sized green | | | | bean; grassy cup. | | | | Not a trade factor. | | | | |Tonga | | | | (Friendly | | | | Islands) | | | | Tongatabu |Nukualofa |Tonga |For local | | | | consumption only. | | | |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Philippine |Luzon |Manila |Manila |_In general_: Islands | | | La Laguna, d | Manila, or (U. S. ) | | | Batangas, d | Philippine, coffee | | | Cavite, d | is not an important | | | Benguet, d | trade factor. The | | | Lepanto, d | bean is medium | | | Bontoc, d | size, grayish-green | | | | in color, having | | | | fine aroma and | | | | excellent flavor. | | | | It compares | | | | favorably with | | | | Costa Rica and | | | | Guatemala. | | | | |Panay |Iloilo |Panay |No marked | | | | characteristics. | | | | |Cebu |Cebu |Cebu |No marked | | | | characteristics. | | | | |Palawan |Puerto |Palawan |No marked | | Princessa | | characteristics. | | | | |Mindanao |Zamboanga |Zamboanga |Large bean; thin | | | | liquor. | | | |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Marianas or |Guam (U. S. ) |Apra |Guam |No production for Ladrone | | | | export. Islands | | | |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Oceania |Hawaiian |Honolulu |Hawaiian, |_In general_: Polynesia | Islands | (Oahua) | m n | Hawaiian coffee is | (U. S. ) | Hilo | | a large bean, | | Kailua | | blue-green to | | | | yellow-brown in | | | | color; handsome | | | | roaster, fine | | | | smooth flavor. | | | | | | | Kona, d |Large, blue, flinty | | | | bean, mildly acid; | | | | striking character. | | | | | | | Puna, d |Quality good but | | | | quantity small. | | | | | | | Olaa, d |Quality good but | | | | quantity small. | | | | | | | Hamakua, d |Quality good but | | | | quantity small. | | | | | | | Maui, d |Production small. | | | | | | | Oahu, d |Production small. | | | | | | | Kauai, d |Production small. | | | | |Society |Papeete |Tahiti |A fair coffee, but | Islands | | | not a trade factor. | (French) | | |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Australia |Queensland |Cairns |Queensland |_In general_: The | |Mackay | Mackay, d | coffee is from | |Brisbane | | Ceylon or Coorg | | | | seed and is for | | | | local consumption. | | | | Not a commercial | | | | factor. | | | |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Africa |Egypt |Alexandria | Egyptian, |_In general_: | | | m n | Coffees from the | | | | upper Nile region, | | | | Kaffa Land, | | | | Anglo-Egyptian | | | | Sudan, and Nubia | | | | are generally | | | | spoken of as | | | | Egyptians. They | | | | have some Mocha | | | | characteristics, | | | | but are not | | | | important | | | | commercially. | | | | |Anglo- |Suakin | Nubian, m |Small, flinty, | Egyptian |Alexandria | n | pale-green, oval | Sudan | (Egypt) | | bean; heavy body; | | | | rich flavor. | | | | | | | Berber, d |Some superior | | | | drinking coffees | | | | come from this | | | | district. | | | | |Eritrea |Massowah | Abyssinian, |The coffee is of the | (Italy) | | m n | Abyssinian type, | | | | but the output is | | | | not an important | | | | trade factor. | | | | |Somaliland | | | | French |Jibuti | Harar, d, t |These coffees are | | | Abyssinian, | not grown in French | | | m n | Somaliland, but | | | | come from Abyssinia | | | | to Jibuti and Aden | | | |for export to Europe | | | | and America. See | | | | Abyssinia. | | | | | British |Berbera | Harar, d, t |Grown, as above, in | |Zeila | Abyssinian, | Abyssinia. | | | m n | | | | | | Italian |Mukdishu | Benadir, |Abyssinian type, but | | | d & m n | not an important | | | | trade factor. | | | | |Abyssinia |Jibuti (French| Harar, d_, t |_In general_: The | | Somaliland) | Abyssinian, | Harari coffee is | |Zeila | m n | more carefully | | | | cultivated and | | | | cured than the | | | | Abyssinian, which | | | | is its inferior. | | | | | |Berbera | Harar, d, t |The original Mocha | | (British | Harari, m n | Longberry. Large, | | Somaliland) | | long blue-green to | | | | yellow bean. | | | | | |Massowah | |(Graded No. 1 or No. | | (Eritrea) | | 2, according to | | | | size) roasting with | |Aden (Arabia) | | few quakers, | | | | similar to Mocha, | | | | having an excellent | | | | flavor but not | | | | quite so delicate. | | | | | | | Dire-Daoua, t |Railway trading | | | | center for Harari | | | | and Abyssinian | | | | coffees. -------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Africa |Abyssinia | |Abyssinia |The native coffee (_Cont'd_) | (_Cont'd_) | | Kaffa, d |grown wild in this | | | (Gomara) |district has little | | | |commercial | | | |importance. The | | | |bean is dark gray, | | | |and it has a | | | |groundy flavor. | | | | | | | Bonga, t |Trading center for | | | |Abyssinia. | | | | | | | Jimma, d |Trading center for | | | Jiren, t |Abyssinia. | | | | | | | Shoa, d |Mostly Abyssinian | | | Adis-Abeba, t |growths are | | | |exported from this | | | |trading center to | | | |Harar or | | | |Dire-Daoua. | | | | |Kenya |Mombasa | Nairobi, d |Having Mysore |Colony | | & t |characteristics |(Formerly | | Kikuyu |with a touch of |British | | Kyambu |Mocha flavor. |East Africa)| | | | | | | |Uganda |Mombasa |Uganda |Greenish-gray to |Protectorate| | Bunganda, d |light-brown |(British) | | |Robusta. Poor to | | | |fairly good liquor. | | | | |Zanzibar |Zanzibar |Zanzibar |Medium-sized bean; |Protectorate| | |full body, pleasing |(British) | | |flavor. | | | | |Tanganyika |Dar-es-Salaam | East Africa, |Not a commercial |Territory | | m n |factor. |(formerly | | or | |German East | | Tanganyika, | |Africa) | | m n | | | | | | | | | |Nyasaland |Chinde |Nyasaland |Some high-grown and |Protectorate|(Portuguese | Shire Highlands, |of fine quality. Not |(British) |East Africa) | d |a commercial factor. | | | Blantyre, d | | | | | |Rhodesia |Beira |Rhodesia |For local |(British) |(Portuguese | |consumption. | |East Africa) | |Not a trade factor. | | | | |Portuguese |Mozambique |Mozambique |Medium-sized |East Africa | | |greenish bean, | | | |heavy body; mild | | | |and mellow in the | | | |cup. | | | | |Natal |Durban |Natal |Large, light-brown |(British) | | |Liberian growth. | | | |Not a trade factor. | | | | |Angola |Loanda |Angola |Medium-size bean, |(Portugal) | | |brownish color, | | | |strong in the cup. | | | | | | | Encoje, d, |Light weight, dark | | | m n |brown Robusta; | | | |strong in the cup. | | | | |Belgian |Banana | Congo, m n |_In general_: The |Congo | | Equator, d |coffees of the | | | Aruwimi, d |Belgian Congo are | | | Bangala, d |mostly Liberian and | | | Lake Leopold, |Robusta growths. | | | d |There is produced a | | | |medium-sized bean, | | | |making a handsome | | | |roast and having a | | | |rich cup. | | | | |French |Loango | Loango, d, |Formerly Encoje |Congo |Libreville | m n |from Angola. | | | |Inferior to | | | |Liberian. =============+============+==============+=================+================= =============+============+==============+=================+================= Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup | | | Market Names |Characteristics | | | and Gradings |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------Africa |Nigeria |Lagos |Nigeria |Commercially (Cont'd) | (British) | | | unimportant. | | | | |Gold Coast |Accra |Gold Coast |Not a commercial | (British) | | | factor. | | | | |Liberia |Monrovia | Liberian, m |Large, brown bean; | | | n | big, handsome | | | | roaster; strong in | | | | cup. | | | | |Sierra Leone|Freetown |Sierra Leone |_C. Stenophylla_, a | (British) | | | native growth. Not | | | | a trade factor. | | | | |French |Konakry | Guinea, m n |Commercially | Guinea | | | unimportant. | | | | |Portuguese |Bissao | Guinea, m n |Commercially | Guinea | | | unimportant. | | | | | | | | |Comoro |Maroni | Comoro, m n |A wild natural | Islands | | | caffein-free coffee | (French) | | | (_C. Humboltiana_); | | | | also found in | | | | Madagascar. Not a | | | | commercial factor. | | | | |Madagascar |Tamatave |Madagascar |Light-green | (French) | | | _liberica_ and | | | | _robusta_ bean; | | | | full rich flavor. | | | | |Réunion, |St. Denis | Bourbon, m |Nearest to Mocha in | formerly | | n | character (q. V. ). | Bourbon | | | Round and pointed | (French) | | | bean, pale green | | | | or pale yellow. Not | | | | a trade factor. | | | | |Mauritius |Port Louis |Mauritius |Similar to Bourbon. | (British) | | | Medium light green, | | | | full body, mild and | | | | mellow flavor. Not | | | | a trade factor. | | | |-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- [Illustration] CHAPTER XXV FACTORY PREPARATION OF ROASTED COFFEE _Coffee roasting as a business--Wholesale coffee-roasting machinery--Separating, milling, and mixing or blending green coffee, and roasting by coal, coke, gas, and electricity--Facts about coffee roasting--Cost of roasting--Green-coffee shrinkage table--"Dry" and "wet" roasts--On roasting coffee efficiently--A typical coal roaster--Cooling and stoning--Finishing or glazing--Blending roasted coffees--Blends for restaurants--Grinding and packaging--Coffee additions and fillers--Treated coffees, and dry extracts_ The coffee bean is not ready for beverage purposes until it has beenproperly "manufactured", that is, roasted, or "cooked". Only in this waycan all the stimulating, flavoring, and aromatic principles concealed inthe minute cells of the bean be extracted at one time. An infusion fromgreen coffee has a decidedly unpleasant taste and hardly any color. Likewise, an underdone roast has a disagreeable "grassy" flavor; whilean overdone roast gives a charred taste that is unpalatable to theaverage citizen of the United States. _Coffee Roasting as a Business_ In spite of the generally admitted fact that freshly roasted coffeemakes the best infusion, most of the coffee used today is not roasted ator near the place where it is brewed, but in factories that are providedwith special equipment for the roasting of coffee in a wholesale way. The reasons for this are various, partly relating to the mere economy ofbuying and manufacturing on a large scale, and partly relating to thetrained skill that is needed both for selecting suitable green coffeesto make a satisfactory blend, and for the roasting work itself. Theproportion of consumers (including restaurants and hotels) who roasttheir own coffee is so small as to be negligible, at least in the UnitedStates. The average person who buys coffee today, for brewing use, neversees green coffee at all, unless as an "educational exhibit" in somedealer's display window. The reasons just mentioned, which have made coffee roasting a realbusiness, all tend, of course, to make the roasting establishments oflarge size; but this tendency is offset by the problem of distributingthe roasting coffee so that it will reach the ultimate consumer in goodcondition. Roasting enterprises on a comparatively small scale (not byconsumers, but by sufficiently expert dealers) would probably be muchmore numerous on account of the "fresh-roast" argument, except for thefact that coffee-roasting machines can not be installed so easily as thegrinding mills, meat-choppers, and slicing machines, that find extendeduse in small stores. The steam, smoke, and chaff given off by the coffeeas it is roasted must be disposed of by an outdoor connection, withoutannoying the neighbors or creating a fire hazard. From these general remarks, it can easily be seen that the size ofindividual roasting establishments will vary greatly, according to theskill of the proprietor in meeting the disadvantages of working oneither the smallest or the largest scale. A wholesale plant may beconsidered to be one in which coffee is roasted in batches of one bag ormore at a time; and with this definition, nearly all the roasting in theUnited States is done in a wholesale way. [Illustration: A MODERN GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT WITH A CAPACITY OF1, 000 BAGS A DAY General view of the roasting room of the Jewel Tea Co. , Hoboken, N. J. The equipment consists of twelve Jubilee gas machines in four groups;each group having a smoke-suction fan, and a drag conveyor over thethree feed hoppers. To the left is a line of flexible-arm cooler cars] For many years the regular factory machines have been of a sizesuitable for roasting two bags of coffee at a time; but roasters oflarger size have recently come into considerable use. Plants treating from fifty to a hundred and fifty bags per day are themost common; but the daily capacity runs up to a thousand bags or more. The minimum cost of equipping a plant is somewhere between five thousanddollars and ten thousand dollars. The individual machines are ofstandard construction; but the arrangement in a particular building, especially for the larger plants, is worked out with great care and withnumerous special features, so that the goods can be handled from startto finish with minimum expense for floor space, labor, power, etc. The practical coffee roaster locates his roasting room in the top floorof his factory building, where light and ventilation are generally best. He usually has a large skylight in the roof, directly over the roastingequipment. In addition to the advantage as regards good light and theconvenient discharge of smoke, steam, and odors, through the roof, thetop-story location makes it possible to send the roasted coffee bygravity through the various bins which may be needed in connection withsubsequent operations, such as grinding, and for temporary storagebefore the final packaging and shipping. _Wholesale Coffee-Roasting Machinery_ The indispensable coffee operations are roasting and cooling; and inpractically all United States plants the cooling is followed by"stoning". This is an air-suction operation that effects, aided bygravity, the removal of any stones or other hard material that woulddamage the grinding mill. The best commercial cleaning and grading ofthe green coffee has usually left in every bag a few small stones. Thesecan be got rid of better after the coffee is roasted; because it is thennot only lighter, but more bulky. [Illustration: MILLING-MACHINE CONNECTIONS FOR A TWO-ROASTER PLANT] Besides these three operations of roasting, cooling, and stoning, theplant may have machinery for treating the coffee both before it isroasted and after it leaves the stoner. [Illustration: A SIXTEEN-CYLINDER COAL ROASTING PLANT IN A NEW YORKFACTORY This is a view of the roasting room of B. Fischer & Co. And shows abattery of Burns coal roasters] Treatment of the green coffee in roasting establishments is of lessimportance now than in years gone by; first, because most coffees nowcome to market more perfectly graded and cleaned than formerly; andsecond, because the whole-bean appearance of the coffee has become ofless account, as wholesale grinding operations have increased. Nevertheless, many plants consider it highly important to have aseparator for grading the coffee closely as regards the size of thebeans--and particularly for the separation of round beans, or"peaberry"--as well as milling machinery for making the coffee as cleanas possible before it is roasted. One green coffee operation that haslost none of its old-time importance, but on the contrary is more neededas the plants increase in size, is the mixing of different varieties ofcoffee--in proportions that have been decided on by sample tests--so asto get a uniform blend. The mixer does not blend the various coffees any more surely than a goodroaster cylinder will do it, but treats batches of much larger size. This means saving a great amount of labor that would be necessary forputting the desired quantity of component coffees into each individualroaster. A proper installation of green coffee machinery requires various bins ofample capacity, and bucket elevators by which the coffee can be sentwithout manual labor from one operation to another. In modern plants, all the bins and elevators are constructed of metal. The separator, withits bins and elevator, may be installed independently of the rest of theplant, the graded coffee being all bagged up again and treated as newraw stock--some of it to be held for later use, or perhaps sold againunroasted. The milling machine and the mixer, however, are usually soplaced and connected that the coffee can be sent from one to the other, and to the roaster feed hoppers, without any manual labor. When the roaster sells his product in package form ready for theconsumer, he will have a packaging department in which are grinding, weighing, labeling, and packing machines and equipment. In some of themore progressive plants, particularly in the United States, all thepacking units are incorporated in one machine, so that the differentsteps in the work are carried on automatically and in one continuousoperation. [Illustration: GREEN-COFFEE-MIXER CONNECTIONS To operate at full capacity, without using the story above as well asbelow the mixer, requires a bucket elevator and three bins, each holdinga full mixing batch. The above diagram explains this setting. The mixedcoffee in the discharge bin is either drawn out into bags or sent by anelevator to a milling machine or direct to the coffee roasters. A batchready for mixing can always be accumulated in the feed bin while theprevious batch is being mixed or discharged. The fan is usually hung to the ceiling over the mixer as indicated, andconnected to the suction box by a 1-in. Round pipe. The fan outlet canbe carried directly out-of-doors; but the dusty discharge isobjectionable in most installations, and this pipe is usually carried toa dust collector from the top of which the roof outlet is connected. ] The efficient roaster-executive equips his entire plant with approvedlabor-saving devices. In the better establishments, the coffee iscarried along by mechanical conveyors through all the operations fromthe first cleaning machine to the final packaging. _Separating_ As already mentioned, a machine frequently found in wholesale plants isthe separator, or grader. This apparatus, which is the same in principlein all countries, but varies in size and form according to localrequirements, consists of a series of perforated screens. Theperforations differ in size; and as the coffee is shaken on them, thesmall beans drop through the holes, the larger ones passing across thescreen and dropping into a receptacle or chute ready for the nextoperation. The screens are made to grade the beans into large and smallpeaberry; large, medium, and small flat beans; brokens; and othercommercial sizes. The average separator will grade fifteen to twentybags of coffee in an hour. [Illustration: Green-coffee-milling machine having a capacity of fortybags of green coffee per hour; with sifter, feed-pipe suction, and afinal separate suction at the discharge hopper] [Illustration: Green-coffee separator without fan; with feed elevator, discharge chutes, and motor drive. View of right-hand side and feed end] [Illustration: GREEN-COFFEE SEPARATING AND MILLING MACHINES] _Milling_ Milling machines, for cleaning the green coffee, operate on practicallythe same principle the world over, varying in capacity and details ofconstruction. A popular type used in the United States has two metalcylinders, one set within the other, and revolving in oppositedirections. The inner cylinder is ribbed with flanges, and the outer oneis lined with wire cloth. As these cylinders revolve, the beans passbetween them rubbing against themselves and the rough sides of thecylinders. This action serves to remove dirt and other foreign matterthat may be clinging to the beans, and also gives them an attractivepolish. An exhaust fan sucks away the dirt milled off in the process. This type of machine will mill about forty bags of green coffee in anhour. _Mixing or Blending Green Coffee_ Most roasters blend the different types of coffee while green. Someblend them after they have been roasted separately. When blended beforeroasting, the coffees are mixed by a machine built especially for thatpurpose. The mixing machine in general use in all countries consists ofa large metal cylinder which, in wholesale operations, is revolved bythe factory's general power plant or by a separate motor. The cylinderis equipped on the inside with sets of reverse-screw mixing flanges thattumble the beans around until they are thoroughly blended; and there isusually a fan attachment to remove dust. This operation serves also tosmooth down and to polish the surfaces of the beans, which adds to thestyle of the coffee when roasted. The average blending machine will mixfrom ten to twenty bags of coffee at a time. The actual mixing requiresless than five minutes, but a longer period is needed for feeding anddischarging. This is the last of the so-called "green-coffeeoperations". The next step is roasting. _Roasting by Coal, Coke, Gas, and Electricity_ Coffee is roasted commercially in cylinder or ball receptacles revolvingin heated chambers, the degree of heat reaching about 420° Fahr. Thecylinder type of roaster is invariably used in the United States; whileboth the cylinder and the ball types are popular in England, France, Germany, Holland, and other foreign countries. [Illustration: AN ENGLISH FOUR-MACHINE GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT The equipment includes three Morewood indirect-flame, and one quickdirect-flame machines] Each roasterman has his own opinion about the fuel that gives the bestresult, and throughout the world the choice lies between anthracitecoal, coke, and gas; though hard wood is frequently used in countrieswhere other fuels are not available or not economical. Electric heat hasbeen tried for commercial roasting in Germany (1906), in England (1909), and in the United States (1918); but the experimenters have always foundthe cost of electric fuel to be prohibitive in competition with coal andgas. An electric roaster was demonstrated at the Food Conservation Showin New York, in 1918, at a time when the federal government was urgingthe necessity of conserving coal as a war economy measure. The inventorclaimed that his machine would reduce roasting cost, improve the flavorand the aroma, and maintain a constant and easily controlled heat. Hedeclared also that when roasted in his devices, less coffee was requiredfor brewing. An expert coffee-roasting-machinery man who has been working on thedevelopment of a practical electric roaster says that if it werepossible to bake the coffee in an oven, just as the baker does hisbread, the fuel cost would then compare favorably with that of gas orcoal. It is because the heat chamber must have an exhaust to release thechaff and smoke that the use of electricity to replace the heat lossproves prohibitive when compared with coal or gas. In all types of coal and coke burning roasters, the cylinders are heatedby a fire underneath; while in gas roasters, the flame may be underneathor within the cylinder itself. Roasters in which the heat is within thecylinder are known as direct-flame or inner-heated machines. All threesystems are used in the United States and Europe. _Facts About Coffee Roasting_ The modern commercial roasting outfit is as near fool-proof as humangenius has been able to devise. The more advanced types are almostautomatic in operation, and are designed to insure uniformity of roasts. In such machines the green coffee is conveyed to the roasting cylinderby means of bucket elevators, which pour the beans into a feed hopper. From the feed hopper, the coffee is dumped through the opening in thefront head-piece into the cylinder. The cylinder is perforated, and hasinside flanges which keep tossing the coffee about while the cylinderrevolves, so that the coffee will not burn during the roasting process. [Illustration: GERMAN GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT EQUIPPED WITHIDEAL-RAPID MACHINES] To roast coffee by coal or coke usually requires from twenty-five tothirty minutes, depending on the moisture-content of the beans; whetherthey are spongy or flinty; whether a light, medium, or dark roast isdesired; and on the skill of the operator. Gas roasting requires fromfifteen to twenty minutes. The quicker the roast, the better the coffee, is the opinion of many trade leaders, one of whom[325] says: It is a growing belief that in roasts of short duration the largest percentage of the aromatic properties is retained. A slow roast has the effect of baking and does not give full development; also, slow roasts seldom produce bright roasts, and they usually make the coffee hard instead of brittle, even when the color standard has been attained. [Illustration: FRENCH GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT EQUIPPED WITH MODERNEMACHINES] While coffees of widely varying degrees of moisture require somewhatdifferent treatment, the consensus of opinion is that the best resultsare obtained from a slow fire at the beginning, until some of themoisture has been driven off, when the stronger application of heat maybe given for development. An intense heat in the beginning often resultsin "tipping", or charring, the little germ at the end, the mostsensitive part of the bean. Scorched beans have been caught at some point in the cylinder, often ina bent flange. Burning on one face, sometimes called "kissing thecheeks", is caused by the too rapid revolution of the cylinder, so thatsome of the coffee "carries over". In the best practise, crowding ofcylinders is avoided; many roasters making it a rule not to exceedninety percent of the rated capacity of the cylinder. Those operating gas roasters may effect a fuel economy by running a lowgrade coffee in the cylinder after the last roast has been drawn and thegas extinguished; five minutes' revolution absorbs the heat and drivesoff a proportion of moisture. The coffee, which may then be left in thecylinder, requires less time and fuel in the morning, and the roast isfinished while the cylinder is warming up. Double roasting brightens aroast, but is a detriment to the cup quality. A dull roasting coffee maybe improved by revolving the green coffee in a cylinder without heat fortwenty minutes, which has the effect of milling. The use of a small amount of water upon roasts gives better control bychecking the roast at the proper point--the crucial time of its greatestheat; also, it swells and brightens the coffee, and tends to close theouter pores. While the addition of water is open to abuse, few roastershave soaked their coffees enough to offset the natural shrinkage as muchas three or four percent. Such practise would result greatly to thedetriment of the cup quality. There is no universal standard for the degree to which coffee should beroasted. In the United States, there are demands for all degrees; fromthe light roast, in favor in England, to the extremely dark roast invogue in France, Italy, Brazil, Turkey, and in the producing countries. The North American trade recognizes these different roasts: light, cinnamon, medium, high, city, full city, French, and Italian. The cityroast is a dark bean, while full city is a few degrees darker. In theFrench roast, the bean is cooked until the natural oil appears on thesurface; and in the Italian, it is roasted to the point of actualcarbonization, so that it can be easily powdered. Germany likes a roastsimilar to the French type; while Scandinavia prefers the high Italianroast. In the United States, the lighter roast is favored on the Pacific coast;the darkest, in the South; and a medium-colored roast, in the Easternstates. The cinnamon roast is most favored by the trade in Boston. While coffee roasting in the United States usually takes from fifteen tothirty minutes, depending on the fuel and the machine employed, manufacturers of gas machines on the German market claim to roast it insuperior fashion in from three and a half to ten minutes. [326] Thissubject is discussed more in detail in chapter XXXIV. Coffee loses weight during the roasting process, the loss varyingaccording to the degree of roasting and the nature of the bean. Coffeeroasters figure, however, that the average loss is sixteen percent ofthe weight of the green bean. It has been estimated that one hundredpounds of coffee in the cherry produces twenty-five pounds in theparchment; that one hundred pounds in parchment produces eighty-fourpounds of cleaned coffee; and that one hundred pounds of cleaned coffeeproduces eighty-four pounds roasted. [Illustration: JUMBO COFFEE ROASTER, IN THE ARBUCKLE COFFEE-ROASTINGPLANT, NEW YORK There are four of these machines. The cylinders are twelve feet indiameter, six feet deep, and can roast 5, 000 pounds of coffee everyhalf-hour. The hard-coal brick furnace is seen at the left, from which ablower forces the heated air through a pipe into the revolving cylinderof coffee. The coffee is fed from above and is emptied into the coolingpans beneath] [Illustration: AN EIGHT-CYLINDER GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT A view of Reid, Murdoch & Co. 's roasting room, Chicago, equipped withMonitor machines] During the roasting process the coffee undergoes a great chemicalchange. After it has been in the cylinder a short time, the color of thebean becomes a yellowish brown, which gradually deepens as it cooks. Likewise, as the beans become heated, they shrivel up until about halfdone, or at the "developing" point. At this stage, they begin to swell, and then "pop open", increasing fifty percent in bulk. [327] This is whenthe experienced roasterman turns on all the heat he can command tofinish the roasting as quickly as possible. _"Dry" and "Wet" Roasts_ At frequent intervals, he thrusts his "trier"--an instrument shapedsomewhat like an elongated spoon--into the cylinder, and takes out asample of coffee to compare with his type sample. When the coffee isdone, he shuts off the heat and checks the cooking by reducing thetemperature of the coffee and of the cylinder as quickly as can be done. In the wet roast method he will spray the coffee, while the cylinder isstill revolving, with three to four quarts of water to every 130 poundsof coffee. In the dry method he depends altogether upon his coolingapparatus. Roasters generally are not in favor of the excessive watering of coffeein and after the roasting process for the purpose of reducing shrinkage. "Heading" the coffee, or checking the roast before turning it out of theroasting cylinder, is quite another matter and is considered legitimate. Where coffees are watered in the cylinder at the close of the roast toreduce the shrinkage, it is possible to get back only about four percentof the shrinkage by such treatment and the practise is frowned upon bythe best roasters. Generally speaking, water is turned into the roasting cylinder to quenchthe roast. The amount varies with the style of machine, whether gas orcoal. Usually the water turns to steam, and the result is not anabsorption of the water but a momentary checking of the roast with atendency to swell and to brighten the coffee. This is, comparativelyspeaking, a "dry roast", but not an absolutely dry roast. It is doubtfulif more than one percent of American coffee roasters employ anabsolutely "dry" roast--it does not give satisfactory results. The wordhas been abused for advertising purposes. Of course, a dry roastedcoffee is a better article for making a satisfactory beverage than onethat has been soaked with water; but the word "dry" must be given adefinite meaning, which the trade generally will agree to uphold, if itis to have any real meaning or value to the consumer. Until somestandard for roasted coffee shall be established, it is to be feared theterm "dry roast" will continue to be used for coffee roasted by almostany other process. [Illustration: UPPER-STORY VIEW OF A JUBILEE PLANT, SHOWING ROASTER, COOLER, AND STONER EQUIPMENT The parts under roasting-room floor are shown in the illustration below] [Illustration: LOWER-STORY VIEW OF THE SAME PLANT FROM ABOUT THE SAMEANGLE Showing connection from floor hopper to stoner on the left, andsuspended bucket-elevator boot with four-bag dump hopper on the right] [Illustration: COMPLETE GAS COFFEE-PLANT INSTALLATION] The Bureau of Chemistry held a hearing in 1914 at Washington, at whichthe question of a ruling on watering coffees was discussed. The tradewas well represented, but no agreement was reached. It was deemedinadvisable to make a definite rule on the watering of coffee; becausethe water content can not be controlled, as the bean starts to absorbmoisture as soon as it leaves the roaster. _On Roasting Coffee Efficiently_ A. L. Burns, New York, is well qualified to speak on this subject. Hesays: Roasting coffee is not so difficult a matter as is often claimed by operators and "experts" who seek thus to magnify their importance; but it is nevertheless a process about which a great deal may be learned in the school of practical experience. With one of our modern machines anybody with ordinary intelligence and nerve can take off a roast after one trial which would pass muster in many establishments, but that same person applying himself to the roasting job for a week will either be turning out vastly better roasts or will have demonstrated that he never can excel as a roasterman. Modern coffee roasting machines provide for easy control of the heat (from coal, coke, or gas fuel), for constantly mixing the coffee in such a manner that the heat is transmitted uniformly to the entire batch, for carrying away all steam and smoke rapidly, for easy testing of the progress of the roast, and for immediate discharge when desired. The operator's problem therefore is the regulation of the heat and deciding just when the desired roasting has been accomplished. If all coffees were alike, roasting would soon be almost automatic. In some plants most of the work is on one uniform grade or blend. But coffees which vary greatly in moisture-content, in flinty or spongy nature, and in various other characteristics, will puzzle the operator until he establishes a personal acquaintance with them in various combinations in repeated roasting operations. The roasterman therefore must be able to observe closely, to draw sensible conclusions, and to remember what he learns. Roasting coffee is work of a sort which anybody can do, which a few people can do really well, and no one so well but that further improvement is possible. There is no absolute standard of what the best roasting results are. Some dealers want the coffee beans swelled up to the bursting point, while others would object to so showy a development. Some care nothing at all about appearance as compared with cup value, while others insist on a bright style even at some sacrifice of quality. Business judgment must decide what goods can be sold most profitably. The loss of coffee in weight in the roasting operation, or shrinkage as it is called, is a matter which offers opportunities for false claims of advantage in roasting processes. Anybody can see that if just as good roasted coffee could be produced with a lessened shrinkage there would be a chance for a decided increase in profits. It is a sort of finding-money proposition which always turns out to be too good to be true. The purpose of roasting coffee is to produce an article entirely different from green coffee, which is accomplished mainly by driving out moisture. If coffee is roasted thoroughly, inside as well as outside, so as to give the greatest roasted coffee value, it must sustain a proper loss in weight which there is no legitimate way to avoid. The amount of shrinkage varies a great deal with the kind of coffee and its age, also with the kind of roasting desired. Adding a little water to the coffee at the end of the operation has the advantage of checking the roast at the desired point and helping to swell and brighten the coffee, but it is a practice which is sometimes abused by soaking the coffee with water so as to reduce the shrinkage. This is done either dishonestly, to steal coffee which belongs to somebody else, or foolishly; for the heavier coffee has a lessened cup value which more than counterbalances the apparent gain. [Illustration: BURNS JUBILEE GAS ROASTER] _A Typical Coal Roaster_ A typical United States coal roaster is shown in the accompanying cut. It is the latest form of that type of Burns machine which requires abrickwork setting. The picture shows the roaster ready to operate, except for smoke pipe and power connections. [Illustration: BURNS COAL ROASTER WITH BRICKWORK SETTING] The front of the machine shown has a cast-iron plate having bracketswhich support the cylinder front bearing, and double fire doors belowfor the furnace and the ash pit. The movable part of the roaster ishidden by the front head, a heavy casting which stands still except whenmoved by hand through a half-turn for feeding and discharging. The cylinder is driven by gears at the back, revolving constantly atuniform speed. The inside of the cylinder is arranged withreverse-spiral flanges which mix the coffee perfectly and make unevenroasting impossible; and they discharge promptly every grain of coffeewhen the front-head opening is turned to the lower position. The roasteris generally operated with coal fuel, but can be used with gas byinstalling a suitable burner under the cylinder. [Illustration: OPEN PERFORATED CYLINDER WITH FLEXIBLE BACK HEAD] COST CARD FOR ROASTERS _Showing the value added to the cost of green coffee byroasting_ By A. C. Aborn BASIS: 16 percent Shrinkage. 3/4 cent a pound for Roasting. Cost Green, Cost Roasted, Cents per Lb. Cents per Lb. 5 6. 855-1/8 6. 995-1/4 7. 145-3/8 7. 295-1/2 7. 445-5/8 7. 595-3/4 7. 745-7/8 7. 89 6 8. 046-1/8 8. 196-1/4 8. 336-3/8 8. 486-1/2 8. 636-5/8 8. 786-3/4 8. 936-7/8 9. 08 7 9. 237-1/8 9. 377-1/4 9. 527-3/8 9. 677-1/2 9. 827-5/8 9. 977-3/4 10. 127-7/8 10. 27 8 10. 428-1/8 10. 578-1/4 10. 718-3/8 10. 868-1/2 11. 018-5/8 11. 168-3/4 11. 318-7/8 11. 46 9 11. 619-1/8 11. 769-1/4 11. 909-3/8 12. 059-1/2 12. 209-5/8 12. 359-3/4 12. 509-7/8 12. 65 10 12. 8010-1/8 12. 9510-1/4 13. 1010-3/8 13. 2410-1/2 13. 3910-5/8 13. 5410-3/4 13. 6910-7/8 13. 84 11 13. 9911-1/8 14. 1411-1/4 14. 2911-3/8 14. 4311-1/2 14. 5811-5/8 14. 7311-3/4 14. 8811-7/8 15. 03 12 15. 1812-1/8 15. 3312-1/4 15. 4812-3/8 15. 6312-1/2 15. 7712-5/8 15. 9212-3/4 16. 0712-7/8 16. 22 13 16. 3713-1/8 16. 5213-1/4 16. 6713-3/8 16. 8213-1/2 16. 9713-5/8 17. 1113-3/4 17. 2613-7/8 17. 41 14 17. 5614-1/8 17. 7114-1/4 17. 8614-3/8 18. 0114-1/2 18. 1514-5/8 18. 3014-3/4 18. 4514-7/8 18. 60 15 18. 7515-1/8 18. 9015-1/4 19. 0515-3/8 19. 2015-1/2 19. 3515-5/8 19. 4915-3/4 19. 6415-7/8 19. 79 16 19. 9416-1/8 20. 0916-1/4 20. 2416-3/8 20. 3916-1/2 20. 5416-5/8 20. 6816-3/4 20. 8316-7/8 20. 98 17 21. 1317-1/8 21. 2817-1/4 21. 4317-3/8 21. 5817-1/2 21. 7317-5/8 21. 8717-3/4 22. 0217-7/8 22. 17 18 22. 3218-1/8 22. 4718-1/4 22. 6218-3/8 22. 7718-1/2 22. 9218-5/8 23. 0718-3/4 23. 2118-7/8 23. 36 19 23. 5119-1/8 23. 6619-1/4 23. 8119-3/8 23. 9619-1/2 24. 1119-5/8 24. 2619-3/4 24. 4019-7/8 24. 55 20 24. 7020-1/8 24. 8520-1/4 25. 0020-3/8 25. 1520-1/2 25. 3020-5/8 25. 4520-3/4 25. 6020-7/8 25. 75 21 25. 8921-1/8 26. 0421-1/4 26. 1921-3/8 26. 3421-1/2 26. 4921-5/8 26. 6421-3/4 26. 7921-7/8 26. 93 22 27. 0822-1/8 27. 2322-1/4 27. 3822-3/8 27. 5322-1/2 27. 6822-5/8 27. 8322-3/4 27. 9822-7/8 28. 13 23 28. 2723-1/8 28. 4223-1/4 28. 5723-3/8 28. 7223-1/2 28. 8723-5/8 29. 0223-3/4 29. 1723-7/8 29. 32 24 29. 4624-1/8 29. 6124-1/4 29. 7624-3/8 29. 9124-1/2 30. 0624-5/8 30. 2124-3/4 30. 3624-7/8 30. 51 25 30. 6525-1/8 30. 8025-1/4 30. 9525-3/8 31. 1025-1/2 31. 2525-5/8 31. 4025-3/4 31. 5525-7/8 31. 70 26 31. 8526-1/8 31. 9926-1/4 32. 1426-3/8 32. 2926-1/2 32. 4426-5/8 32. 5926-3/4 32. 7426-7/8 32. 89 27 33. 0427-1/8 33. 1827-1/4 33. 3327-3/8 33. 4827-1/2 33. 6327-5/8 33. 7827-3/4 33. 9327-7/8 34. 08 28 34. 2328-1/8 34. 3828-1/4 34. 5228-3/8 34. 6728-1/2 34. 8228-5/8 34. 9728-3/4 35. 1228-7/8 35. 27 29 35. 4229-1/8 35. 5729-1/4 35. 7129-3/8 35. 8629-1/2 36. 0129-5/8 36. 1629-3/4 36. 3129-7/8 36. 46 30 36. 6130-1/8 36. 7630-1/4 36. 9030-3/8 37. 0530-1/2 37. 2030-5/8 37. 3530-3/4 37. 5030-7/8 37. 65 31 37. 8031-1/8 37. 9531-1/4 38. 1031-3/8 38. 2431-1/2 38. 3931-5/8 38. 5431-3/4 38. 6931-7/8 38. 84 32 38. 9032-1/8 39. 1432-1/4 39. 2932-3/8 39. 4332-1/2 39. 5832-5/8 39. 7332-3/4 39. 8832-7/8 40. 03 FACTORY PREPARATION A GREEN COFFEE SHRINKAGE TABLE _Showing shrinkage in roasting of raw coffee in quantities from sixtypounds up to three hundred pounds, and at six different shrinkagepercentages_ Compiled by R. C. Wilhelm, New York RAW 12% 13% 14% 15% 16% 17% 60 52-3/4 52-1/4 51-1/2 51 50-1/2 49-3/4 61 53-3/4 53 52-1/2 51-3/4 51-1/4 50-3/4 62 54-1/2 54 53-1/4 52-1/4 52 51-1/2 63 55-1/2 54-3/4 54 53-1/2 53 52-1/4 64 56-1/4 55-3/4 55 54-1/2 53-3/4 53 65 57-1/4 56-1/2 56 55-1/4 54-1/2 54 66 58 57-1/2 56-3/4 56 55-1/2 54-3/4 67 59 58-1/4 57-3/4 57 56-1/4 55-1/2 68 59-3/4 59-1/4 58-1/2 57-3/4 57 56-1/2 69 60-3/4 60 59-1/4 58-3/4 58 57-1/4 70 61-1/2 61 60-1/4 59-1/2 58-3/4 58 71 62-1/2 61-3/4 61 60-1/4 59-3/4 59 72 63-1/4 62-3/4 62 61 60-1/2 59-3/4 73 64-1/4 63-1/2 62-3/4 62 61-1/4 60-1/2 74 65 64-1/2 63-3/4 63 62-1/4 61-1/2 75 66 65-1/4 64-1/2 63-3/4 63 62-1/4 76 67 66 65-1/4 64-1/2 63-3/4 63 77 67-3/4 67 66-1/4 65-1/2 64-3/4 64 78 68-3/4 68 67 66-1/4 65-1/2 64-3/4 79 69-1/2 68-3/4 68 67-1/4 66-1/2 65-3/4 80 70-1/2 69-3/4 68-3/4 68 67-1/4 66-1/2 81 71-1/4 70-1/2 69-3/4 69 68 67-1/4 82 72-1/4 71-1/2 70-1/2 69-3/4 69 68 83 73 72-1/4 71-1/2 70-1/2 69-3/4 69 84 74 73-1/4 72-1/4 71-1/2 70-1/2 69-3/4 85 74-3/4 74 73-1/4 72-1/4 71-1/4 70-1/2 86 75-3/4 74-3/4 74 73-1/4 72-1/4 71-1/4 87 76-1/2 75-3/4 75 74 73-1/4 72-1/4 88 77-1/2 76-1/2 75-3/4 74-3/4 73-3/4 73 89 78-1/2 77-1/2 76-1/2 75-3/4 74-3/4 74 90 79-1/4 78-1/4 77-1/2 76-1/2 75-3/4 75 91 80-1/2 79-1/4 78-1/4 77-1/2 76-1/2 75-1/2 92 81 80 79-1/4 78-1/4 77-1/4 76-1/2 93 82 81 80 79 78-1/4 77-1/4 94 82-3/4 81-3/4 80-3/4 80 79 78 95 83-3/4 82-3/4 81-3/4 80-3/4 79-3/4 79 96 84-1/2 83-1/2 82-1/2 81-3/4 80-3/4 79-3/4 97 85-1/2 84-1/2 83-1/2 82-1/2 81-1/2 80-1/2 98 86-1/4 85-1/4 84-1/4 83-1/4 82-1/2 81-1/2 99 87-1/4 86-1/4 85-1/4 84-1/4 83-1/4 82-1/4 100 88 87 86 85 84 83 101 89 87-1/2 86-1/2 85-1/2 84-1/2 83-1/2 102 89-3/4 88-3/4 87-3/4 86-3/4 85-3/4 84-3/4 103 90-3/4 89-3/4 88-3/4 87-1/2 86-1/2 85-1/2 104 91-1/2 90-1/2 89-1/2 88-1/2 87-1/2 86-1/2 105 92-1/2 91-1/2 90-1/4 89-1/4 88-1/4 87-1/4 106 93-1/4 92-1/4 91-1/4 90-1/4 89 88 107 94-1/4 93-1/4 92 91 90 88-3/4 108 95 94 93 91-3/4 90-3/4 89-3/4 109 96 95 93-3/4 92-3/4 91-1/2 90-1/2 110 96-3/4 95-3/4 94-3/4 93-1/2 92-1/2 91-3/4 111 97-3/4 96-3/4 95-1/2 94-1/2 93-1/4 92-1/4 112 98-1/2 97-1/2 96-1/2 95-1/4 94-1/4 93 113 99-1/2 98-1/4 97-1/4 96 95 93-3/4 114 100-1/2 99-1/4 98 97 95-3/4 94-3/4 115 101-1/4 100-1/2 99 97-3/4 96-3/4 95-1/2 116 102 101 99-3/4 98-1/2 97-1/2 96-1/4 117 103 101-3/4 100-1/2 99-1/2 98-1/4 97 118 103-3/4 102-1/2 101-1/2 100-1/4 99 98 119 104-3/4 103-1/2 102-1/4 101 100 98-3/4 120 105-1/2 104-1/2 103 102 101 99-1/2 121 106-1/2 105-1/4 104 102-3/4 101-1/2 100-1/2 122 107-1/2 106 105 103-1/2 102-1/2 101-1/2 123 108-1/4 107 105-3/4 104-1/2 103-1/4 102 124 109 108 106-1/2 105-1/2 104 103 125 110 108-3/4 107-1/2 106-1/4 105 103-3/4 126 111 109-1/2 108 107 106 104-1/2 127 111-3/4 110-1/2 109-1/4 108 106-3/4 105-1/2 128 112-1/2 111-1/2 110 109 107-1/2 106 129 113-1/2 112-1/4 111 109-3/4 108-1/4 107 130 114-1/2 113 112 110-1/2 109 108 131 115-1/4 114 112-3/4 111-1/4 110 108-3/4 132 116 115 113-1/2 112 111 109-1/2 133 117 115-3/4 114-1/4 113 111-3/4 110-1/4 134 118 116-1/2 115-1/2 114 112-1/2 111 135 118-3/4 117-1/2 116 114-3/4 113-1/4 112 136 119-1/2 118-1/2 117 115-1/2 114 113 137 120-1/2 119-1/4 117-3/4 116-1/2 115 113-3/4 138 121-1/2 120 118-1/2 117-1/2 116 114-1/2 139 122-1/4 121 119-1/2 118-1/4 116-3/4 115-1/4 140 123-1/4 121-3/4 120-1/2 119 117-1/2 116-1/4 141 124 122-3/4 121-1/4 119-3/4 118-1/2 117 142 125 123-1/2 122 120-3/4 119-1/4 117-3/4 143 125-3/4 124-1/2 123 121-1/2 120 118-3/4 144 126-3/4 125-1/4 123-3/4 122-1/2 121 119-1/2 145 127-1/2 126-1/4 124-3/4 123-1/4 121-3/4 120-1/4 146 128-1/2 127 125-1/2 124 122-3/4 121-1/4 147 129-1/4 128 126-1/2 125 123-1/2 122 148 130-1/4 128-3/4 127-1/4 125-3/4 124-1/4 122-3/4 149 131 129-3/4 128-1/4 126-3/4 125-1/4 123-3/4 150 132 130-1/2 129 127-1/2 126 124-1/2 151 133 131-1/4 129-3/4 128-1/4 126-3/4 125-1/4 152 133-3/4 132-1/4 130-3/4 129-1/4 127-3/4 126-1/4 153 134-3/4 133 131-1/2 130 128-1/2 127 154 135-1/2 134 132-1/2 131 129-1/4 127-3/4 155 136-1/2 134-3/4 133-1/4 131-3/4 130-1/4 128-3/4 156 137-1/4 135-3/4 134-1/4 132-1/2 131 129-1/2 157 138-1/4 136-1/2 135 133-1/2 132 130-1/4 158 139 137-1/2 136 134-1/4 132-3/4 131-1/4 159 140 138-1/4 136-3/4 135-1/4 133-1/2 132 160 140-3/4 139-1/4 137-1/2 136 134-1/2 132-3/4 161 141-3/4 140 138-1/2 136-3/4 135-1/4 133-3/4 162 142-1/2 141 139-1/4 137-3/4 136 134-1/2 163 143-1/2 141-3/4 140-1/4 138-1/2 137 135-1/4 164 144-1/4 142-3/4 141 139-1/2 137-3/4 136 165 145-1/4 143-1/2 142 140-1/4 138-1/2 137 166 146 144-1/2 142-3/4 141 139-1/2 137-3/4 167 147 145-1/4 143-1/2 142 140-1/4 138-1/2 168 147-3/4 146-1/4 144-1/2 142-3/4 141 139-1/2 169 148-3/4 147 145-1/4 143-3/4 142 140-1/4 170 149-1/2 148 146-1/4 144-1/2 142-1/4 141 171 150-1/2 148-3/4 147 145-1/4 143-3/4 142 172 151-1/4 149-3/4 148 146-1/4 144-1/2 142-3/4 173 152-1/4 150-1/2 148-3/4 147 145-1/4 143-1/2 174 153 151-1/2 149-3/4 148 146-1/4 144-1/2 175 154 152-1/4 150-1/2 148-3/4 147 145-1/4 176 155 153 151-1/4 149-1/2 147-3/4 146 177 155-3/4 154 152-1/4 150-1/2 148-3/4 147 178 156-3/4 154-3/4 153 151-1/4 149-1/2 147-3/4 179 157-1/2 155-3/4 154 152-1/4 150-1/4 148-1/2 180 158-1/2 156-1/2 154-3/4 153 151-1/4 149-1/2 181 159-1/4 157-1/2 155-3/4 153-3/4 152 150-1/4 182 160-1/4 158-1/4 156-1/2 154-3/4 153 151 183 161 159-1/4 157-1/2 155-1/2 153-3/4 152 184 162 160 158-1/4 156-1/2 154-1/2 152-3/4 185 162-3/4 161 159 157-1/4 155-1/2 153-1/2 186 163-3/4 161-3/4 160 158 156-1/4 154-1/2 187 164-1/2 162-3/4 160-3/4 159 157 155-1/4 188 165-1/2 163-1/2 161-3/4 160 158 156 189 166-1/4 164-1/2 162-1/2 160-3/4 156-3/4 156-3/4 190 167-1/4 165-1/4 163-1/2 161-1/2 159-1/2 157-3/4 191 168 166-1/4 164-1/4 162-1/4 160-1/2 158-1/2 192 169 167 165 163-1/4 161-1/4 159-1/4 193 169-3/4 168 166 164 162 160-1/4 194 170-3/4 168-3/4 166-3/4 165 163 161 195 171-1/2 169-3/4 167-3/4 165-3/4 163-3/4 161-3/4 196 172-1/2 170-1/2 168-1/2 166-1/2 164-3/4 162-3/4 197 173-1/4 171-1/2 169-1/2 167-1/2 165-1/2 163-1/2 198 174-1/4 172-1/4 170-1/4 168-1/4 166-1/4 164-1/4 199 175 173-1/4 171-1/4 169-1/4 167-1/4 165-1/4 200 176 174 172 170 168 166 201 177 174-3/4 173 170-3/4 168-3/4 166-3/4 202 177-3/4 175-3/4 173-3/4 171-3/4 169-3/4 167-3/4 203 178-3/4 176-1/2 174-1/2 172-1/2 170-1/2 168-1/2 204 179-1/2 177-1/2 175-1/2 173-1/2 171-1/4 169-1/4 205 180-1/2 178-1/4 176-1/4 174-1/4 172-1/4 170-1/4 206 181-1/4 179-1/4 177-1/4 175 173 171 207 182-1/4 180 178 176 174 171-3/4 208 183 181 179 176-3/4 174-3/4 172-3/4 209 184 181-3/4 179-3/4 177-3/4 175-1/2 173-1/2 210 184-3/4 182-3/4 180-1/2 178-1/2 176-1/2 174-1/4 211 185-3/4 183-1/2 181-1/2 179-1/4 177-1/4 175-1/4 212 186-1/2 184-1/2 182-1/4 180-1/4 178 176 213 187-1/2 185-1/4 183-1/4 181 179 176-3/4 214 188-1/4 186-1/4 184 182 179-3/4 177-1/2 215 189-1/4 187 185 182-3/4 180-1/2 178-1/2 216 190 188 185-3/4 183-1/2 181-1/2 179-1/4 217 191 188-3/4 186-1/2 184-1/2 182-1/4 180 218 191-3/4 189-3/4 187-1/2 185-1/4 183 181 219 192-3/4 190-1/2 188-1/4 186-1/4 184 181-3/4 220 193-1/2 191-1/2 189-1/4 187 184-3/4 182-1/2 221 194-1/2 192-1/4 190 187-3/4 185-3/4 183-1/2 222 195-1/4 193-1/4 191 188-3/4 186-1/2 184-1/4 223 196-1/4 194 191-3/4 189-1/2 187-1/4 185 224 197 195 192-3/4 190-1/2 188-1/4 186 225 198 195-3/4 193-1/2 191-1/4 189 186-3/4 226 199 196-1/2 194-1/4 192 189-3/4 187-1/2 227 199-3/4 197-1/2 195-1/4 193 190-3/4 188-1/2 228 200-3/4 198-1/4 196 193-3/4 191-1/2 189-1/4 229 201-1/2 199-1/4 197 194-3/4 192-1/4 190 230 202-1/2 200 198 195-1/2 193-1/2 191 231 203-1/4 201 198-3/4 196-1/2 194-1/4 192 232 204 202 199-1/2 197 195 192-1/2 233 205 202-3/4 200-1/4 198 195-3/4 193-1/4 234 206 203-1/2 201 199 196-1/2 194 235 206-3/4 204-1/2 202 199-3/4 197-1/2 195 236 207-1/2 205 203 200-1/2 198 196 237 208-1/2 206-1/4 203-3/4 201-1/2 199 196-3/4 238 209-1/2 207 204-1/2 202-1/4 200 197-1/2 239 210-1/4 208 205-1/2 203-1/4 200-3/4 198-1/4 240 211 208-3/4 206-1/4 204 201-1/2 199 241 212 209-3/4 207-1/4 204-3/4 202-1/2 200 242 213 210-1/2 208 205-3/4 203 201 243 213-3/4 211-1/2 209 206-1/2 204 201-3/4 244 214-3/4 212-1/4 210 207-1/4 205 202-1/2 245 215-1/2 213 210-3/4 208-1/4 205-3/4 203-1/4 246 216-1/2 214 211-1/2 209 206-1/2 204 247 217-1/4 215 212-1/2 210 207-1/2 205 248 218 216 213 211 208 206 249 219 216-3/4 214-1/2 211-1/2 209-1/4 207 250 220 217-1/2 215 212-1/2 210 207-1/2 251 221 218-1/4 215-3/4 213-1/4 210-3/4 208-1/4 252 222 219 216-3/4 214 212 209 253 222-1/2 220 217-1/2 215 212-1/2 210 254 223-1/2 221 218-1/2 216 213-1/4 211 255 224-1/4 222 219-3/4 216-3/4 214-1/4 211-1/2 256 225 223 220 218 215 212 257 226 223-3/4 221 218-3/4 216 213 258 227 224-1/2 222 219-1/2 216-3/4 214 259 228 225-1/4 222-3/4 220-1/4 217-1/2 215 260 229 226 224 221 218 216 261 229-3/4 227 225 222 219 216-3/4 262 230-1/2 228 225-1/2 222-3/4 220 217-1/2 263 231-1/2 229 226-1/4 223-1/2 221 218-1/4 264 232 230 227 224 222 219 265 233 230-3/4 228 225 222-3/4 220 266 234 231-1/2 228-3/4 226 223-1/2 220-3/4 267 235 232-1/4 229-1/2 227 224-1/4 221-1/2 268 236 233 230-1/2 228 225 222 269 236-3/4 234 231-1/4 228-1/2 226 223-1/4 270 237-1/2 235 232 229-1/2 226-3/4 224 271 238-1/2 235-3/4 233 230-1/4 227-1/2 225 272 239 237 234 231 228 226 273 240 237-3/4 234-3/4 232 229 226-3/4 274 241 238-1/2 235-1/2 233 230 227-1/2 275 242 239-1/4 236-1/2 233-3/4 231 228-1/4 276 243 240 237-1/4 234-1/2 232 229 277 243-3/4 241 238-1/4 235-1/2 232-3/4 230 278 244-1/2 242 239 236-1/2 233-1/2 230-3/4 279 245-1/2 243 240 237 234-1/2 231-1/2 280 246-1/2 243-3/4 241 238 235-1/4 232-1/2 281 247-1/4 244-1/2 241-3/4 238-3/4 236 233-1/4 282 248 245-1/2 242-1/2 239-1/2 237 234 283 249 246-1/4 243-1/4 240-1/2 237-3/4 235 284 250 247 244 241-1/2 238-1/2 235-3/4 285 250-3/4 248 245 242-1/4 239-1/4 236-1/2 286 251-1/2 249 246 243 240 237-1/2 287 252-1/2 249-3/4 246-3/4 244 241 238-1/4 288 253-1/2 250-1/2 247-1/2 245 242 239 289 254-1/4 251-1/2 248-1/2 245-3/4 242-3/4 239-3/4 290 255 252-1/2 249-1/2 246-1/2 243-1/2 240-3/4 291 256 253-1/4 250-1/4 247-1/4 244-1/2 241-1/2 292 257 254 251 248 245-1/2 242-1/2 293 257-3/4 255 252 249 246-1/4 243-1/4 294 258-1/2 256 253 250 247 244 295 259-1/2 256-3/4 253-3/4 250-3/4 247-3/4 244-3/4 296 260-1/2 257-1/2 254-1/2 251-1/2 248-1/2 245-1/2 297 261-1/4 258-1/2 255-1/2 252-1/2 249-1/2 246-1/2 298 262 259-1/4 256-1/2 253-1/2 250-1/2 247-1/2 299 263 260 257-1/4 254-1/4 251-1/4 248-1/4 [Illustration: TRYING THE ROAST] _Cooling and Stoning_ "Coffee which leaves the roaster beautifully uniform in appearance", says A. L. Burns, "may lose all uniformity by delayed or inadequatecooling. Separated beans of coffee will cool off by themselves; but whenheaped together, the inner part of the mass will get hotter and eventake fire.... Coffee must be spread over a considerable surface, or allkept moving, and have at the same time a lot of air forced through it. Otherwise, there will be some darkening and over-development of part ofthe coffee, and a loss of the uniformity which is the first requirementof good roasting. " [Illustration: MONITOR GAS ROASTER] [Illustration: A GROUP OF ROASTING-ROOM ACCESSORIES] The cooling apparatus consists of a movable, box-like metal car whichcan be brought up to the front of the roaster to the revolvingcylinders. The car has a perforated false bottom, to which is attached apowerful exhaust-fan system that sucks the heat out of the coffee. Inlarge plants, utilizing two or more floors, the tilting-type coolingcar is favored. This car permits instant discharge through an opening inthe floor into a receiving tank suspended from the ceiling below andconnected with the stoning apparatus. Recently, a flexible-arm coolerhas been invented that provides full fan suction to a cooler car at allpoints in its track travel from the roaster to the emptying position. [Illustration: DUMPING THE ROAST IN A COAL ROASTING PLANT The roasted coffee is being turned into the cooling car, equipped with aswinging "flexarm" that keeps it always in connection with a suspendedheader pipe; the cooling being started as soon as the coffee leaves theroaster. The cooled coffee, by tipping the box, goes into a floorhopper] The stoner, an essential part of the modern roasting plant, has for itsfunction the removal of stones and other foreign matter of which thegreen-coffee operations have failed to get rid. The stoner is usuallybuilt in direct combination with the cooling equipment, and does itswork by means of a gravity separation in an upward-moving column of air. The coffee passes into the suction boot of the stoner, either directlyfrom the cooler box or from a floor hopper into which the cooler dumps, and is carried up the stoner pipe, or "riser", by an air current ofample power which can be accurately regulated. This insures the carryingup of coffee only, the stones remaining at the bottom of the machine andbeing dumped at intervals into a pan underneath. The coffee, passing upthe riser pipe, is delivered into a large "stoner hopper" which isusually hung to the ceiling of the roasting room. The correctconstruction of this hopper is of great importance, as the coffee mustbe deposited completely without breakage, and the air must pass onthrough the suction fan carrying nothing except bits of loose chaff. A different type of cooler is in the form of an upright cylinder, consisting of two metal perforated drums, one set within the other. Theinner drum is sufficiently small to allow the coffee to move freelybetween the drums. Inside the smaller one is an exhaust pipe which drawsthe heat and chaff out of the coffee. This device is recommended for useonly in connection with wet roasted coffee. Still another type consists of a single perforated cylinder sethorizontal with the floor, and revolving alongside of an exhaust boxwhich sucks out the heat and chaff as the coffee is tumbled about in thecylinder. A rocking type, that is not generally employed, is constructedon the principle of the screen used by housebuilders to separate coarsesand from the fine, and is pivoted at the middle so that it can berocked end to end. [Illustration: A FOUR-BAG COFFEE FINISHER] _Finishing or Glazing_ Finishing whole-bean roasted coffee, by giving it a friction polishwhile it is still moist, using a glaze solution or water only, is apractise not harmful if the proper solutions are employed. Roastedcoffee dulls in ordinary handling, and it is claimed that coating notonly improves its appearance, but serves also to preserve the naturalflavor and aroma of the bean. A machine having flat-sided woodencylinders with ventilated heads, and operated two-thirds full of coffeeso as to get an effective rolling motion, is generally employed. Coatings composed of sugar and eggs are popular, but their use should bestated on the label. Coffee roasters are divided on this question of coffee-coating. The bestthought of the trade is undoubtedly opposed to the practise when it isdone to conceal inferiority or abnormally to reduce shrinkage. Some NewYork coffee roasters, who made a thorough investigation of the matter, found coating coffee with a wholesome material not injurious and thecoated coffee better in the cup. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley found, in thecelebrated Ohio case against Arbuckle Brothers, that coating coffee withsugar and eggs produced beneficial results, and that the coatingpreserved the bean. The Bureau of Chemistry has never issued any rulingon the subject of coating coffee. _Blending Roasted Coffee_ After cooling and stoning, unless it is to be polished or glazed, thecoffee is ready for grinding and packing if it has been blended in thegreen state. Otherwise, the next step will be to mix the differentvarieties before grinding, although some packers blend the differentkinds after they have been ground. To mix whole-bean roasted coffeewithout hurting its appearance is rather difficult, and there is noregular machine for such work. [Illustration: BURNS SAMPLE-COFFEE ROASTER] Rarely is a single kind of coffee drunk straight. The common practise inall countries is to mix different varieties having opposingcharacteristics so as to obtain a smoother beverage. This is calledblending, a process that has attained the standing of an art in theUnited States. Most package coffees are blends. In addition to otherqualities, the practical coffee blender must have a natural aptitude forthe work. He must also have long experience before he becomesproficient, and must be acquainted with the different properties of allthe coffees grown, or at least of those that come to his market. Furthermore, he must know the variations in characteristics of currentcrops; for in most coffees no two crops are equal in trade values. Innumerable blends are possible with more than a hundred differentcoffees to draw upon. A blend may consist of two or more kinds of coffee, but the generalpractise is to employ several kinds; so that, if at any time one can notbe obtained, its absence from the blend will not be so noticeable aswould be the case if only two or three kinds were used. In blending coffees, consideration is given first to the shades offlavor in the cup and next to price. The blender describes flavors as, acidy, bitter, smooth, neutral, flat, wild, grassy, groundy, sour, fermented, and hidey; and he mixes the coffees accordingly to obtain thedesired taste in the cup. Naturally the wild, sour, groundy, fermented, and hidey kinds are avoided as much as possible. Coffees with a Rioflavor are used only in the cheaper blends. Generally speaking, a properly balanced blend should have a full richbody as a basis; and to this should be added a growth to give it someacid character, and one to give it increased aroma. Personal preference is the determining factor in making up a blend. Someblenders prefer a coffee with plenty of acid taste; while others choosethe non-acid cup. For the first-named kind, the blender will mixtogether the coffees that have an acidy characteristic; while for anon-acidy blend, he will mix an acidy growth with one having a neutralflavor. [Illustration: LAMBERT ECONOMIC COFFEE-ROASTING OUTFIT FOR COAL FIRE This is a self-contained plant for one or two bags, and comprises aroaster, rotary cooler, elevator feed hopper, electric motor, andstoning and chaffing attachments. It may be equipped for gas] Coffees can be divided into four great classes, the neutral-flavored, the sweet, the acidy, and the bitter. All East Indian coffees, exceptCeylons, Malabars, and the other Hindoostan growths, are classified asbitter, as are old brown Bucaramangas, brown Bogotas, and brown Santos. The acid coffees are generally the new-crop washed varieties of thewestern hemisphere, such as Mexicans, Costa Ricas, Bogotas, Caracas, Guatemalas, Santos, etc. However, the acidity may be toned down by ageso that they become sweet or sweet-bitter. Red Santos is generally asweet coffee, and is prized by blenders. High-grade washed Santo Domingoand Haiti coffees are sweet both when new crop and when aged. Practical coffee blenders do not mix two new-crop acid coffees, or twoold-crop bitter kinds, unless their bitterness or acidity iscounteracted by coffees with opposite flavors. One blender insists thatevery blend should contain three coffees. [Illustration: CHALLENGE PULVERIZER] Some Bourbon and flat-beaned Santos coffees are better when new, andsome are better when old; but a blend of fine old-crop coffee with asnappy new-crop coffee gives a better result than either separately. Anew-crop Bourbon and an old yellow flat bean make a better blend than anew-crop flat bean and an old-crop Bourbon. Probably the very bestresult in a low-priced blend may be obtained by using one-half old-cropBourbon Santos with one-half new-crop Haiti or Santo Domingo of thecheaper grades. Typical low-priced coffee blends in the United States may be made up ofa good Santos, possibly a Bourbon, and some low-cost Mexican, CentralAmerican, Colombian, or Venezuelan coffee, the Santos counteractingthese acidy Milds. Going next higher in the scale of price, fancy old Bourbon Santos isused with one-third fancy old Cucuta or a good Trujillo. For a blend costing about five cents more a pound retail, one-thirdfancy old Cucuta or Merida is blended with fancy old Bourbon Santos. [Illustration: MONITOR COFFEE-GRANULATING MACHINE] The highest-priced blend may contain two-thirds of a fine private estateSumatra and one-third Mocha or Longberry Harari. [Illustration: COLES NO. 22 GRINDING MILL] Alfred W. McCann, while advertising manager for Francis H. Leggett &Co. , New York, in 1910, evolved a new coffee distinction based on theargument that certain coffees like Mochas, Mexicans, Bourbons, and CostaRicas were developed in the cup through the action on them of cream ormilk; while others, such as Bogotas, Javas, Maracaibos, etc. , flattenedout when cream or milk was added. He argued, accordingly, that breakfastcoffees should be made up from the former, but that the latter shouldnot be used except for after-dinner coffees, to be drunk black. [328]William B. Harris, then coffee expert for the United States Departmentof Agriculture, took issue with Mr. McCann, claiming that if a coffee iswatery and lacks body, it will not take kindly to milk or cream, notbecause the chemical action of milk or cream flattens it out, butbecause there is nothing there in the first place. The strength of thebrew being equal, all coffees will take cream or milk, Mr. Harrisheld. [329] [Illustration: BURNS NO. 12 GRINDING MILL Designed for hotel and restaurant trade] [Illustration: MONITOR STEEL-CUT GRINDER, SEPARATOR, AND CHAFFER] M. J. McGarty said in 1915 that he had tried out many coffees in the cup, and could not see that adding milk made any difference. However, hefound that sometimes a line of coffees will contain a sample thatflattens out at the drinking point (the point where the boiling waterhas cooled to permit of its being drunk); and he thought this was whatMr. McCann had in mind, as, by adding milk to such a coffee, it wasbrought back to the drinking point. In other words, it was Mr. McGarty'sopinion that, in blending coffees, those coffees which hold their ownfrom the start, or boiling point, until they become cold, or evenimprove right through, are more desirable for blending purposes; andthat those that are best at the drinking point should be given thepreference. [330] _Coffee Blends for Restaurants_ William B. Harris[331] believes that the coffee of prime importance inpreparing restaurant blends is Bogota. He advises the use of afull-bodied Bogota and an acid Bourbon Santos in the proportion ofthree-fourths Bogota to one-fourth Santos. Blends may also be made upfrom combinations of Bogota, Mexicans, and Guatemalas. According to Mr. Harris, the average blend of good coffee when made up, two and one-half pounds of coffee to five gallons of water, will producea liquor of good color and strength. For many hotels, however, this maynot answer, as it is not heavy enough. More coffee must then be used, orten percent of chicory added. A blend with chicory can be made by usingtwo-thirds Bogota, one-third Bourbon Santos, and ten percent chicory. No steward, hotel man, or restaurant man should, however, advertise"coffee" on his menu, and then serve a drink employing chicory; because, while there is no federal law against such a practise, there are statelaws against it. Chicory is all right in its place; and many prefer adrink made from coffee and chicory; but such a drink can not properly becalled coffee. Hotel men should purchase their coffee in the bean, and do their owngrinding. Then they need never have cause to complain that their coffeeman deceived them, or that some salesman misled them. The hotel stewardwishing to furnish his patrons with a heavy-bodied coffee, particularlya black after-dinner coffee, _without chicory_, will use three, four, oreven four and one-half pounds of ground coffee to five gallons of water. With so wide a choice of coffees to choose from, a coffee blender canmake up many combinations to meet the demands of his trade. Probably notwo blenders use exactly the same varieties in exactly the sameproportions to make up a blend to sell at the same price. However, theyall follow the same general principles laid down in the foregoing flavorclassification of the world's coffees. _Grinding and Packaging Coffee_ [Illustration: JOHNSON CARTON-FILLING, WEIGHING, AND SEALING MACHINE] Unless the coffee is to be sold in the bean, it is sent to the grindingand packing department, to be further prepared for the consumer. Sincethe federal food law has been in effect, the public has gainedconfidence in ground and bean coffee in packages; and today a large partof the coffee consumed in the United States is sold in one and two poundcartons and cans, already blended and ready for brewing. [Illustration: THE IDEAL STEEL-CUT MILL] A progressive coffee-packing house may have three different styles ofgrinding machines; one called the granulator for turning out theso-called "steel-cut" coffee; the second, a pulverizer for making areally fine grind; and the third, a grinding mill for general factorywork and producing a medium-ground coffee. Commercial coffee-grinding machines are alike in principle in allcountries, the beans being crushed or broken between toothed orcorrugated metal or stone members, one revolving and the other beingstationary. While all grinding machines are alike in principle, they mayvary in capacity and design. The average granulator will turn out aboutfive hundred pounds of "steel-cut" coffee in an hour; the pulverizer, from seventy-five to two hundred pounds; and the average grinding millfrom five hundred to six hundred pounds. Some types of grinding machineshave chaff-removing attachments to remove, by air suction, the chafffrom the coffee as it is being ground. A large number of trade terms for designating different grinds of coffeeare used in the United States, some of them meaning the same thing, while similar names are sometimes contradictory. A canvass of theleading American coffee packers in 1917[332] discovered that there werefifteen terms in use, and that there were thirty-four different meaningsattached to them. For the term "fine" there were five differentdefinitions; "medium" had five; "coarse", seven; "pulverized", four;"steel-cut", seven; "ground", two; "powdered", one; "percolator", two;"steel-cut-chaff-removed", one; "Turkish ground", one; while"granulated", "Greek ground", "extra fine", "standard", and "regular"were not defined. The term "steel-cut" is generally understood to mean that in thegrinding process the chaff has been removed and an approximateuniformity of granules has been obtained by sifting. The term does notnecessarily mean that the grinding mills have steel burrs. In fact, mostfirms employ burrs made of cast-iron or of a composition metal known as"burr metal", because of its combined hardness and toughness. The "steel-cut" idea is another of those sophistries for which Americanadvertising methods have been largely responsible in the development ofthe package-coffee business in the United States. The term "steel-cut"lost all its value as an advertising catchword for the original userwhen every other dealer began to use it, no matter how the ground coffeewas produced. When the public has been taught that coffee should be"steel-cut", it is hard to sell it ground coffee unless it is called"steel-cut"; although a truer education of the consumer would havecaused him to insist on buying whole bean coffee to be ground at home. [Illustration: SMYSER PACKAGE-MAKING-AND-FILLING MACHINE AT THE ARBUCKLEPLANT, NEW YORK This machine was invented by Henry E. Smyser of Philadelphia, whosecured the first patent in 1880, but it has been much improved by theArbuckle engineers. The half shown on the left makes the one-pound paperbags complete, including the separate lining of parchment, fills thebag, automatically inserts a premium list at the same time, packs itdown, seals it, and delivers it on a short conveyor to the other half(shown on the right) where the package is wrapped in the outsideglassine paper and pushed out on a table for the girls to put intoshipping cases] "Steel-cut" coffee, that is, a medium-ground coffee with the chaff blownout, does not compare in cup test with coffee that has been morescientifically ground and not given the chaff removal treatment that islargely associated in the public mind with the idea of the steel-cutprocess. [Illustration: MACHINE FOR AUTOMATICALLY PACKING COFFEE IN CARTONS Five distinct operations are performed by the units comprising thisPneumatic installation, viz. , carton-feeding, bottom-sealing, lining, weighing and top-sealing] According to the results of the trade canvass previously referred to, itwould appear that the terms most suited to convey the right idea of thedifferent grades of grinding, and likely to be acceptable to thegreatest number, would be "coarse" (for boiling, and including all thecoarser grades); "medium" (for coffee made in the ordinary pot, including the so-called "steel-cut"); "fine" (like granulated sugar, andused for percolators); "very fine" (like cornmeal, and used for drip orfiltration methods); "powdered" (like flour, and used for Turkishcoffee). Coffee begins to lose its strength immediately after roasting, the rateof loss increasing rapidly after grinding. In a test carried out by aMichigan coffee packer, [333] it was discovered that a mixture of a veryfine with a coarse grind gives the best results in the cup. It was alsodetermined that coarse ground coffee loses its strength more rapidlythan the medium ground; while the latter deteriorates more quickly thana fine ground; and so on, down the scale. His conclusions were that themost satisfactory grind for putting into packages that are likely tostand for some time before being consumed is a mixture consisting ofabout ninety percent finely ground coffee and ten percent coarse. Histheory is that the fine grind supplies sufficiently high bodyextraction; the coarse, the needful flavor and aroma. On this irregulargrind a United States patent (No. 14, 520) has been granted, in which theinventor claims that the ninety percent of fine eliminates theinterstices--that allow too free ventilation in a coarse groundcoffee--and consequently prevents the loss of the highly volatileconstituents of the ten percent of coarse-ground particles, and at thesame time gives a full-body extraction. _Making and Filling Containers_ As stated before, a large proportion of the coffee sold in the UnitedStates is put up into packages, ready for brewing. Such containers aregrouped under the name of the material of which they are made; such astin, fiber, cardboard, paper, wood, and combinations of these materials, such as a fiber can with tin top and bottom. Generally, coffeecontainers are lined with chemically treated paper or foil to keep inthe aroma and flavor, and to keep out moisture and contaminating odors. As the package business grew in the United States, the machinerymanufacturers kept pace; until now there are machines that, in onecontinuous operation, open up a "flat" paper carton, seal the bottomfold, line the carton with a protecting paper, weigh the coffee as itcomes down from an overhead hopper into the carton, fold the top andseal it, and then wrap the whole package in a waxed or paraffinedpaper, delivering the package ready for shipment without having beentouched by a human hand from the first operation to the last. Such amachine can put out fifteen to eighteen thousand packages a day. Another type of machine automatically manufactures two and three-plypaper cans such as are used widely for cereal packages. It winds theribbons of heavy paper in a spiral shape, automatically gluing thepapers together to make a can that will not permit its contents to leakout. The machine turns out its product in long cylinders, like mailingtubes, which are cut into the desired lengths to make the cans. Thepaper or tin tops and bottoms are stamped out on a punch press. Coffee cans are generally filled by hand; that is, the can is placedunder the spout of an automatic filling and weighing machine by anoperator who slips on the cover when the can is properly filled. Theweighing machine has a hopper which lets the coffee down into a devicethat gauges the correct amount, say a pound or two pounds, and thenpours it into the can. The machine weighs the can and its contents, andif they do not show the exact predetermined weight, the deviceautomatically operates to supply the necessary quantity. After weighing, the can is carried on a traveling belt to the labeling machine, wherethe label is automatically applied and glued. Then the can is putthrough a drying compartment to make the label stick quickly. [Illustration: COMPLETE COFFEE-CARTONING OUTFIT IN OPERATION The girl is feeding the "flats" into an Improved Johnson bottom-sealer. The carton travels to a Scott weigher on the right and thence to thetop-sealer on the left] Paper bags are filled much the same way as the tin and the fiber cans. In fact, some packers fill their paper and fiber cartons by the samesystem; although the tendency among the largest companies is to instalthe complete automatic packaging equipment, because of its speed andeconomy in packaging. Frequently, the weighing machines are used infilling wooden and fiber drums holding twenty-five, fifty, and onehundred pounds of coffee, to be sold in bulk to the retailer. [Illustration: THREE TYPES OF AUTOMATIC COFFEE-WEIGHING MACHINES Left--Duplex net weigher. Center--Pneumatic cross-weight machine. Right--Scott net weigher] _Coffee Additions and Fillers_ In all large coffee-consuming countries, coffee additions and fillershave always been used. Large numbers of French, Italian, Dutch, andGerman consumers insist on having chicory with their coffee, just as domany Southerners in the United States. The chief commercial reason for using coffee additions and fillers is tokeep down the cost of blends. For this purpose, chicory and many kindsof cooked cereals are most generally used; while frequently roasted andground peas, beans, and other vegetables that will not impair the flavoror aroma of the brew, are employed in foreign countries. BeforeParliament passed the Adulterant Act, some British coffee men used asfillers cacao husks, acorns, figs, and lupins, in addition to chicoryand the other favorite fillers. Up to the year 1907, when the United States Food and Drugs Act becameeffective, chicory and cereal additions were widely used by coffeepackers and retailers in this country. With the enforcement of the lawrequiring the label of a package to state when a filler is employed, theuse of additions gradually fell off in most sections. In botanical description and chemical composition chicory, the mostfavored addition, has no relationship with coffee. When roasted andground, it resembles coffee in appearance; but it has an entirelydifferent flavor. However, many coffee-drinkers prefer their beveragewhen this alien flavor has been added to it. _Treated Coffees and Dry Extracts_ The manufacture of prepared, or refined, coffees has become an importantbranch of the business in the United States and Europe. Prepared coffeescan be divided into two general groups: treated coffees, from which thecaffein has been removed to some degree; and dry coffee extracts(soluble coffee), which are readily dissolved in a cup of hot or coldwater. To decaffeinate coffee, the most common practise is to make the greenbeans soft by steaming under pressure, and then to apply benzol orchloroform or alcohol to the softened coffee to dissolve and to extractthe caffein. Afterward, the extracting solvents are driven out of thecoffee by re-steaming. However, chemists have not yet been able to expelall the caffein in treating coffee commercially, the best effortsresulting in from 0. 3 to 0. 07 percent remaining. After treatment, thecoffee beans are then roasted, packed, and sold like ordinary coffee. [Illustration: VACUUM DRUM DRIER Vacuum drum drier, No. 1 size; diameter of drum, 12 inches; length, 20inches; used for converting coffee extract and other liquids into drypowder form. This is the smallest size, and was developed for dryingsmaller quantities of liquids than could be handled economically in thelarger sizes. To provide accessibility of the interior for cleansing, the outer casing may be moved back on the track of the bedplate (asshown in the cut), so that free access may be had to the drum andinterior of the casing. RAPID-CIRCULATION EVAPORATOR Used to concentrate coffee extracts and other liquids. The tubes areeasily reached through the open door for cleansing. Interior of thevapor body is reached through a manhole. REAR VIEW OF DRUM DRIER Vacuum drum dryer. No. 1 size; rear view, showing outer casing rolledback from the drum. CROSS-SECTION OF VACUUM DRIER This shows the interior arrangement and principle of operation. Thedrawing represents a larger size than the photograph, and while thearrangement of some parts is slightly different, the principle ofoperation is the same. UNITS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SOLUBLE COFFEE] In manufacturing dry coffee extract in the form of a powder that isreadily soluble in water, the general method is to extract the drinkingproperties from ground roasted coffee by means of water, and toevaporate the resulting liquid until only the coffee powder is left. Several methods have been developed and patented to prevent the valuableflavor elements from being evaporated with the water. A typical dry-coffee-extract-making equipment consists of a battery ofpercolators, or "leachers", a vacuum evaporating device, and a vacuumdrier. The leachers do not differ materially from the ordinaryrestaurant percolators, a battery usually including from three to sevenunits, each charge of water going through all the percolations. Theresulting heavy liquid then goes to the evaporator to be concentratedinto a thick liquor. The evaporator consists of a horizontal cylindricalvapor compartment connected with an inclined cylindrical steam chest inwhich are numerous tubes, or flues, that occupy almost the whole chest. These tubes are heated by steam. The coffee liquor is passed through thetubes at high speed and thrown with great force against a baffle plateat the opening to the vapor chest. The vapor passes around the baffleplate to a separator. The liquor drops to the lower part of thesteam-chest (which is free from tubes), and is ready to be drawn out forthe next process, the drying. At this stage, the extract is a heavily concentrated syrup and is readyto be converted into powder. This is done in the vacuum drier, whichconsists of a hollow revolving drum surrounded by a tightly sealedcast-iron casing. The drum is heated by steam injected into itsinterior, and is revolved in a high vacuum. In operation, a coating ofcoffee liquor is applied automatically, by means of a special device, tothe outside of the drum. The liquor is taken by gravity from thereservoir containing the liquid supply and is forced upward by means ofa pump into the liquid supply pan, directly under the drum, withsufficient pressure to cause the liquid to adhere to the drum, theexcess liquor overflowing from the pan into the reservoir. The coatingon the drum is controlled or regulated by a spreader. The heat and thevacuum reduce the extract to a dry powder in less than one revolution ofthe drum. As the drum completes three-quarters of a turn, a scraperknife removes the coffee powder, which is delivered to a receiver belowthe drum. Modern vacuum-drum driers have a capacity of from twenty-fiveto five hundred pounds of dry soluble coffee per hour. C. W. Trigg and W. A. Hamor were granted a patent in the United States in1919 on a new process for making an aromatized coffee extract. In thisprocess, the caffeol of the coffee is volatilized and is then broughtinto contact with an absorbing medium such as is used in the extractionof perfumes. The absorbing medium is then treated with a solvent of thecaffeol, and the solution is separated from the petrolatum. Then thecoffee solution is concentrated to an extract by evaporation; afterwhich, the extract and the caffeol are combined into a soluble coffee. Five additional patents were granted on this same process in 1921. [Illustration] CHAPTER XXVI WHOLESALE MERCHANDISING OF COFFEE _How coffees are sold at wholesale--The wholesale salesman's place in merchandising--Some coffee costs analyzed--Handy coffee-selling chart--Terms and credits--About package coffees--Various types of coffee containers--Coffee package labels--Coffee package economies--Practical grocer helps--Coffee sampling--Premium method of sales promotion_ Coffee is sold at wholesale in the United States chiefly by about 4, 000wholesale grocers, who handle also many other items of food; and byroasters, who make a specialty of preparing the green coffee forconsumption, and who feature either bulk or trade-marked package goods. Much the largest proportion of the wholesale coffee trade today is madeup of roasted coffees, though some wholesalers still sell the green beanto retail distributers who do their own roasting. Most of the roastedcoffee sold is ground; although in some parts of the United States thereis at present a growing consumer demand for coffee in the bean. Of thecoffee sold in trade-marked packages in 1919 in the United States, aboutseventy-five percent was ground ready for brewing. The larger wholesale houses generally confine their operations to thesection of the country in which they are located, but some of thebiggest coffee-packing firms seek national distribution. In both cases, branch houses are usually established at strategic points to facilitatethe serving of retail customers with freshly roasted coffee at alltimes. In recent years, too, it has become a general practise for the homeoffices, or main headquarters, to advertise their product in magazines, newspapers, street cars, and by mail and on billboards; while thebranches solicit trade in their territories by means of travelingsalesmen, local newspaper advertisements, booklets, circulars, anddemonstrations at food shows. _The Wholesale Salesman_ The traveling salesman is probably the most effective agency in securingthe retailer's orders for coffee. A good coffee salesman not only sellscoffee, but he teaches his customer how he can best build up and holdhis coffee trade. He acquaints the retailer with all the talking pointsabout the coffee he handles, how to feature it in store displays andadvertisements, how to stage demonstrations and to work up specialsales. If he is a _good_ salesman, he does not permit the merchant to buy morecoffee than he can dispose of while it is still fresh. And he shows thedealer the folly of handling too many brands of package coffees. If hesells coffee in bulk, the efficient salesman has also a sound workingknowledge of blending principles, and is able to suggest the kinds ofcoffee to blend to suit the particular requirements of each grocer'strade. In short, he takes an intelligent interest in his customer'sbusiness, and co-operates with him in building up a local coffee trade. _Some Coffee Costs Analyzed_ In estimating the price at which he must sell his coffee to make a fairprofit, the wholesale coffee merchant has many items of expense toconsider. To the cost of the green coffee he must add: the cost oftransportation to his plant; the loss in shrinkage in roasting, whichranges from fifteen to twenty percent; packaging costs, if he is apacker; the items of expense in doing business, such as wages andsalaries, advertising, buying and selling, freight, express, warehouseand cartage, postage and office supplies, telephone and telegraph, credit and collection; and the fixed overhead charges for interest, heat, light, power, insurance, taxes, repairs, equipment, depreciation, losses from bad debts, and miscellaneous items. [334] The average lossfor bad debts among grocers in 1916 was 0. 03 percent of the total sales, according to the director of business research, Harvard University, whoestimated also that the common figure for credit and collection expensewas 0. 06 percent. The total cost of doing business has been estimated asranging between twelve and twenty percent of the total annual sales, sothat a bag of green coffee costing $16 in New York or New Orleans coststhe coffee packer in the Middle West from $22. 33 to $24. 56, according tothe expense of carrying on his business. _Terms and Credits_ Wholesale coffee trade contract terms and credits are not dissimilarfrom those in other lines of commerce. The wholesaler helps the retailerfinance his business to the extent of granting him thirty to sixty daysin which to pay his bill, offering him a cash discount if the invoice ispaid within ten days of date of sale. Until recent years, these termswere frequently abused, the customer demanding much longer credits andoften taking a ten-day cash discount after thirty or more days hadelapsed. This abuse was particularly prevalent from 1907 to 1913, whencoffee prices were low and competition was especially keen. [335] Inaddition, the retailers often demanded special deliveries of supplies, which added to the wholesalers' costs; and some retailers refused to paythe cost of cartage from the cars to their stores. With the coming of high prices after the close of the World War, thewholesalers showed a tendency to tighten up their credit and discountterms, the National Coffee Roasters Association especially recommendingthirty days' credit, or at most sixty days, and a maximum cash discountrate of two percent. Another trade abuse which has been corrected almost altogether was thepractise of "selling coffee to be billed as shipped"; that is, thewholesaler held coffee on order, and billed only when delivered, eventhough several weeks or months had passed before shipment. _About Package Coffees_ Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the sale of coffee inpackages has increased steadily until now (1922) this form ofdistribution competes strongly with bulk coffee sales. While bulk coffeeis still preferred in some eastern sections of the United States, coffeepackers are making deep inroads there, to the extent that practicallyall high and medium grade retailers feature package coffees, eitherunder their own brand name, or that of a coffee specialty house. The prime requisite for success in any package coffee is the compositionof the blend. One of the leaders in the field, which we will call Y, issaid to be composed of Bogota, Bourbon Santos, and Mexican. In March, 1922, it was being sold at retail in New York for 42 cents. A competingbrand, which we will call Z, is said to be a blend of Bogota and BourbonSantos. It was being sold at retail in New York, at the same period forthe same price. Simultaneously, in the retail stores of a well knownchain system, a bulk blend composed of sixty percent Bourbon Santos andforty percent Bogota was to be had loose for 29 cents. The second important factor that contributes to package coffee successis the container. It must be of such a character as will best preservethe freshness--the flavor and the aroma of the coffee--until it reachesthe consumer. Package coffee has not yet won universal favor. Some of the argumentsused against it are: that the price is generally higher than the samegrade in bulk; that it leads to price-cutting by stores that can affordto sell it at about cost as a leader for other articles; that the marginof profit is frequently too close for some retailers: that when themarket advances, some packers change their blends to keep down cost andto maintain the advertised price; and that, when packed ground, there isa rapid loss of flavor, aroma, and strength. [Illustration: COAL ROASTING PLANT IN A NEW YORK FACTORY THE ROASTED BEANS HAVE JUST BEEN DUMPED INTO THE COOLER BOX] COFFEE-SELLING CHART BY A. J. DANNEMILLER Showing Prices to Be Obtained to Realize Certain Percents _on Sales_of Roasted Coffee _Cost Roasted__& Packed_ 10% 11% 12% 13% 14% 15% 16% 17% 4 4. 44 4. 50 4. 55 4. 61 4. 67 4. 72 4. 77 4. 824-1/2 5. 00 5. 06 5. 12 5. 18 5. 24 5. 30 5. 36 5. 435 5. 55 5. 62 5. 68 5. 75 5. 82 5. 89 5. 96 6. 035-1/2 6. 11 6. 18 6. 25 6. 33 6. 41 6. 49 6. 57 6. 656 6. 67 6. 74 6. 81 6. 89 6. 97 7. 06 7. 15 7. 246-1/2 7. 23 7. 31 7. 38 7. 47 7. 55 7. 84 7. 74 7. 847 7. 78 7. 87 7. 95 8. 05 8. 15 8. 25 8. 35 8. 457-1/2 8. 34 8. 43 8. 52 8. 62 8. 72 8. 83 8. 93 9. 048 8. 89 8. 99 9. 09 9. 20 9. 31 9. 42 9. 53 9. 658-1/2 9. 45 9. 55 9. 66 9. 77 9. 87 9. 99 10. 12 10. 259 10. 00 10. 12 10. 23 10. 35 10. 47 10. 59 10. 72 10. 859-1/2 10. 56 10. 68 10. 80 10. 92 11. 04 11. 17 11. 31 11. 4510 11. 11 11. 24 11. 37 11. 49 11. 63 11. 77 11. 90 12. 0510-1/2 11. 66 11. 81 11. 93 12. 07 12. 21 12. 36 12. 49 12. 6511 12. 22 12. 37 12. 50 12. 64 12. 85 12. 95 13. 08 13. 2611-1/2 12. 77 12. 93 13. 07 13. 21 13. 37 13. 54 13. 68 13. 8612 13. 33 13. 49 13. 64 13. 79 13. 95 14. 12 14. 28 14. 4612-1/2 13. 89 14. 05 14. 21 14. 37 14. 53 14. 71 14. 88 15. 0613 14. 44 14. 62 14. 78 14. 93 15. 11 15. 30 15. 47 15. 6613-1/2 15. 00 15. 18 15. 33 15. 51 15. 69 15. 88 16. 07 16. 2714 15. 55 15. 73 15. 90 16. 08 16. 28 16. 48 16. 67 16. 8414-1/2 16. 11 16. 29 16. 48 16. 65 16. 86 17. 05 17. 26 17. 4715 16. 66 16. 85 17. 05 17. 23 17. 44 17. 65 17. 85 18. 0715-1/2 17. 23 17. 43 17. 61 17. 80 18. 03 18. 22 18. 45 18. 6716 17. 78 17. 98 18. 18 18. 38 18. 60 18. 83 19. 05 19. 2816-1/2 18. 33 18. 54 18. 75 18. 97 19. 18 19. 41 19. 64 19. 8817 18. 89 19. 10 19. 33 19. 52 19. 76 20. 01 20. 24 20. 4817-1/2 19. 44 19. 66 19. 89 20. 10 20. 35 20. 59 20. 83 21. 0818 20. 00 20. 22 20. 45 20. 67 20. 93 21. 18 21. 43 21. 6918-1/2 20. 55 20. 79 21. 02 21. 24 21. 51 21. 77 22. 02 22. 2919 21. 11 21. 35 21. 59 21. 84 22. 09 22. 36 22. 62 22. 9019-1/2 21. 66 21. 91 22. 16 22. 41 22. 68 22. 95 23. 21 23. 5020 22. 22 22. 47 22. 73 22. 99 23. 25 23. 54 23. 81 24. 1120-1/2 22. 77 23. 03 23. 30 23. 55 23. 83 24. 14 24. 40 24. 7021 23. 33 23. 60 23. 87 24. 14 24. 42 24. 70 25. 00 25. 3021-1/2 23. 88 24. 16 24. 43 24. 71 25. 00 25. 29 25. 59 25. 9022 24. 44 24. 72 25. 00 25. 28 25. 58 25. 92 26. 19 26. 5122-1/2 24. 99 25. 29 25. 57 25. 85 26. 16 26. 47 26. 78 27. 1223 25. 55 25. 85 26. 14 26. 42 26. 74 27. 06 27. 38 27. 7123-1/2 26. 11 26. 41 26. 70 27. 00 27. 32 27. 66 27. 97 28. 3224 26. 67 26. 97 27. 26 27. 58 27. 90 28. 24 28. 57 28. 9224-1/2 27. 22 27. 54 27. 84 28. 15 28. 49 28. 83 29. 16 29. 5225 27. 78 28. 09 28. 41 28. 73 29. 07 29. 41 29. 76 30. 12 _Cost Roasted__& Packed_ 18% 19% 20% 21% 22% 23% 24% 25% 4 4. 88 4. 94 5. 00 5. 07 5. 13 5. 20 5. 26 5. 334-1/2 5. 49 5. 57 5. 63 5. 70 5. 77 5. 84 5. 91 6. 005 6. 10 6. 18 6. 25 6. 33 6. 42 6. 50 6. 55 6. 685-1/2 6. 72 6. 80 6. 88 6. 97 7. 06 7. 15 7. 24 7. 336 7. 33 7. 42 7. 50 7. 60 7. 70 7. 80 7. 90 8. 006-1/2 7. 94 8. 03 8. 13 8. 24 8. 33 8. 45 8. 56 8. 677 8. 54 8. 65 8. 75 8. 86 8. 96 9. 09 9. 21 9. 337-1/2 9. 15 9. 26 9. 30 9. 50 9. 63 9. 75 9. 87 10. 008 9. 76 9. 88 10. 00 10. 13 10. 26 10. 39 10. 53 10. 678-1/2 10. 37 10. 40 10. 63 10. 76 10. 90 11. 04 11. 19 11. 339 10. 98 11. 12 11. 25 11. 40 11. 54 11. 70 11. 85 12. 009-1/2 11. 59 11. 73 11. 88 12. 03 12. 18 12. 34 12. 51 12. 6710 12. 20 12. 34 12. 50 12. 66 12. 82 12. 98 13. 16 13. 3310-1/2 12. 81 12. 95 13. 12 13. 29 13. 46 13. 63 13. 81 14. 0011 13. 43 13. 57 13. 75 13. 93 14. 10 14. 28 14. 47 14. 6711-1/2 14. 03 14. 19 14. 38 14. 56 14. 74 14. 93 15. 13 15. 3312 14. 65 14. 81 15. 00 15. 19 15. 38 15. 58 15. 79 16. 0012-1/2 15. 24 15. 43 15. 63 15. 83 16. 02 16. 23 16. 45 16. 6713 15. 85 16. 05 16. 25 16. 45 16. 67 16. 87 17. 10 17. 3313-1/2 16. 46 16. 67 16. 88 17. 08 17. 31 17. 53 17. 76 18. 0014 17. 07 17. 28 17. 50 17. 72 17. 95 18. 17 18. 40 18. 6714-1/2 17. 68 17. 90 18. 13 18. 35 18. 59 18. 83 19. 07 19. 3315 18. 29 18. 51 18. 75 18. 98 19. 23 19. 48 19. 74 20. 0015-1/2 18. 90 19. 13 19. 38 19. 61 19. 87 20. 12 20. 39 20. 6716 19. 51 19. 75 20. 00 20. 25 20. 51 20. 77 21. 05 21. 3316-1/2 20. 12 20. 38 20. 63 20. 88 21. 16 21. 42 21. 70 22. 0017 20. 73 21. 99 21. 25 21. 51 21. 78 22. 07 22. 36 22. 6717-1/2 21. 34 21. 60 22. 88 22. 15 22. 43 22. 72 23. 03 23. 3318 21. 95 22. 22 22. 50 22. 78 23. 05 23. 37 23. 68 24. 0018-1/2 22. 56 22. 84 23. 13 23. 42 23. 70 24. 02 24. 34 24. 6719 23. 17 23. 45 23. 75 24. 05 24. 34 24. 67 25. 00 25. 3319-1/2 23. 78 24. 07 24. 38 24. 68 24. 99 25. 32 25. 66 26. 0020 24. 39 24. 68 25. 00 25. 31 25. 64 25. 97 26. 32 26. 6720-1/2 25. 00 25. 30 25. 63 25. 94 26. 28 26. 61 26. 97 27. 3321 25. 62 25. 92 26. 25 26. 58 26. 92 27. 26 27. 63 28. 0021-1/2 26. 22 26. 54 26. 88 27. 22 27. 56 27. 91 28. 28 28. 6722 26. 83 27. 16 27. 50 27. 86 28. 10 28. 56 28. 94 29. 3322-1/2 27. 44 27. 78 28. 13 28. 48 28. 85 29. 22 29. 61 30. 0023 28. 06 28. 38 28. 75 29. 11 29. 48 29. 86 30. 26 30. 6723-1/2 28. 66 29. 00 29. 38 29. 76 30. 12 30. 51 30. 92 31. 3324 29. 27 29. 62 30. 00 30. 38 30. 77 31. 17 31. 58 32. 0024-1/2 29. 88 30. 24 30. 63 31. 02 31. 41 31. 81 32. 24 32. 6725 30. 49 30. 86 31. 25 31. 65 32. 05 32. 47 32. 90 33. 33 NOTE, FOR EXAMPLE: Coffee costing 13. 50 per 100 pounds(see first column), to realize 17% _on sales_, must bring16. 27; which really represents 21% _on cost_ Friends of package coffees point to the saving in time in handling inthe store; to the fact that the contents of a package are notcontaminated by odors or dirt; that the blends are prepared by expertsand are always uniform; that the coffee is always properly roasted; and, in the case of package ground coffee, properly ground; that the brandnames are widely and consistently advertised; and that the retailer hasthe benefit of the packer's co-operation in building up sales campaigns, by means of booklets and local advertising. _Various Types of Coffee Containers_ Five types of containers are used for packing coffee, namely, cardboardcartons, paper bags, fiber or paper cans, tin cans, and composite (tinand fiber) cans and packages. Fiber packages include paraffin-lined aswell as those that have been chemically treated with other water-proofand flavor-retaining substances. The carton is popular, because it takes up less room in storage and inshipment to the packing plant, and also because the label can be printeddirectly on the package. Another economy feature is its adaptability tothe automatic packaging machine, which transforms it from a flat sheetinto a wrapped and sealed package of coffee. Moisture-proof andflavor-retaining inner liners and outside wrappers are generally used toprevent rapid deterioration of the coffee's strength and aroma. Paper bags are the least expensive containers to be obtained; and whenlined with foil or prepared paper, they are considered to besatisfactory. Like the carton, the label can be printed directly on thebag. They also lend themselves to close packing in shipping cases. Another popular type of container is the paper, or fiber, can which ismade of fiber board with a slip cover. Fiber cans are also made withtin tops and bottoms, the metal parts supplying a measure of rigidity tothe package. These composite packages are made round, square, oblong, orcylindrical. Paraffined containers are characterized by an outer covering of glossyparaffin, and are made in various shapes. In some makes, the paraffin isforced into the pores of the paper base, making for addedflavor-retaining and moisture-proof properties. In this type of packagethe label may also be printed direct on the package. In recent years, vacuum packed coffee has won great favor, first in theWest and latterly in the East. Tin cans are used. Vacuum sealingmachines close the containers at the rate of forty to fifty a minute. Private tests by responsible coffee men are said to have shown thatcoffee in the bean or ground, when vacuum packed, retains its freshnessfor a longer period than when packed by any other method. _Labels_ Coffee packers must give due attention to certain well defined lawsbearing on package labels. Before the Federal Pure Food Act went intoeffect on January 1, 1907, many coffee labels bore the magic names of"Mocha" and "Java, " when in fact neither of those two celebrated coffeeswere used in the blend. Even mixtures containing a large percentage ofchicory, or other addition, were labeled "Pure Mocha and Java Coffee. "The enactment of the pure food law ended this practise, making itcompulsory that the label should state either the actual coffees used inthe blend, or a brand name, together with the name of either the packeror the distributer. When chicory or other addition is used, the factmust be stated in clear type directly following the brand name. Thereading matter on the label should contain facts only, and should notbear extravagant claims of superior quality or of methods of preparingor packing that have not been followed. _Coffee Packaging Economies_ During the United States' participation in the World War, tin becamepractically unobtainable, and coffee packers turned to paper and fibercontainers as substitutes in packaging nearly all grades. In this warperiod, commercial economy became a fetish in the business world; andcoffee packers worked to save not only material, but shipping space, labor, and time. Paper and fiber containers proved to be not onlypractical but economical packages. Because of their war-time experience, many packers changed permanently to square and oblong containers. Theyfound these containers could be packed "solid" in shipping cases, leaving no unfilled space between packages as is the case withcylindrical cans; also, smaller shipping cases could be used. As afurther measure of economy, several packers changed from the square"knocked-down" paper or fiber carton to the oblong carton that is madeup, filled, and sealed by automatic machinery from a flat, printed sheetof cardboard. This type of container is generally lined or wrapped witha moisture-proof and flavor-retaining paper. There has been a tendency in recent years to standardize coffee packagesas a means of working out packaging and shipping economies. One of theleading American proponents[336] of standardization said: One of the first arguments raised against standardization is that it eliminates individuality, and individuality is one of the big guns covering the front line trenches in the war of competition. The folly of recommending that every one-pound coffee carton, for instance, should be of exactly the same size and shape is immediately apparent; but let us not confuse such unification with standardization. Assuming that a pound of coffee may be safely contained in seventy-two cubic inches, we find that a carton three inches thick by four inches wide by six inches high will serve our purpose; and, as an illustration of extremes, a carton three inches thick by three inches wide by eight inches high, or one [carton] two inches thick by six inches wide by six inches high, will each have exactly the same cubical contents. In fact, there is an almost infinite variety of combinations of dimensions which will contain substantially seventy-two cubic inches. As an example of how coffee packages can be standardized this authoritycites the following sizes of flat-sheet containers and their respectivedimensions and capacities: THICK AND WIDE HIGH CONTENTSSize Inches Inches Cubic Ins. 1 lb. 2-5/8 by 4-1/2 6-1/4 73. 831/2 lb. 2-1/4 by 3-1/8 5-1/4 36. 911/4 lb. 1-9/16 by 2-5/8 4-1/2 18. 46 [Illustration: VARIOUS TYPES OF COFFEE CONTAINERS THIS GROUP OF LEADING TRADE-MARKED COFFEES ILLUSTRATES THE WIDE VARIANCEIN STYLES OF CONTAINERS USED BY COFFEE-ROASTERS. THE PACKAGES SHOWN AREAS FOLLOWS: 1--Double carton. 2, 3--Cartons. 4--Fiber sides, tin top and bottom, friction cover. 5--Vacuum tin can. 6--Fancy paper bag. 7--Machine-wrapped paper package. 8--Fancy paper bag. 9--Carton withpatented opening and closing device. 10--Wrapped paper package. 11--Tincan with slip cover. 12--All-fiber can with slip cover. 13--Tin can withslip cover. 14--Lithographed tin can with friction cover. 15, 16--Tincans with slip covers. 17--Squat tin can. 18--Napa-can. 19, 20, 21--Vacuum tin cans. ] The advantages claimed for these packages are that each is wellproportioned and makes a good selling appearance; each bears a directrelation to the other two; and all may be handled with uniformly goodresults on the same set of standardized packaging machinery. One size ofshipping case, instead of three, may be used to hold exactly the samenumber of pounds of coffee, regardless of whether shipped in one-pound, half-pound, or quarter-pound cartons. For smaller dealer assortments, any two, or all three sizes also exactly fit the following standardshipping cases: For 36 lbs. , 13-7/8" by 16-1/2" by 12-3/4" highFor 54 lbs. , 13-7/8" by 16-1/2" by 19-1/8" high This standardization of packages and shipping containers results in alower cost of containers and a smaller stock to carry, with attendantreductions in details in purchasing and billing departments, ininventories, and in many other overhead expense factors. _Practical Grocer Helps_ Wholesale coffee merchandising does not properly end with the deliveryof a shipment of coffee to a retailer. The progressive wholesaler knowsthat it is to his best interest to help that grocer sell his coffee asquickly as possible; to make a good profit on a quick turn-over; and todispose of it before the coffee has deteriorated. Practical co-operation between wholesaler and retailer is one of themost important factors in coffee merchandising. In these days of keenand unremitting competition, neither agency can stand alone for long. The progressive wholesaler does not sell a retailer a poorer quality ofcoffee for any particular grade than his trade calls for, and he doesnot load him up with more than can be disposed of while still fresh. Hegauges the capacity and facilities of each retail customer, and thengives him practical help to keep the stock moving. The packer of branded coffees helps by advertising to the consumer inmagazines and newspapers, always featuring the name of his brands; andhe supplies the grocer with educational pamphlets and booklets on thegrowing, preparation, and merits of coffee in general, with an addedfillip about the desirability of his particular brand. Through hissalesmen the packer shows the grocer how to display the coffee on thecounter and in the window, and often supplies him with placards andcut-outs featuring his brand. He co-operates in staging special coffeedemonstrations in the store; instructs the retailer in the importance ofteaching his clerks how to talk and to sell coffee intelligently; andhow to prepare advertising copy for his local newspaper, so as to getthe fullest measure of profit from the wholesaler's national orsectional advertising. _Coffee Sampling_ The sampling method of creating a demand for merchandise has been triedin the wholesale coffee trade, only to be abandoned by the majority ofpackers. With other and more satisfactory ways of creating consumerinterest, promiscuous sampling was found to be too expensive, in view ofthe comparatively small returns. One indictment against sampling is thatit does not make any more impression on the average person than does anadvertisement that appears only once, and is then abandoned. Wideawakemerchants have learned that the public's memory is exceedingly short;and that they must keep "hammering" with advertisements to establish andto maintain a demand for their products. It would seem that the logical place for sampling is in the retailer'sstore, especially in connection with demonstrations. Many progressivegrocers stimulate interest in their coffees by serving, on specialdemonstration days, small cups of freshly brewed coffee, giving thecustomer a small sample of the brand or blend used, to be taken home tosee if the same pleasing results can be obtained there also. Generallythis form of sampling, when properly conducted, has shown a largerpercentage of returns than any other method. _Premium Method of Sales Promotion_ For many years, the premium method of sales promotion has been animportant factor in wholesale coffee merchandising, as well as in retaildistribution. The premium system has been characterized as a form ofadvertising; and many coffee packers and wholesalers prefer to spendtheir advertising appropriations in that way rather than in transitoryprinted advertisements in newspapers and general magazines. While certain forms of the system have been legislated out of existencein some states, friends of the plan claim that it is a trueprofit-sharing method which "blesses both him that gives and him thattakes"; and that it is an advanced and legitimate means of promotingbusiness, when properly conducted. They assert that it is a system ofsales promotion whereby the advertising expense, plus a largepercentage of the profits of the business stimulated thereby, isautomatically returned to the dealer buyer, without increasing cost orlowering the quality of the product so advertised; that it eliminatesadvertising waste by producing a given volume of sales for a givenexpenditure of money; that it reduces the cost of advertising byprompting a continuous series of purchases at one advertising expense;that it promotes cash payments and discourages credit business. Premiumusers claim that the force of a printed advertisement is often spent instimulating the first purchase; while to secure a premium, the purchasermust continue to buy the commodity carrying the premium, or trade withthe giver of the premium until merchandise of a stipulated value orquantity has been purchased. In general practise, the premium-giving coffee packer or wholesaler mayeither offer the retailer an inducement in the form of a desirable storefixture, household article, or item for his personal use; or he mayoffer it to the consumer through the retailer. The methods of giving the premium are numerous. To the retailer he maygive the article outright with each purchase of a stipulated quantity ofhis coffee; or he may offer it as a prize to the retail distributerselling the most coffee in a certain period in a specified territory. Frequently the premium is of such value that the wholesaler can not giveit with any quantity of coffee a distributer can dispose of in a shorttime; so he issues coupons or certificates with each purchase, permitting the retailer to redeem the premium when he has saved therequired number. Or, the retailer may get the premium with the firstpurchase by paying the difference in cash. In giving premiums to consumers, the wholesaler follows the same generalplan used with retailers, except that in most cases the coupons arepacked with the coffee and are redeemable at the retailer's store. Sometimes, however, the consumer sends the coupons or certificates tothe wholesaler, getting the premium direct from him. In another phase ofthe premium system, the retailer works independently of the wholesaler, buying and giving away his own premiums to promote or to hold trade forhis store. This phase is explained in the chapter on retail coffeemerchandising. [Illustration] [Illustration: LUHRS, OF POUGHKEEPSIE, N. Y. , FEATURES FRESHLY ROASTEDCOFFEE IN HIS WINDOW Smoke from the roasters is blown into street through the coffee pothanging over the door] [Illustration: JOHNSON, OF RED OAK, IOWA, ROASTS BEFORE THE CUSTOMER Showing a Royal roasting and grinding equipment] [Illustration: FRESH ROASTED-COFFEE IDEA IN RETAIL MERCHANDISING] CHAPTER XXVII RETAIL MERCHANDISING OF ROASTED COFFEE _How coffees are sold at retail--The place of the grocer, the tea and coffee dealer, the chain store, and the wagon-route distributer in the scheme of distribution--Starting in the retail coffee business--Small roasters for retail dealers--Model coffee departments--Creating a coffee trade--Meeting competition--Splitting nickels--Figuring costs and profits--A credit policy for retailers--Premiums_ Coffee is sold at retail in the United States through seven distinctchannels of trade; the independent retail grocers (about 350, 000)handling about forty percent of the 1, 300, 000, 000 pounds sold annually;and the other sixty percent being sold by chain stores, mail-orderhouses, house-to-house wagon-route distributers, specialty tea andcoffee stores, department stores, and drug stores. Since the beginningof the twentieth century, the independent grocers' monopoly in retailcoffee-merchandising has been dwindling at a rate that has seriouslyalarmed those interests and their friends. B. C. Casanas of New Orleans, addressing a convention of the NationalAssociation of Retail Grocers in the United States, in 1916, said thatthe wholesale coffee roasters of the country had invested in theirbusiness $60, 000, 000; and that $135, 000, 000 worth of roasted coffee wassold by them every year. Considering the methods of merchandising, the seven retail distributingagencies may be grouped into three distinct classes. The first classwould comprise the independent grocer, the chain store, the departmentstore, the drug store, and the specialty store, all of which maintainstores where the consumer comes to buy. The second class takes in themail-order house, which solicits orders and delivers its coffee by mail, and sometimes by freight or express. The third class covers thewagon-route dealer, who goes from house to house seeking trade, anddelivers his coffee on order at regular periods direct to the consumerin the home. As an inducement to contracting for large quantities to bedelivered in weekly or bi-weekly periods, the house-to-house dealergenerally gives some household article, or the like, as a premium toestablish good-will and to retain the trade of his customers. New impetus was given to the method of selling coffee by mail when theparcel post system was adopted by the federal government in 1912; andsince then this plan has become an important factor in retailcoffee-merchandising. Generally, the mail-order houses confine theirsales efforts to agricultural districts and small towns, solicitingtrade by catalogs, by circular letters, and by advertisements in localnewspapers, and in magazines which circulate chiefly among dwellers inrural districts. The majority of wagon-route distributers depend upon the lure of theirpremiums, and on personal calls, to develop and to hold their coffeetrade. The leading wagon-route companies, sometimes called "premiumhouses", maintain offices and plants in large cities adjacent to theterritories to which they confine their sales efforts. At strategicpoints, they have district agents who engage the wagon men that do theactual soliciting of orders and that deliver the coffee. All wagon-routecompanies handle other products besides coffee, specializing in tea, spices, extracts, and such household goods as soap, perfumes, and othertoilet requisites that promise a quick sale and frequent re-orders. Someof their competitors complain that they handle only the more profitablelines, leaving the independent local grocer to supply the housekeeperwith the items on which the margin of profit is comparatively small. Wagon-route coffee-retailing began to make itself felt seriously aboutthe year 1900. At first, the premiums usually consisted of a cup andsaucer with the first order, the customer being led to continue buyinguntil at least a full set of dishes had been acquired. Later, the rangeof premiums was expanded; until today the wagon man offers severalhundred different articles that can be used in the home or for personalwear or adornment. Practically all the leading wagon-route concernsfavor the advance premium method; that is, a special canvasser induces aconsumer to contract for a large quantity of coffee and other productsin return for receiving the premium at once, though the coffee isdelivered only as the customer wants it, generally two pounds every twoweeks. The wagon man delivers the coffee, and is usually heldresponsible for the customer fulfilling the agreement, and is expectedto secure repeat orders with other premiums. [Illustration: A PREMIUM TEA AND COFFEE DEALER'S DISPLAY ROOM This is the headquarters store of the Geo. F. Hellick Co. , Easton, Pa. , a successful wagon coffee distributer. The premium merchandise is shownin the foreground: the sales counter, coffee mill, and display of teas, coffees, extracts, spices, etc. , being in the right background] The importance of the wagon-route plan of coffee-retailing is shown bythe fact that in 1921 there were six hundred houses of this kind in theUnited States; and it was estimated that they distributed eight percentof the total amount of the coffee consumed in the country. The biggestcompany was capitalized at $16, 000, 000, and operated eleven hundredwagons. Most of the wagon-route concerns were operating in the centralstates, practically one-third of them covering the states of Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Iowa. Pennsylvania is also a wagon-route-dealercenter. [Illustration: TYPICAL CHAIN-STORE INTERIOR EQUIPMENT This is the Atlantic & Pacific Co. 's store in Rhinebeck, New York. Thereare nearly 5, 000 other stores like it in the United States] The premium wagon-route distributers have an organization called theNational Retail Tea and Coffee Merchants' Association. It is composed of126 members--all of whom use premiums--who operate over two thousandwagons. The largest single wagon-route operator is the Jewel Tea Companyof Chicago. The members of this organization claimed to have served morethan 2, 000, 000 families in 1920. In the chain-store system of merchandising we see the opposite extremeof coffee retailing. The wagon-route man features his delivery service;while in the chain-store plan, all customers must pay cash and carryhome their parcels. Though the earliest established chain stores gavepremiums, the practise has now been generally abandoned. Roasting, blending, and packing coffee in a large central plant, the chain-storeoperator advertises that he can sell coffee at a price lower than hiscompetitors. As a rule, only one grade of coffee is offered for sale. While it is generally a good medium value, many consumers prefer betterquality and go to the independent grocer for it. Others patronize thegrocer because of his convenient delivery service, and because he givescredit on purchases. Chain-store organizations seem to be growingrapidly, however; the largest of the chains, the Great Atlantic &Pacific Tea Co. , reporting in 1921 that it had nearly five thousandbranches throughout the country, which sell 40, 000, 000 pounds of coffeeannually. This chain has a capitalization of $12, 000, 000, and in 1920sold $225, 000, 000 worth of groceries, as compared with $154, 718, 124 inthe preceding year. This company opens about five hundred new storesevery year. The chain-store men are organized in the National Chain Store GrocersAssociation, having thirty members, representing 12, 000 stores, operating in eighteen states. It is estimated that there are fiftyresponsible chain-store grocery organizations in the United States, representing about 30, 000 stores. The chain-store grocer turns his stockover from twelve to twenty-five times a year, sells for cash, makes nodeliveries, and claims to save the consumer an average of fifteenpercent in buying. These stores do business on a net margin notexceeding three percent on sales, as against the average retail grocer'sthirty percent, while their average gross cost of doing business hasbeen stated as between thirteen and one-half percent (lowest) andeighteen and one-half percent (highest). According to Alfred H. Beckmann, secretary-treasurer of the NationalChain Store Grocers' Association, [337] "Public appreciation of the chaingrocery store is rapidly growing. Ten years ago it was estimated thatchain stores in what is known as the Metropolitan district of New Yorkdid about 12-1/2 percent of the volume of business in their line, whiletoday it is estimated at about fifty percent". It is estimated that the fifty-odd chain store organizations in theUnited States distribute through their 30, 000 stores 270, 000, 000 poundsof coffee a year, or about twenty percent of the total amount consumedin the United States. _Starting in the Retail Coffee Business_ When taking up the retail merchandising of coffee, the practical grocerlearns all he can about the popular grades to be had in the principalmarkets, and how the coffees are grown, roasted, blended, and ground. Healso ascertains the best methods of brewing, testing out each grade andkind on his own table, if he does not have testing facilities in hisstore. He studies the relative trade values of different varieties ofcoffee, and the requirements of his particular clientèle. An interesting analysis of some 250 grocery stores in the UnitedStates[338] made in 1919, showed that twenty-nine percent of the dealersbought all their coffee from wholesale grocers, forty-eight percentexclusively from roasters and specialty wholesalers, ten percent gotover one-half of their coffee from wholesale grocers, and thirteenpercent bought less than one-half from the wholesale grocery houses. [Illustration: THE FAMILIAR A & P STORE FRONT] [Illustration: LAYOUT FOR COFFEE AND TEA DEPARTMENT] There are two fundamental plans on which a retailer builds a successfulcoffee business--by buying coffee already roasted, and by buying itgreen and roasting it in the store. Each plan has its advantages; butits practicability depends upon conditions in different localities. Beyond acquiring a general talking knowledge about coffees, the retailerbuying his stocks roasted in bulk or package form does not generallyneed the intimate knowledge of his goods required by the grocer whoroasts his own coffee. If he grinds the coffee for his customers he mustknow the type of grind best suited to the way the coffee is to bebrewed, and must be able to tell the best brewing method. The practical grocer who makes up his own blend is acquainted withblending principles and methods. "While he can not expect to be asexpert as the large wholesale blender, he should know that green coffeesare generally classified by blenders in five great divisions; (1)Brazils, including Santos, Bourbon and flat bean, Rios, Victorias, andBahias; (2) Washed milds, embracing, as of the most commercial value, Bogotas, Bucaramangas, Guatemalas, Mexicans, Costa Ricans, Maracaibos, and Meridas; (3) Unwashed milds, such as Maracaibos, Bucaramangas, LaGuairas, and Mexicans; (4) Javas, Sumatras, and Padangs; (5) Mocha, andHarari. " [Illustration: ONE OF THE RETAIL COFFEE-ROASTING STATIONS IN SOUTHERNCALIFORNIA] [Illustration: CLOSE-UP OF THE MINIATURE MANUFACTURING PLANT, SHOWINGTHE ROASTING AND GRINDING EQUIPMENT] [Illustration: APPLYING THE SPECIALIST IDEA TO COFFEE MERCHANDISING The Pacific Stores Co. , Los Angeles, cutting out deliveries, premiums, and solicitors, has built up a business of more than 100 bags of coffeedaily, selling direct to the consumer in a chain of 100 booths patternedafter the country-roadside gasoline stations; each one having its ownroaster] [Illustration: SELF-CONTAINED MONITOR GAS ROASTER, COOLER, AND STONER] It has been found by experience that a good assortment for the averageretailer to carry consists of Santos, because of price; a naturalunwashed Maracaibo or Bucaramanga, because of full body and generalblending values; and a washed coffee, preferably a Bogota, which givesquality and character to a blend. In stocking up with these coffees, thepractical merchant avoids Santos with a strong or Rioy flavor, bitter or"hidey" Maracaibos, and acidy or thin Bogotas. [339] A grocer equipped with these coffees has the Santos for his low-pricedseller. For his medium grade he blends Santos and Maracaibo, half-and-half. The next higher grade is made up of one-third each of thethree coffees; while the best blend consists either of half-and-halfBogota and Maracaibo, or three-quarters Bogota and one-quarterMaracaibo. The chief advantage of these three coffees is that they blend well inany way they are mixed; and the dealer with a little experience, andworking with the two necessary ideas in mind--satisfactory coffee andprice--can make up various combinations. In view of the fact that the United States imports coffee from more thana hundred different sections of the world, and that there are widevariations in flavor among the coffees produced in each of the hundred, it is easy to understand that the blender has an almost unlimited supplyfrom which to make up a blend with a distinctive individuality. Practically all coffee importers, and most wholesalers, are thoroughlyacquainted with the relative trade values of the different coffees, andhelp their customers make up desirable blends. _Small Roasters for Retail Dealers_ While the wholesale coffee roaster is obliged to instal a large andsomewhat complex equipment, the retailer must use a small, compact, self-contained unit that does not take up much space in his store, andthat is easily operated. Retail roasting machines are constructed on thesame general principle as the wholesale roaster. The roasting cylinderis generally revolved by electric power, and the heat is derived fromgas or gasoline fuel. Cooling is by air suction in a box attached to theroaster. The capacities of the machines range from ten to three hundredpounds, the operating cost running from approximately eight cents perhundred pounds for gas fuel and ten cents for electric power. Theroasters cost from three hundred dollars for the smaller sizes, tofifteen hundred for the one-bag type; and to two thousand or threethousand dollars for the two-bag type. One coffee-roaster-machinery manufacturer has recently brought out agas-fired, electrically operated fifty-pound miniature coffee-roastingplant designed for retail stores, which comprises a roaster, a rotarycooler, and a stoning device, that sells for six hundred and fiftydollars. [Illustration: ROYAL GAS COFFEE ROASTER FOR RETAIL STORES] Retail coffee roasting is similar to the wholesale operation. When thecylinder has become heated, the green coffee is run in and allowed toroast in the revolving cylinder for about half an hour. If the coffee isthe average green kind, the full heat may be applied at once; but if oldand dry, a lesser degree is used. When the roast begins to snap, theflame is turned lower to allow the beans to cook through evenly; andwhen nearly done, it is almost extinguished. During the operation, theroasterman, who may be the proprietor or a clerk delegated to the work, frequently "samples" the coffee by taking out a small quantity with his"trier" and comparing the color of the roast with a type sample. Whenthe colors match exactly, the coffee is dumped automatically into thecooler box just below the cylinder opening; and when sufficiently cooledoff, is ready for grinding to order. A large number of retailers roast coffee in their stores; and the mostsuccessful find that besides being able to make a feature of freshlyroasted coffee, they can save money and increase their sales. Oneprogressive grocer found that he was able to get eighty-eight pounds ofroasted coffee out of one hundred pounds of green coffee, as comparedwith the wholesaler's eighty-four pounds; that he could buy green coffeeat a closer price than roasted; and that it cost him less for labor, fuel, overhead, and similar items, than it did the wholesale roaster toturn out a roast. [340] [Illustration: BURNS HALF-BAG GAS ROASTING, COOLING, AND STONING OUTFIT] [Illustration: LAMBERT JUNIOR GAS ROASTING, COOLING, AND STONING OUTFITFOR RETAIL STORES (Capacity fifty pounds)] A chain of coffee specialty stores in which the coffee is roasted freshevery day was started in California about the year 1916; and accordingto reports, it met with almost instant success. In this system, theproprietor buys the green coffee in large quantities, and it is roastedin each of his specialty stores, which are located in public markets, store windows, and alongside heavily traveled highways. The roastingmachinery is invariably set up in front of the store where passers-bycan easily see it in operation--and also smell the coffee roasting. Fouryears after starting the first store, there were fifty in operationalong the Pacific Coast, doing an annual business of about $600, 000, some units taking in more than $7, 000 a month. _Model Coffee Departments_ Authorities generally agree that a well laid out coffee department notonly increases a grocer's coffee business, but speeds up sales in otherdepartments as well. Coffee lovers, and they are legion in the UnitedStates, are inclined to "shop around" for a coffee that suits theirtaste; and when they have found the store that sells it, they buy theirother groceries there also. Another argument advanced in favor of acoffee department is that coffee pays more money into the retailer'scash drawer than any other grocery item. [341] Most successful retail coffee merchandisers establish the coffeedepartment near the entrance to the store, where it can be seen througha window by passers-by, especially if there is an ornamental roastingand grinding equipment. It has been found that a department situated atthe left of the entrance is almost certain to draw attention becausepeople are inclined to glance in that direction first. Some merchants, having the space, erect attractive booths, designed somewhat like thefamiliar food-show booths, directly in front of the door, after thefashion of department stores when holding a special sale on a certainarticle. Such a booth is generally used for demonstration purposes, andis decorated with signs and possibly with bunting. A permanentdepartment is usually less ornamental, but still attractive. In tellinghow he made a success of his department, one American grocer said thathe was careful that his fixtures were not so ornamental as to drawattention from the goods. While the decorations were always attractive, they were subordinated sufficiently to form a background for his coffeedisplay. [Illustration: FAULDER AND SIMPLEX GAS ROASTERS IN AN ENGLISH FACTORY The Faulder (on the left) is a 28-lb. Indirect machine and the Simplex(also 28 lbs. Capacity) is of the direct-flame, quick-roaster type] The most popular layout is the conventional counter system behind whichthe clerk stands to serve the customer on the other side. There are manyadvocates of the counter that is built into the shelving, believing thatthe closer the customers are brought to the coffee, the more they willbe inclined to buy. This system also makes for cleanliness, doing awaywith the possibility of the runway behind the counter becoming acatch-all for dirt, torn paper, bits of wood, and the like. [Illustration: ILLUSTRATING THE COFFEE ROASTERS USED BY THE SHOP-KEEPERSOF FRANCE These machines are of the ball-cylinder type, and use gas as fuel; thecylinder is revolved by electric power. Invariably they stand where theycan be seen from the street] The modern coffee department has counters divided into compartmentshaving glass fronts. This type serves both as a storage place for coffeeand for display purposes. The top of the counter is used for wrapping upparcels, etc. , and also for displaying bulk and package coffees. In thewell regulated store, the counter top is never used for storage, allstock being kept on shelves or in the counter's compartments. Goodmerchants find that cleanliness pays; and that a "littered up" storedrives away desirable custom. The wise proprietor never allows a clerkto weigh out coffee after handling cheese, onions, and other odorousarticles, without first thoroughly washing his hands. He knows that fewfood products in his store will more quickly absorb undesirable odorsand flavors than coffee; and consequently he is careful to protect hiscoffee from contamination. In the better stores, the proprietor willeither take charge of the coffee department himself, or will delegate acompetent man who will do nothing else. The wide-awake retail coffee roaster always features his roastingmachine, which is generally highly ornamental and draws attention evenwhen not in use. Some progressive merchants plan to roast coffee at noontime and at night, when homeward-bound passers-by are hungry and areparticularly susceptible to the pungent aroma of roasting coffee. It isa quite common plan for the retail roaster to arrange the exhaust of themachine so that the full strength of the odor is blown into the street. _Creating a Coffee Trade_ Because of steady sales and quick profits, there is keener competitionin retail coffee-merchandising than in other food products. But, allthings being equal, any intelligent person can create and hold aprofitable trade if he follows approved business methods--and works. Thebest practise among coffee merchants shows that the prime essential isgood coffee, freshly roasted and ground. After that comes intelligentand unremitting sales-promotion work. [Illustration: SMALL GERMAN ROASTERS On the left is a hand roaster for wood or coal fuel; on the right is agas machine. ] The many ingenious trade-building plans worked out successfully bygrocers in all parts of the country are too numerous to describe in abook of this character; but the methods cited in the following, all ofwhich have been tested in actual working conditions, will serve toindicate the fundamentals of good retail coffee-sales promotion. Among the chief sales-winning methods are demonstrations in the store, at local food shows, and at church socials, picnics or functions, judicious sampling either in person or by mail, personal canvassing fromhouse to house, circularizing by mail, linking up window displays withcurrent happenings, local newspaper and outdoor poster advertising, andselling coffee by telephone. Most of the foregoing plans are workedintermittently. The telephone, however, is a most important sales factorand should be employed constantly and consistently. [342] Many successfulstores consider the telephone, properly used, the greatest singlesales-help in retail coffee-merchandising. [Illustration: POPULAR FRENCH RETAIL ROASTER Employing coal, charcoal, or wood fuel] One grocer had such faith in this method that he paid half the annualtelephone rental for a large number of his best-paying customers. Another large merchandiser put in an individual telephone for each ofhis salesmen, who called up his regular customers each day to suggestarticles for that day's order, always of course mentioning their"superior brand of coffee. " Telephoning is the next step to personalcontact; and if tactfully done, is considered to be even moreadvantageous, because of the time it saves both the customer and thestore keeper. [Illustration: UNO CABINET GAS ROASTER WITH COOLING UNIT A popular English type] Coffee demonstrations in stores are easily arranged, in most cases. Themain consideration is fresh coffee of good quality served daintily andhot. Lacking a coffee urn, some grocers make their brews in large-sizehome-service coffee-making devices. Those most advanced in the correctmethod of brewing use the drip process. It is generally agreed thatdemonstrations should not be held too often. They not only cut intoprofits, but lose much of their advertising value. Food-showdemonstrations require more elaborate equipment, consisting of adecorated booth, educational booklets, posters, and exhibits ofdifferent kinds of coffee, both green and roasted, whole bean andground. Generally, coffee packers co-operate with retail demonstratorsby supplying gratis the coffee to be brewed, if the names of theirbrands are suitably displayed. They supply also posters, signs, samples, and booklets for free distribution. Window displays form one of the best means of advertising at the commandof the average grocer, and one of the least expensive. A popular coffeedisplay consists of a series of educational "windows, " starting withgreen beans in the bags in which they are shipped from the growingcountry. Generally the bags, mats, or bundles are obtained from thewholesale house, and are filled almost to the top with some inexpensivestuffing, the green coffee being spread over the top to give theappearance of a full bag. Pictures showing how the coffee is grown, harvested, prepared, and shipped, are frequently used in such a display. The next exhibit consists of whole roasted coffee spread thickly overthe window floor to create the impression of bulk, accompanied by a fewpans of green coffee by way of contrast, and with pictures showingscenes in coffee roasting plants. A barrel, lined with blue paper, andlying on its side with roasted coffee beans spilling out, serves as acenterpiece for such a display. Following this, comes a coffee packagewindow, accompanied by pictures showing how coffee is roasted, ground, and packed. This completes the series; but there are many variationsthat have proved successful as trade builders. [Illustration: EDUCATIONAL WINDOW EXHIBIT This window won first prize for the western district in the $2, 000window-trimming contest of National Coffee Week in 1920. Action wasfurnished by a small electric pump, which kept a steady stream of coffeeflowing from a coffee pot into the coffee cup] _Meeting Competition_ Since the advent of the wagon-route distributer and the chain store, theindependent retail grocer has been faced with the problem of how toregain at least a fair measure of the coffee trade he has lost. Thegrocer is not only concerned about his profits on coffee sales, but onother goods as well; for a trade investigation has shown that a largepercentage of the regular customers of the retailer are held to thestore by their purchases of coffee and tea. This means that if coffeesand teas are bought from the wagon-route distributer and the chainstore, the balance of a family's order is "shopped around. " To meet this competition, the best authorities agree that theindependent grocer should feature coffee in every practical way, such assoliciting coffee trade from each customer that enters the store; giveup offering coffee on a price basis, and make up his own blends fromgood quality growths; perhaps make up his own brand and push it at everyopportunity; display coffee artistically, with frequent changes oflayouts; and have occasional store demonstrations. He should see thatthe coffee is roasted properly, and that it is always fresh; that theselling effort is not expended on the lowest-priced blend, but on agrade that can be recommended for cup merit. This should be a leader, but a lower-price coffee could be carried to suit the trade that buys onprice. Persistent efforts should be made to educate the last-named classof customers to use the better grades, which in the end are cheaper andgive better satisfaction. In short, the grocer should work consistentlyto establish a vogue for his leader blend on the basis of merit. [Illustration: A BETTER-CLASS AMERICAN GROCERY INTERIOR Showing the coffee bins in orderly array, and the electric coffeegrinder] _Profits and Costs_ Because of its influence on other grocery items, coffee can often besold at a close margin of profit, particularly if a competitor's storeor wagons are cutting into a grocer's neighborhood trade. Twenty-fivepercent is recommended as a reasonable gross profit on coffee in mostcases, although some grocers make less, and not a few make more; therange being usually from twenty to thirty-nine percent. The independentdealer should meet chain-store competition in coffee on a price basis, making a special on a superior grade and figuring to get not more thanthree cents profit per pound, like his competitor. A bag of roastedcoffee will bring back three dollars gain, and the cash to pay foranother--and the grocer has kept his customers, ninety percent of whom, theoretically, will have bought their other food supplies from him. As amatter of fact, in the last year of the World War retailers showed atendency to demand cash on sales of all grocery items. This practisereduces the cost of operation and allows the storekeeper to reduce hisprices. A large number of grocers charge a small percentage of the totalsale for credit privileges, and five or ten cents for each deliverybelow a certain total value of the purchase price of the articles to bedelivered. As a result, they have been able to meet chain-storecompetition. Collective buying has also been a factor in offsetting theinroads of the "chains. " [Illustration: A PRIZE-WINNING WINDOW DISPLAY This unusual display of coffee-flavored eatables won first prize for thesouthern district in the National Coffee Week window-trimming contest. The cakes, pies, tarts, and other pastries which constituted the mainfeature rested in a bed of green coffee. The customer's interest wascleverly attracted to the dealer's brand by a pyramid of large coffeecans in the center background and by two miniature dining-room sets. ] _Splitting Nickels_ One of the reasons advanced for the loss of coffee trade by retailgrocers is that they price their blends in "round numbers", that is 20, 25, 30, or 40 cents; while their competitors "split nickels", sellingtheir product at 18, 23, 28, or 38 cents. Most of the retail enterprises in other lines of trade have built uptheir business on the penny-change plan; and many coffee men believethis should become the universal merchandising method among retaildistributers of coffee. [343] One of the leading advocates of "splitting nickels" has worked out achart to show how coffee should be priced to make predetermined profits. (See next page. ) TABLE SHOWING PROFIT PERCENTAGE ON SALES If YourCoffee And You Sell AtCosts 25c. 26c. 27c. 28c. 29c. 30c. 31c. 32c. 33c. 20c. 20% 23% 26% 28% 31% 33% 35% 37% 39%20-1/2c. 18% 21% 24% 26% 29% 31% 33% 35% 37%21c. 16% 19% 22% 25% 27% 30% 32% 34% 36%21-1/2c. 14% 17% 20% 23% 25% 28% 30% 32% 34%22c. 12% 15% 18% 21% 24% 26% 29% 31% 33%22-1/2c. 10% 13% 16% 19% 22% 25% 27% 29% 31%23c. 8% 11% 14% 17% 20% 23% 25% 28% 30%23-1/2c. 6% 9% 13% 16% 19% 21% 24% 26% 28%24c. 4% 7% 11% 14% 17% 20% 22% 25% 27%24-1/2c. 2% 5% 9% 12% 15% 18% 21% 23% 25%25c. 0% 3% 7% 10% 13% 16% 19% 21% 24%25-1/2c. 2% 5% 8% 12% 15% 17% 20% 22%26c. 0% 3% 7% 10% 13% 16% 18% 21%26-1/2c. 1% 5% 8% 11% 14% 17% 19%27c. 0% 3% 6% 10% 12% 15% 18%27-1/2c. 1% 5% 8% 11% 14% 16%28c. 0% 3% 6% 9% 12% 15% _Figuring Costs and Profits_ While the cost of conducting a retail grocery business naturally variesaccording to local conditions and the size of the enterprise, aninvestigation among some 250 stores in small and large cities made in1919 by the Bureau of Business Research, Harvard University, showed thatthe average cost was fourteen percent; that the net profit averaged twoand three-tenths percent; and that stock was turned about seven times ayear. Gross profits ran from ten and one-half percent to twenty-six andfour-one-hundredths percent of the net sales, the most typical figurebeing sixteen and nine-tenths percent. Sales cost formed the largestsingle item of expense, varying from three and forty-one hundredths tonine and ninety-four hundredths percent, with the bulk of figuresshowing around one and eight-tenths percent. According to advanced business practise the cost of doing businessshould be based on these fourteen points: 1. Charge interest on the net amount of the total investment at the beginning of the business year, exclusive of real estate. 2. Charge rental on real estate or buildings at a rate equal to that which would be received if renting or leasing to others. 3. Charge, in addition to what is paid for hired help, an amount equal to what the proprietor's services would be worth to others; also treat in like manner the services of any member of the family employed in the business and not on the regular payroll. 4. Charge depreciation on all goods carried over on which a less price may have to be made because of damage or any other cause. 5. Charge depreciation on buildings, tools, fixtures, or anything else suffering from age or wear and tear. 6. Charge donations and subscriptions paid. 7. Charge all fixed expenses, such as taxes, insurance, water, lights, fuel, etc. 8. Charge all incidental expenses, such as drayage, postage, office supplies, livery expenses of horses and wagons, telegrams and telephones, advertising, canvassing, etc. 9. Charge losses of every character, including goods stolen, or sent out and not charged, allowances made customers, all debts, etc. 10. Charge collection expense. 11. Charge any other expense not enumerated above. 12. When it is ascertained what the sum of all the foregoing items amounts to, prove it by the books, which will give the total expense for the year; divide this figure by the total of sales, and it will show the percent which it has cost to do business. 13. Take this percent and deduct it from the price of any article sold, then subtract from the remainder what it cost (invoice price and freight), and the result will show the net profit or loss on the article. 14. Go over the selling prices of the various articles and see what are profits; then get busy in putting your selling figures on a profitable basis and talk it over with your competitor as well. _A Credit Policy for Retailers_ While the minor factors governing a credit policy for retailers varywith local conditions, the fundamental principles are alike everywhere, and should have the thoughtful consideration of all retail distributersof coffee. After a retail grocery store experience of twenty-five years, a past president of the National Association of Retail Grocers of theUnited States[344] found that a grocer should insist upon references anda thorough investigation of every new applicant for credit, refusing theprivilege when the prospective customer hesitates to give the neededinformation; that he should arrange a date for periodical payments, explaining that this is necessary so that the storekeeper can arrange tomeet his own bills, which will enable him to discount his invoices andto sell his goods cheaper; that statements of accounts should be sentout promptly and never a few days late; that he should insist on paymentin full when due, requesting the customer to call if an extension oftime is asked; that he should not let the customers decide when theywill pay bills, bearing in mind that the possible loss of a fewcustomers who do not pay promptly is offset by the advantages of cashwhen promised; that he should never abandon the hope of collecting anold account, but should try the method of sending statements only to thesurest customers, sending a clerk for the collection of all otheraccounts; that he should personally examine all uncollected accountsevery month, insisting on a reason for failure to pay; that he shouldstudy his customers and not trust those who give a bad impression; thathe should have the courage to say "No" when necessary; not to besatisfied with merely a financial rating on a credit applicant, but toascertain his general reputation and character; and to help to eliminatethe "dead beats" by giving careful attention to all requests receivedfrom other retailers for credit information. _Premiums for Retailers_ House-to-house dealers are the largest users of premiums among coffeedistributers. Most of them operate under what is known as theadvance-premium method. The plan followed by house-to-house dealers until about 1910 was toissue checks redeemable in premiums after a certain amount of tea, coffee, or other products had been purchased. This practise has not beenentirely abandoned; but in most instances, the premium is now handed tothe consumer in advance of the initial purchase, in consideration of thebuyer's promise to use a stipulated quantity of tea, coffee, or othermerchandise. The driver of the wagon generally carries a portfolioillustrating numerous premium items redeemable through the purchase ofvarying amounts of merchandise. Many retail coffee stores also employ premiums, using both the old-styleand "advance" methods. This type of store, however, is being supplantedby the chain grocery store. Some independent retail grocers use premiums to a limited extent. Theseusually carry a small line of premiums, featuring a piece ofkitchenware, or other inexpensive item, with bulk coffee. It is significant that one of the largest chain-store organizations inthe United States--the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company--uses fewpremiums today, although its business was founded on the premium idea. [Illustration: AN AMERICANIZED ENGLISH GROCER'S SHOP Ernest Carter's store at St. Albans, England, operated under the name ofThomas Oakley & Co. , has a distinctly American atmosphere, accounted forby the fact that the fittings were supplied by an American manufacturer, the Walker Bin Co. , of Penn Yan, N. Y. The tea and coffee department isshown in the foreground. The coffee is roasted in the window] Trading stamps, which are sold to grocers and other merchants by firmsmaking a specialty of this form of premium-giving are little usednowadays. The average retail grocer is antagonistic to trading stamps, as a result of the methods of certain unscrupulous stamp-dealers. Legislation against trading stamps is in effect in many states. [Illustration: SOME PACKAGE COFFEES THAT ADVERTISING HAS MADE FAMOUS] CHAPTER XXVIII A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE ADVERTISING _Early coffee advertising--The first coffee advertisement in 1587 was frank propaganda for the legitimate use of coffee--The first printed advertisement in English--The first newspaper advertisement--Early advertisements in colonial America--Evolution of advertising--Package coffee advertising--Advertising to the trade--Advertising by means of newspapers, magazines, billboards, electric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, and by samples--Advertising for retailers--Advertising by government propaganda--The Joint Coffee Trade publicity campaign in the United States--Coffee advertising efficiency_ In a work of this character the chapter on advertising must of necessitybe in story form. It may tell what has been accomplished in advertisingcoffee, and perhaps point the way to greater achievement. In so far aspossible, the story is supplemented by illustrations, which here tellthe story even better than words. Advertising to the trade or the consumer calls for expert advice. Thereare successful trade journalists who are competent to supply suchadvertising counsel; and new-comers in the field should consult themfirst. These men are in the best position to suggest the means forsuccessful accomplishment. They know the men who are best qualified torender assistance for all media, and are glad to recommend those who canbe most helpful. Jarvis A. Wood has said that advertising is causing another to know, toremember, and to do. If we agree with this excellent definition, thenthe first coffee advertisers were the early physicians and writers whotold their fellows something about the berry and the beverage made fromit. Rhazes and Avicenna told the story in Latin, and appear to haverecommended a coffee decoction as a stomachic, as far back as the tenthcentury. Many other early physicians refer to it. Thus it was thatcoffee was solemnly introduced to the consumer as a medicine. The firststep made by the berry from the cabinets of the curious, where it wasknown as an exotic seed, was into the apothecaries' shops, where it wassold and advertised as a drug. Next, the coffee drink was advertised andsold by lemonade venders; then by the proprietors of the coffee housesand cafés; and finally the coffee merchant sold and advertised the greenand roasted bean. Rauwolf told the Germans about it in 1582; Abd-al-Kâdir wrote his famous_Argument in favor of the legitimate use of coffee_ in Arabic about1587; Alpini carried the news to Italy in 1592; English travelers wroteabout the beverage in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; FrenchOrientalists described it about the same time; and America learned aboutit long before the green beans were offered for sale in Boston in 1670. Because of its frank propaganda character, Abd-al-Kâdir's manuscript mayrightly be called the earliest advertisement for coffee. The author wasa lawyer-theologian, a follower of Mahomet, and as such was eager toconvince his contemporaries that coffee drinking was not incompatiblewith the prophet's law. Soon the news of the day became the advertising of the morrow. In 1652appeared the first printed advertisement for coffee in English. It wasin the form of a shop-bill, or handbill, issued by Pasqua Rosée from thefirst London coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill; and theoriginal is preserved in the British Museum. It is pictured on page 55, chapter X, and is worthy of closeexamination. It reads: The Vertue of the _COFFEE_ Drink First publiquely made and sold in England, by _Pasqua Rosée_. The Grain or Berry called _Coffee_, groweth upon little Trees, only in the _Deserts of Arabia_. It is brought from thence, and drunk generally throughout all the Grand Seigniors Dominions. It is a simple innocent thing, composed into a Drink, by being dryed in an Oven, and ground to Powder, and boiled up with Spring water, and about half a pint of it to be drunk, fasting an hour before, and not Eating an hour after, and to be taken as hot as possibly can be endured; the which will never fetch the skin off the mouth, or raise any Blisters, by reason of that Heat. The Turks drink at meals and other times, is usually _Water_, and their Dyet consists much of _Fruit_, the _Crudities_ whereof are very much corrected by this Drink. The quality of this Drink is cold and Dry; and though it be a Dryer, yet It neither _heats_, nor _inflames_ more then _hot Posset_. It so closeth the Orifice of the Stomack, and fortifies the heat within, that it's very good to help digestion, and therefore of great use to be taken about 3 or 4 a Clock afternoon, as well as in the morning. It much quickens the _Spirits_, and makes the Heart _Lightsome_. It is good against sore Eys, and the better if you hold your Head over it, and take in the Steem that way. It suppresseth Fumes exceedingly, and therefore good against the _Head-ach_, and will very much stop any _Defluxion of Rheums_, that distil from the _Head_ upon the _Stomack_, and so prevent and help _Consumptions_; and the _Cough of the Lungs_. It is excellent to prevent and cure the _Dropsy_, _Gout_, and _Scurvy_. It is known by experience to be better than any other Drying Drink for _People in years_, or _Children_ that have any _running humors_ upon them, as the _Kings Evil_, &c. It is very good to prevent _Mis-carryings_ in _Child-bearing Women_. It is a most excellent Remedy against the _Spleen_, _Hypocondriack Winds_, or the like. It will prevent _Drowsiness_, and make one fit for business, if one have occasion to _Watch_; and therefore you are not to Drink of it _after Supper_, unless you intend to be watchful, for it will hinder sleep for 3 or 4 hours. _It is observed that in Turkey, where this is generally drunk, that they are not trobled with the Stone, Gout, Dropsie, or Scurvey, and that their Skins are exceedingly cleer and white. _ It is neither _Laxative_ nor _Restringent_. Made and sold in St. _Michaels Alley_ in _Cornhill_, by Pasqua Rosée, at the Signe of his own Head. The noteworthy thing about this advertisement is, that in comparisonwith the best copy of today, it has high merit. For this earlyadvertisement seems to have embodied in it superbly well thosequalifications which modern advertising experts agree are essentialrequirements for success--measured in terms of sales to the consumer. Weshall return to it later. The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appeared in the form of a"reader" in the issue of _The Publick Adviser_, London, for the week ofTuesday, May 19, to Tuesday, May 26, 1657. _The Publick Adviser_ was aweekly pamphlet partaking of the nature of a commercial news-letter. Theadvertisement was sandwiched between a reader advertising a doctor ofphysick and one for an "artificer, " the latter being a ladies'hair-dresser. It was as follows: In _Bartholomew_ Lane on the back side of the Old Exchange, the drink called _Coffee_, (which is a very wholesom and Physical drink, having many excellent vertues, closes the Orifice of the Stomack, fortifies the heat within, helpeth Digestion, quickneth the Spirits, maketh the heart lightsom, is good against Eye-sores, Coughs, or Colds, Rhumes, Consumptions, Head-ach, Dropsie, Gout, Scurvy, Kings Evil, and many others is to be sold both in the morning, and at three of the clock in the afternoon. ) About the time that Pascal opened the first coffee house in Paris in1672, the Paris shop-keepers began to advertise coffee by broadsides. Agood example is the following, [345] the text of which closely resemblesthe original by Pasqua Rosée: _The most excellent Virtue of the Berry called_ Coffee. _Coffee_ is a Berry which only grows in the desert of _Arabia_, from whence it is transported into all the Dominions of the Grand Seigniour, which being drunk dries up all the cold and moist humours, disperses the wind, fortifies the Liver, eases the dropsie by its purifying quality, 'tis a Sovereign medicine against the itch, and corruptions of the blood, refreshes the heart, and the vital beating thereof, it relieves those that have pains in their Stomach, and cannot eat; It is good also against the indispositions of the brain, cold, moist, and heavy, the steam which rises out of it is good against the _Rheums_ of the eyes, and drumming in the ears: 'Tis excellent also against the shortness of the breath, against _Rheums_ which trouble the Liver, and the pains of the Spleen; It is an extraordinary ease against the Worms: After having eat or drunk too much: Nothing is better for those that eat much Fruit. The daily use hereof in a little while will manifest the aforesaid effect to those, that being indisposed shall use it from time to time. The following are typical London trade advertisements of 1662 and 1663. The first is from the _Kingdom's Intelligencer_ of June 5, 1662, andreads as follows: At the Exchange Ally from Cornhill into Lumber Street neer the Conduit, at the Musick-Room belonging to the Palsgrave's Hall, is sold by retayle the right coffee powder; likewise that termed the Turkey Berry, well cleansed at 30d. Per pound ... The East India berry (so called) of the best sorts at 20d. Per pound, of which at present in divers places there is very bad, which the ignorant for cheapness do buy, and is the chief cause of the now bad coffee drunk in many plaies (sic). The _Intelligencer_ for December 21, 1663, contained the followingadvertisement: There is a Parcel of Coffee-Berry to be put to publique sale upon Wednesday, the 23, instant, at 6 a clock in the evening at the Globe Coffee-house at the end of St. Bartholomew Lane, over against the North Gate of the Royall Exchange.... And if any desire to be further informed they may repair to Mr. Brigg, Publique Notary at the said Globe Coffee-house. Dufour's treatise on _The Manner of Making Coffee, Tea and Chocolate_, published in Lyons, 1684, was generally regarded as propaganda for thebeverage; and, indeed, it proved an excellent advertisement, beingquickly translated into English and several other languages. In 1691 we find advertised in the _Livre Commode_ of Paris a portablecoffee-making outfit to fit the pocket. The first coffee periodical, _The New and Curious Coffee House_, wasissued at Leipzig by Theophilo Georgi in 1707, being a kind of houseorgan for what was, perhaps, the first kaffee-klatsch; thepublisher-proprietor, however, admitted that the idea of making hiscoffee salon a resort for the literati was obtained from Italy. [Illustration: FIRST NEWSPAPER ADVERTISEMENT SOLELY FOR COFFEE IN THEUNITED STATES _New York Daily Advertiser_, February 9, 1790] In chapter X we have described a number of broadsides, handbills, andpamphlets having to do with the introduction of the coffee drink intoLondon between 1652 and 1675. The advertising student would do well torefer to them because they serve to show how completely the true meritsof the beverage were lost sight of by those who urged its more fantasticclaims. It is interesting to note, however, that this early copy was ofa high order of typographical excellence; indeed, the display letterused for the word coffee is often like that found in copy in the UnitedStates two hundred and fifty years after. Also, it should be noted that"apt 'illustration's' artful aid" was first employed in 1674. Again, note this curious contrast. Two hundred and sixty-nine years ago all theresources of advertising were being laid under contribution to makepropaganda for coffee as the great _cure_ for many ailments of whichnowadays the enemies of coffee would have us believe coffee is thecause! Those who have possessed themselves of the facts about coffeeknow that both arguments are equally fantastic. Coffee was mentioned in shop-keepers' announcements appearing in the_Boston News Letter_ as early as 1714, and in other newspapers of thecolonies during the eighteenth century, usually being offered for saleat retail with strange companions. In 1748 "tea, coffee, indigo, nutmegs, sugar, etc. , " were advertised for sale at a shop in DockSquare, Boston. The following advertisement from the _ColumbianCentinel_, Boston, April 26, 1794, is typical: GROCERIES AT NO. 44 _CORNHILL_ Norton and Holyoke Respectfully inform their friends and the publick, that they have for sale, at their Shop, No. 44 _Cornhill_, formerly the Post-Office. A GENERAL ASSORTMENT OF GROCERIES among which are the following articles: Teas, Spices, Coffee, Cotton, Indigo, Starch, Chocolate, Raisins, Figs, Almonds, and Olives; West India Rum, best French Brandy, excellent Cherry Wine, pure as imported, etc. , etc. , all which they will sell as low as any store in Boston. _Any article not liked will be taken again, and the money returned. _ It appears that the first advertisement dealing with coffee alone waspublished in the _New York Daily Advertiser_ for February 9, 1790; andthis was primarily an advertisement of a wholesale coffee roastingfactory rather than an advertisement of coffee per se. This advertisement, and a later one published in Loudon's _New YorkPacket_ for January 1, 1791, also of a coffee manufactory, arereproduced herewith. Not until package coffee began to come into vogue in the sixties wasthere any change in the stereotyped business-card form followed by alldealers in coffee. And even then the monotony was varied only byinserting the brand name, such as "Osborn's Celebrated Prepared JavaCoffee. Put up only by Lewis A. Osborn"; "Government coffee in tin foilpound papers put out by Taber & Place's Rubia Mills. " _Evolution of Coffee Advertising_ Real progress in coffee advertising, as in publicity for other lines oftrade and industry, began in the United States. Here too, it has beenbrought to its lowest degradation and to its highest efficiency. Theentire process has taken something less than fifty years. [Illustration: EARLY COFFEE ADVERTISING IN UNITED STATES Printed in the _New York Packet_, January 1, 1791] The first step forward was the picture handbill. The handbill, ordodger, had been common enough in England and on the Continent, where, for upward of two hundred years it had served as an advertising medium, in company with the more robust broadside, and in competition with thepamphlet and newspaper. It remained for America, however, to glorify thehandbill by means of colored pictures; and one of the earliest and bestspecimens of the picture handbill is the Arbuckle circular hereillustrated. [Illustration: FIRST HANDBILL IN COLORS FOR PACKAGE COFFEE ABOUT 1872] Soon the handbill copy began to appear in the newspapers, but mostlywithout the illustrations. Later newspaper developments were tointroduce more of the picture element, decorative border, and design. The ideas of European artists were freely drawn upon, but put to soutilitarian uses that their originators would scarce have recognizedthem. In the _Ladies Home Journal_ for December, 1888, the Great London TeaCompany, Boston, an early mail-order house, advertised, "We have made aspecialty since 1877 of giving premiums to those who buy tea and coffeein large quantities. " In the same issue, there was an advertisement ofSeal Brand and Crusade Brand coffee by Chase & Sanborn, Boston. DilworthBros. , Pittsburgh, were also among the early users of magazine space. The menace of the cereal coffee-substitute evil had grown to suchproportions at the beginning of the twentieth century, that the coffeemen began to be concerned about it. Misleading and untruthful"substitute" copy was freely accepted by nearly all media. The packagelabels were as bad, if not worse. With the advent of the pure food lawof 1906, the cereal label abuse was reformed; but not until the "truthin advertising" movement became a power to be reckoned with, nearly tenyears later, were the coffee men granted a substantial measure ofprotection in the magazines and newspapers. Meanwhile, many coffee men, lacking organization and a knowledge of the facts about coffee, unwittingly played into the hands of the substitute-fakers by publishingunfortunate defensive copy which made confusion worse confounded in theconsumer's mind. [Illustration: REVERSE SIDE OF THE ARBUCKLE HANDBILL (IN COLORS) OF1872] [Illustration: A ST. LOUIS HANDBILL OF 1854] At one time there were nearly one hundred coffee-substitute concernsengaged in a bitter, untruthful campaign directed against coffee. Themost conspicuous offender employed the principle of auto-suggestion andfound a goodly number of pseudo-physicians and bright advertising mindsthat were quite willing to prostitute their finest talents to aid him inattacking an honorable business. [Illustration: ADVERTISING-CARD COPY, 1873] In one year $1, 765, 000 was spent in traducing the national beverage. Theburden of the cereal-faker's song was that coffee was the cause of allthe ills that flesh is heir to, and that by stopping its use for tendays and substituting his panacea, these ills would vanish. Of course, there were many people (but they were the minority) who knewthat the caffein content of coffee was a pure, safe stimulant that didnot destroy the nerve cells like such false stimulants as alcohol, morphine, etc. ; and that while too much could be ingested from abuse ofany beverage containing it, nature always effected a cure when the abusewas stopped. However, there was undoubtedly created in the public mind a suspicion, that threatened to develop into a prejudice, and that affected otherwisesane and normal people, that perhaps coffee was not good for them. Then came the winter of the coffee men's discontent. Floundering aboutin a veritable slough of cereal slush, without secure foothold or a truesense of direction, coffee advertising went miserably astray when itswriters began to assure the public that _their_ brands were guiltless ofthe crimes charged in the cereal men's indictment. In this, of course, they unwittingly aided and abetted the cereal fakers. For example, oneroaster-packer advertised, "The harmful ingredient in coffee is thetannin-bearing chaff, which our roasting and grinding process completelyremoves. " Scientific research has since proved the fallacy of this idea. [Illustration: HANDBILL COPY OF THE SEVENTIES] [Illustration: BOX-END STICKER, 1833] Another roaster said, "if coffee works havoc with your nerves anddigestion, it is because you are not using a fresh roasted, thoroughlycleaned, correctly cured coffee. Our method of preparing gives you thestrength and aroma without its nerve-destroying qualities. " A well knowncoffee packer advertised, "Our coffee is free from the dust and bittertannin--the only injurious property in coffee. " Still another packerinformed the consumer that "by a very special steel cutting process" hesliced the coffee beans "so that the little cells containing thevolatile oil (the food product) are not broken. " A prominent Chicago packer put out a new brand of coffee which heclaimed was "non-intoxicating, " "poisonless, " and the "only purecoffee. " A New Yorker, not to be out-done, brought out a coffee that hesaid contained all the stimulative properties of the original coffeeberries, but with every trace of acid removed, every undesirable elementeliminated. "Also, " he added for good measure, "this coffee may be usedfreely without harming the digestive organs or impairing the nervoussystem. " And one package-coffee man became so exercised over cereal competitionthat he brought out a _grain_ "coffee" of his own, which he actuallyadvertised as "the nearest approach to coffee ever put on the market, having all the merits without any objectionable features, strengtheningwithout stimulating, satisfying without shattering the nerves. " And so history again repeated itself in America. Five hundred yearsafter the first religious persecution of the drink in Arabia, we find itbeing persecuted by commercial zealots in the United States. And even inthe house of its friends, coffee was being stabbed in the back. Thecoffee merchants themselves presented the spectacle of "knocking" it byinference and innuendo. Something had to be done. As cereal drinks, standing on their own feet, the coffee "substitutes" would have attracted little notice. It was onlyby trading on the allegation that they were _substitutes for coffee_that they made any headway. The original offender sold his product as"coffee, " which was an untruth, as he later admitted there was not abean of coffee in it. He boldly advertised: "Blank coffee for personswho can't digest ordinary coffee. " When it became no longer possible to perpetrate an untruth on thepackage label, there still remained the newspapers and billboards. Foryears before fake-advertising laws and an outraged public opinion maderecourse to these no longer possible, it was a common practise to usethe newspapers and billboards to promote the idea that here was adifferent coffee; and in this way to create a demand for a package, which, when purchased, was found to tell a different story. [Illustration: A CHASE & SANBORN ADVERTISEMENT, 1888 As printed in _Harper's_ and _Scribner's Magazines_] As late as 1911, one of our most respected New York dailies was carryingan advertisement calling the product "coffee, " although fairnessdemands it be recorded that the coffee part of the announcement wasstricken out when _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_ called theattention of the publisher to its misleading character. This tradepaper, from its start, had been urging the coffee men to organize fordefense. The agitation bore fruit at last, first in the starting of theNational Coffee Roasters Association, and later in the inception of themovement that resulted in the international advertising campaign forcoffee now in progress in the United States. Meanwhile, the cereal coffee-substitute had been thoroughly discreditedby governmental analysis, although even today newspaper publishers areto be found here and there who are willing to "take a chance" withpublic opinion and who will admit to their advertising columns suchmisleading statements for the substitute, as "it has a coffee-likeflavor. " [Illustration: A GOLDBERG CARTOON, 1910] [Illustration: NEWSPAPER COPY USED BY CHASE AND SANBORN ABOUT 1900] In the United States today, coffee advertising has reached a high planeof copy excellence. Our coffee advertisers lead all nations. Theeducational work started by _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_, fosteredby the National Coffee Roasters Association, and developed by the JointCoffee Trade Publicity Committee, has laid low many of the bugaboosraised by the cereal sinners. The coffee men, however, have leftconsiderable room for improvement. There are still some who are given tomaking exaggerated claims in their publicity, who make reflections uponcompetitors in a way to destroy public confidence in coffee, and whodisplay an ignorance of, or a lack of confidence in, their product bycontinuing to claim that their brands do not contain what they assertare injurious or worthless constituents. It is to be hoped that in timethese abuses will yield to the further enlightening influence of thetrade press, and of the organizations that are continually working fortrade betterment. Before the international coffee campaign started in 1919, the NationalCoffee Roasters Association promoted two national coffee weeks, one in1914 and another in 1915, wherein excellent groundwork was done for thebig joint coffee trade propaganda that followed. Some original researchalso was done along lines of proper grinding and correct coffee brewing. A better-coffee-making committee, under the direction of Edward Aborn ofNew York, rendered yeoman's service to the cause. Much educational workwas done in schools and colleges, among newspaper editors, and in thetrade. This campaign was the first co-operative publicity for coffee. Among other things, it put a nation-wide emphasis on iced coffee as adelectable summer drink and, for the first time, stressed the correctmaking of the beverage by drip and filtration methods instead of byboiling, which had long been one of the most crying evils of thebusiness. [Illustration: CHART SHOWING MONEY SPENT ON ADVERTISING COFFEE ANDSUBSTITUTES Only advertisements printed in magazines and periodicals are consideredin making this calculation] _Package Coffee Advertising_ Coffee advertising began to take on a distinctive character with theintroduction of Ariosa by John Arbuckle in 1873. Some of the earlypublicity for this pioneer package coffee appears typographically crude, judged by modern standards; but the copy itself has all the needfulpunch, and many of the arguments are just as applicable today as theywere a half-century ago. Take the handbill copy illustrated. It was donein three colors, and the argument was new and most convincing. Thereverse side copy is also extremely effective. Note the expert-roasterargument and coffee-making directions; some of these may still be foundin current coffee advertising. Most of the original Arbuckle advertising was by means of circulars orbroadsides, although some newspaper space was employed. Premiums werefirst used by John Arbuckle as an advertising sales adjunct, and theyproved a big factor in putting Ariosa on the map. Mr. Arbuckle createdthe kind of word-of-mouth publicity for his goods that is the mostdifficult achievement in the business of advertising. It caused so deepand lasting an impression, that in some sections it has persistedthrough at least five decades. The advertising moral is: Get people to_talk_ your brand. Since the death of its founder, the Arbuckle copy has been changed tofit modern conditions. That it has kept pace with all the forwardmovements in business and advertising is evident from the specimenswhich help to illustrate this chapter. A significant change is to benoted in the fact that, for the first time in its history, "the greatestcoffee business in the world" has adopted a policy of advertising to thetrade as well as to the consumer, thus giving its publicity a wellrounded character which it formerly lacked. The evolution of other notable package coffees is also shown byillustration. Several concerns blazed new trails that have since beenpicked up and followed by competing brands. [Illustration: CHARTS SHOWING PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION AND COFFEE ANDSUBSTITUTE ADVERTISING] Among the many long-established advertised package-coffee successes maybe mentioned: Arbuckle's Yuban and Ariosa; McLaughlin's XXXX; Chase & Sanborn's SealBrand; Dwinell-Wright's White House; Weir's Red Ribbon; B. Fischer &Company's Hotel Astor; Brownell & Field's Autocrat; Bour's Old Master;Scull's Boscul; Seeman Brothers' White Rose; Blanke's Faust; Baker'sBarrington Hall; Woolson Spice Company's Golden Sun; InternationalCoffee Company's Old Homestead; Kroneberger's Old Reserve; WesternGrocer Company's Chocolate Cream; Leggett's Nabob; Clossett & Dever'sGolden West; R. C. Williams' Royal Scarlet; Merchants Coffee Company'sAlameda; Widlar Company's C. W. Brand; Meyer Bros. ' Old Judge; Nash-SmithTea and Coffee Company's Wedding Breakfast; J. A. Folger & Company'sGolden Gate; Ennis Hanley Blackburn Coffee Company's Golden Wedding;M. J. Brandenstein & Company's M. J. B. ; Hills Brothers' Red Can, the Young& Griffin Coffee Company's Franco-American, and the Cheek-Neal CoffeeCompany's Maxwell House. It was estimated that the amount of money spent by the larger coffeeroasters upon all forms of publicity in the United States in 1920 wasabout $3, 000, 000. Charts prepared by Charles Coolidge Parlin of the division of commercialresearch of the Curtis Publishing Company, and checked by thePublishers' Information Bureau, show the advertising for coffee and forcoffee substitutes in thirty leading publications from 1911 to 1920; andcompare the advertising for coffee and coffee substitutes in 1920 with achart of per capita consumption. It should be noted that the figuresexclude all other forms of advertising, such as newspapers, bill-posting, street-car signs, electric signs, and so forth. Experience has proven that a package coffee, to be successful, must haveback of it expert knowledge on buying, blending, roasting, and packing, as well as an efficient sales force. These things are essential: (1) aquality product; (2) a good trade-mark name and label; (3) an efficientpackage. With these, an intelligently planned and carefully executedadvertising and sales campaign will spell success. Such a campaigncomprehends advertising directed to the dealer and to the consumer. Itmay include all the approved forms of publicity, such as newspapers, magazines, billboards, electric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, and samples. One phase of trade advertising which should not beoverlooked is dealer helps. The extent to which the roaster-packer, orthe promoter of a new package coffee, should utilize the variousadvertising media or go into dealer helps must, of course, depend uponthe size of the advertising appropriation. [Illustration: AN EFFECTIVE CUT-OUT] Many roaster-packers supply grocers handling their coffee with dealerhelps in the shape of weather-proof metal signs for outside display, display racks, store and window display signs, cut-outs, blotters, consumer booklets, newspaper electros, stereopticon slides, movingpictures, demonstrations, samples, etc. Dealer selling schemes based onpoints have also been found helpful in promoting sales. _Advertising to the Trade_ Until a comparatively recent date, the green coffee importer, sellingthe roasting trade, has not realized the need of advertising. He hasinclined to the belief that he did not need to advertise, because, inmost instances, green coffee is not sold by the mark; and, to a certainextent, price has been the determining factor. During late years, however, many green coffee firms have come to realizethat there is a good-will element that enters into the equation whichcan be fostered by the intelligent use of advertising space in thecoffee roaster's trade journal. Also, a few importers are now featuringtrade marks in their advertising, thus building up a tangible trade-markasset in addition to good will. For a number of years the green coffee trade used the business card typeof advertisement; but some are now utilizing a more up-to-date style ofcopy, as typified by the advertisements of Leon Israel & Brothers andW. R. Grace & Company. Specimens of other green coffee advertising of thebetter kind are here reproduced. Advertising campaigns in behalf of package coffees can not be fullyeffective without the proper use of trade publications. Advertising inthe dealer's paper has many advantages. It is good missionary work forthe salesman. It creates confidence in the mind of the dealer. It is anexcellent means for demonstrating to the retailer that he is beingconsidered in the scheme of distribution--that no attempt is being madeto force the goods upon him through consumer advertising alone. Trade-paper advertising also offers the packer the opportunity toacquaint the dealer with the selling points in favor of the brandadvertised, thus saving the time of the salesman. An increasing numberof coffee packers are now using the advertising columns of trade papers, and some typical advertisements are reproduced herewith. _Advertising by Various Mediums_ Billboard and other outdoor advertising, also car cards, are being usedto a considerable extent for coffee publicity. Painted outdoor signshave been the back-bone of one middle-west roaster's campaign for anumber of years. Both car cards and billboards are growing in popularitybecause they enable the coffee packer to reproduce his package in itsnatural colors and permit also of striking displays. Such firms asArbuckle Brothers, New York; Dayton Spice Mills, Dayton, Ohio; W. F. MCLaughlin & Company, Chicago; the Puhl-Webb Company, Chicago; the BourCompany, Toledo; B. Fischer & Company, New York; and the Cheek-NealCoffee Company, Nashville and New York, are consistent users of thischaracter of advertising. Electric signs also have proved effective forcoffee advertising. Reproductions of some characteristic outdoor andcar-card advertisements are to be found in these pages. Motion pictures are a comparatively new development in coffeeadvertising. One of the first coffee roasters to adopt this plan ofpublicity was S. H. Holstad & Company, Minneapolis. The film useddepicted the cultivation and preparation of coffee for the market, alsothe complete roasting and packaging operations. The A. J. Deer Company, manufacturers of coffee mills and roasters, Hornell, N. Y. , was anotherpioneer in the use of coffee films. Jabez Burns & Sons, coffee-machinerymanufacturers, followed with an educational coffee picture. The NationalPackaging Machinery Company, of Boston, is another concern that hasutilized films for advertising purposes, showing its machines inoperation in a coffee-packing plant. Many roasters made use of thecoffee film produced by the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee. In using advertising films, it is customary for the roaster to arrangefor a showing at one or more theaters. The advertising in the localpapers features the coffee brands, also the name of the local dealer, the latter being furnished with tickets which he distributes among hisretail customers. There are several concerns making a business ofsupplying commercial films and of getting distribution for them. Another form of theater publicity is that of the advertisingslide--stereopticon views thrown upon the screen between featurepictures. Many packers find these are effective for cultivating thedealer, it being customary to show the brand name, together with that ofthe local distributer. _Advertising for Retailers_ When retailers analyze the people to whom they sell coffee, they usuallyfind three types. First, there is the woman who thinks she is an expertjudge of coffee, but who is unable to find anything to suit hercultivated taste. Then there is the new housewife, possibly a bride of afew months, who knows very little about coffee, but wants to find a goodblend that both she and her husband will like. The third is the mostacceptable class, the satisfied people who have found coffee thatdelights them, day after day. [Illustration: HOW COFFEE IS ADVERTISED TO THE TRADE Left to right, good examples of green coffee publicity--center, well-arranged package-coffee copy] W. Harry Longe, a Texas retailer, has prepared the following "readymade" copy appeals for the three classes. To "Mrs. Know-it-all-about-Coffee, " this style has been found effective: IMPROVE THE COFFEE AND YOU IMPROVE THE MEAL The corner of the table that holds the coffee urn is the balancing point of your dinner. If the coffee is a "little off" for some reason or other--probably it's the coffee's own fault--things don't seem as good as they might; but when it is "up to taste" the meal is a pleasure from start to finish. If the "balancing point" is giving you trouble, let ANY BLEND Coffee properly regulate it for you. 35 cents, three pounds for $1. ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY For the good lady who is anxious to find a suitable blend of coffee, andwho desires information, this is a good appeal: A SUCCESSFUL SELECTION Of the coffee that goes into the every-morning cup will arrive on the day when ANY BLEND is first purchased. Many homes have been without such a success now for a long time, but, of course, they didn't know of ANY BLEND--and even now it is hard to really know ANY BLEND till you try it. That is why we seem to insist that you ask for an introduction by ordering a pound. ANY BLEND TEA & COFFEE COMPANY Taking both classes and dealing with them alike: "BLENDED TO BALANCE" Is a good descriptive phrase of ANY BLEND coffee, for care is taken in the preparation that the strength does not overpower the flavor. The aim of the blender is to get an acceptable and delightful drinking quality. He has been more than successful, as you will see when you try ANY BLEND, 35 cents, three pounds for $1. ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY The satisfied class, of course, is not averse to making a change, and itis well, occasionally, for the dealer to let his own satisfied customersknow he still believes in his goods. The argument might take this form: A SERVICE THAT SAVES Is the serving of ANY BLEND, when coffee is desired. ANY BLEND saves many things. It saves worry, for it is always uniform in flavor and strength. It saves time, for when you order ANY BLEND we grind it just as fine or just as coarse as your percolator or pot demands. ANY BLEND also saves expense, because there is no waste, as you know just how much to use, every time, to make a certain number of cups. 35 cents, three pounds for $1. ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY Again, possible new customers may listen to this appeal: TO PROVE YOUR APPROVAL Of ANY BLEND coffee, you are asked to try just one pound. We know you will like it, for it is blended and roasted and ground as an exceptional coffee should be, with the care that a good coffee demands. Prove to yourself that you approve of this method of preparing coffee. 35 cents, three pounds for $1. ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY In some households the cook is permitted to do the ordering, and usuallythe cook does not read the daily papers with an eye for coffee ads. Toreach this individual through her mistress: CAN YOU NAME YOUR COFFEE? Or is it one of those many unknown brands that comes from the store at the order of your cook? Let the cook do the ordering, for you are lucky if you have one you can rely upon, but tell her you prefer ANY BLEND to the No-Name Blend you may now be using. ANY BLEND has one distinct advantage over all others; It Is freshly roasted. Tell the kitchen-lady, now, to order ANY BLEND. ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY _Advertising by Government Propaganda_ Advertising coffee by government propaganda has been indulged in withmore or less success by the British government in behalf of certain ofits colonial possessions; by the French and the Dutch; by Porto Rico, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Brazil. The markets most cultivated have beenItaly, France, England, Russia, Japan, and the United States. Great Britain began the development of coffee cultivation in itscolonies in 1730. Parliament first reduced the inland duties. In manyways it has since sought to encourage British-grown coffee, building upa favoritism for it that is still reflected in Mincing Lane quotations. The Netherlands government did the same thing for Java and Sumatra; andFrance rendered a similar service to her own colonies. Since Porto Rico became a part of the United States, several attemptshave been made by the island government and the planters to popularizePorto Rico coffee in the United States. Scott Truxtun opened agovernment agency in New York in 1905. Acting upon the counsel andadvice of the author, he prosecuted for several years a vigorouscampaign in behalf of the Porto Rico Planters' Protective Association. The method followed for coffee was to appoint official brokers, and tocertify the genuineness of the product. Owing to insufficient funds andthe number of different products for which publicity was sought, thecoffee campaign was only moderately successful. Mortimer Remington, formerly with the J. Walter Thompson Company, a NewYork advertising agency, was appointed in 1912 commercial agent for thePorto Rico Association, composed of island producers and merchants. Someeffective advertising in behalf of Porto Rico coffee was done in themetropolitan district, where a number of high-class grocers wereprevailed upon to stock the product, which was packed under seal of theassociation. As before, however, the other products handled--includingcigars, grape-fruit, pineapples, etc. --handicapped the work on coffee, and the enterprise was abandoned. Subsequent efforts by the Washingtongovernment to assist the Porto Ricans in evolving a practical plan toextend their coffee market in the United States came to naught becauseof too much "politics. " Beginning with the Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco in 1915, the government of Guatemala started a propaganda for its coffee in theUnited States; as the European market, which had up till then absorbedseventy-five percent of its product, was closed to it, owing to theWorld War. E. H. O'Brien, a coffee broker of San Francisco, directed thepublicity. Some full pages were used in newspapers, but the main effortswere directed at the coffee-roasting trade. The campaign, so far as itwent, was highly successful. Costa Rica also gave special encouragement to coffee-trade intereststhat offered to expand the United States market for Costa Rica coffeeduring the World War. For many years Colombia has been talking of making propaganda here forits coffee, but thus far nothing of a constructive character has beendone. São Paulo began in 1908 to make propaganda for its coffee by subsidizingcompanies and individuals in consuming countries to promote consumptionof the Brazil product. A contract was entered into between the state ofSão Paulo and the coffee firms of E. Johnston & Company and JosephTravers & Son, of London, to exploit Brazil coffee in the UnitedKingdom. Similar contracts were made with coffee firms in other Europeancountries, notably in Italy and France. The subsidies were for fiveyears and took the form of cash and coffee. The English company wasknown as the "State of São Paulo (Brazil) Pure Coffee Company, Ltd. "Fifty thousand pounds sterling was granted this enterprise, whichroasted and packed a brand known as "Fazenda;" promoted demonstrationsat grocers' expositions; and advertised in somewhat limited fashion. Thegeneral effect upon the consumption of coffee in England was negligible, however, although at one time some five thousand grocers were said tohave stocked the Fazenda brand. A feature of this propaganda was the useof the Tricolator (an American device since better known in the UnitedStates) to insure correct making of the beverage, Brazil also madepropaganda for its coffee in Japan, in 1915, as part of certainundertakings involving the immigration of Japanese laborers to Brazil. The Comité Français du Café was formed in Paris in July, 1921, toco-operate with Brazil in an enterprise designed to increase theconsumption of coffee in France. The chief fault in most of the coffee propagandas here and abroad hasbeen the doubtful practise of subsidizing particular coffee concernsinstead of spending the funds in a manner designed to distribute thebenefits among the trade as a whole. This mistake, and local politics inthe producing countries, have made for ultimate failure. A notableexception is the latest propaganda for Brazil coffee in the UnitedStates, where all the various interests, the the São Paulo government, the growers, exporters, importers, roasters, jobbers, and dealers, haveco-operated in a plan of campaign to advertise coffee _per se_, and notto secure special privilege to any individual, house, or group. _Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Campaign_ Twenty years ago the author began an agitation for co-operativeadvertising, by the coffee trade. He suggested as a slogan, "Tell thetruth about coffee;" and it is gratifying to find that many of hisoriginal ideas have been embodied in the present joint coffee tradepublicity campaign, now in its fourth year. [Illustration: THEODORE LANGGAARD DE MENEZES] The coffee roasters at first were slow to respond to the co-operativeadvertising suggestion, because in those days competition was moreunenlightened than now, and therefore more ruthless. It neededorganization to bring the trade to a better understanding of thebenefits certain to be shared by all when their individual interestswere pooled in a common cause. Leaders of the best thought in the trade, however, were quick to realize that only by united effort was itpossible to achieve real progress; and when it was suggested that thefirst step was to organize the roasting trade, the idea took so firm ahold that it only needed some one to start it to bring together in onecombination the keenest minds in the business. The coffee roasters organized their national association in 1911. Theauthor of this work urged that co-operative advertising based uponscientific research should be done by the roasters themselvesindependently of the growers; but it was found impracticable to unitediverging interests on such an issue, and so the leaders of the movementbent all their energies toward promoting a campaign that would be backedjointly by growers and distributers, since both would receive equalbenefit from any resulting increase in consumption. Brazil, the sourceof nearly three-quarters of the world's coffee, was the logical ally;and an appeal was made to the planters of that country. A party of tenleading United States roasters and importers visited Brazil in 1912 atthe invitation of the federal government. In Brazil, as in the United States, progress resulted from organization. The planters of the state of São Paulo, who produce more than one-halfof all coffee used in the United States, were the first to appreciatethe propaganda idea. After their attempts to interest the nationalgovernment failed, the São Paulo coffee men founded the _SociedadePromotora da Defesa do café_ (Society to Promote the Defense of Coffee), and persuaded their state legislature to pass a law taxing every bag ofcoffee shipped from the plantations of that state in a period of fouryears. This tax, amounting to one hundred reis per bag of 132 pounds, orabout two and one-half cents United States money at even exchange rates, is collected by the railroads from the shippers, and turned over to the_Sociedade_. The Brazilian Society sent to the United States a special envoy, Theodore Langgaard de Menezes, to conclude arrangements; and on March 4, 1918, in New York, the pact was signed whereby São Paulo was tocontribute to the publicity campaign in the United States approximately$960, 000 at the rate of $240, 000 a year for four years; and the membersof the trade in the United States were to contribute altogether$150, 000[346]. The success of the negotiations was due to the skilfulmanagement of Ross W. Weir in the United States, and to the superiorsalesmanship of Louis R. Gray, the Arbuckle representative in Brazil. [Illustration: JOINT COFFEE TRADE PUBLICITY COMMITTEE IN UNITED STATES] Supervision of the advertising in the United States was delegated tofive men, representing both the importing and roasting branches of thetrade, and designated as the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee ofthe United States. Three of these committeemen, Ross W. Weir, of NewYork; F. J. Ach, of Dayton, Ohio; and George S. Wright, of Boston, areroasters; and two, William Bayne, Jr. , and C. H. Stoffregen, both of NewYork, are importers and jobbers, or green-coffee men. The committeeorganized with Mr. Weir as chairman, Mr. Wright as treasurer, and Mr. Stoffregen as secretary. At the invitation of the committee, C. W. Brandof Cleveland, then president of the National Coffee RoastersAssociation, attended committee meetings, and assisted in determiningthe policies of the campaign. Headquarters were established at 74 WallStreet, in the heart of the New York coffee district, with Felix Costeas secretary-manager, and Allan P. Ames as publicity director. N. W. Ayer& Son, advertising agents of Philadelphia, who had engineered the planof campaign from the start of the movement in the National CoffeeRoasters Association, handle the advertising account. [Illustration: CHART SHOWING PLAN OF ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN] São Paulo's contribution to the advertising fund is sent in monthlyinstalments to the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee under anagreement that it shall be expended only for magazine and newspaperspace. [Illustration: JOINT-COMMITTEE MAGAZINE AND NEWSPAPER COPY, 1919] [Illustration: COPY THAT STRESSED THE HEALTHFULNESS OF COFFEE, 1919-1920] Supplementing this Brazilian contribution, is the fund raised byvoluntary subscriptions from the coffee trade of the United States onthe basis of one cent per bag handled annually. This American fund isused for the expenses of administration, for educational advertisingoutside of magazine and newspaper space, and for various kinds of tradepromotion and dealer stimulation. [Illustration: THE JOINT COMMITTEE'S HOUSE ORGAN] The first advertising appeared in April, 1919, in 306 leading newspapersin 182 large cities, with a total circulation of more than 16, 000, 000. The cities chosen represented all the centers of wholesale coffeedistribution. Magazine advertising began in June of the same year, using twenty-oneperiodicals, all of national circulation. This list has been changedfrom time to time to meet the special needs of the campaign. More than fifty grocery-trade magazines have carried the committee'sdealer advertising, although not all of these have been usedcontinuously. Every part of the country was represented on thetrade-paper list. Full pages have been run each month in nine of the leading nationalmedical journals. These advertisements were written by a physician ofnational reputation. Under the caption, "The Case for Coffee, " theseadvertisements have discussed the properties of coffee from thephysiological standpoint, and have asked the doctors to judge it fairly. From the start the committee's advertising has been broadly educational. The properties of coffee have been discussed; charges against coffeehave been answered. The housekeeper has been told how to get the bestresults from the coffee she buys; hotel and restaurant proprietors havebeen reminded that many of them owe their prosperity largely to areputation for serving good coffee; new uses have been exploited forcoffee, as a flavoring agent for desserts and other sweets; employershave been taught the important service good coffee may render inincreasing the comfort and efficiency of their working forces. [Illustration: INTRODUCTORY MEDICAL-JOURNAL COPY] Magazine and newspaper advertising is only the nucleus of the campaign. The effect of such "white space" publicity is increased by simultaneousefforts to "merchandise" the campaign, to stimulate the interest of thewholesale and retail trade, to encourage private-brand advertising, andto reach the consumer by other kinds of publicity recognized asessential factors in a well rounded national advertising effort. Theseactivities may be summarized as follows: [Illustration: TELLING THE DOCTORS THE TRUTH ABOUT COFFEE, 1920] INFORMATION SERVICE. This department answers inquiries and suppliesmaterial for household editors, and for newspaper and magazine writers. Through a national clipping service, it keeps in touch with allpublished matter relating to coffee. Its special duty is to answerattacks on coffee and the coffee trade. Merchants and dealers make it apractise, when they find misleading articles or editorials in theirlocal newspapers, to send clippings to the committee's headquarters tobe handled there as the situation warrants. SCIENTIFIC COFFEE RESEARCH. Twenty-two thousand, five hundred dollars ofthe American fund have been appropriated thus far for scientific coffeeresearch at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The reports ofthis research will be distributed to the coffee trade throughout thecountry, and should prove valuable in all branches of coffeemerchandising. The findings will be distributed by the committee toschools and colleges, and to consumers through national advertising. [Illustration: SOME OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE'S ATTRACTIVE BOOKLETS] THE COFFEE CLUB. This organization was established for the purpose ofeducating the consumer through constructive team work by the roasters'and jobbers' salesman and the retail dealer. Under this plan, thecommittee has distributed 50, 000 transparent signs for dealers' windows, and 5, 000 bronze coffee-club buttons for coffee salesmen. By referenceto the Coffee Club in national magazine and newspaper advertising, theretailer is given a chance to tie up with the campaign. Membership inthe club is limited to those who are contributing to the publicity fund, and to their salesmen and customers. The club publishes a monthlybulletin in newspaper form, giving the news of the campaign. This has acirculation of 27, 000 among wholesalers, salesman, and dealers. [Illustration: MORE MEDICAL JOURNAL COPY, 1920] BOOKLETS. The committee has published six booklets, which have reacheda total circulation of more than one and a half million copies. Thesebooklets are sold at cost to the coffee trade. The committee reportsthat, on an average, one hundred requests for them are received daily atits office from consumers in different parts of the country, and thatthe booklets are the means of a constant campaign of education inAmerican homes and schools. BRAND ADVERTISING. The committee is constantly making efforts toincrease the amount of private advertising by coffee roasters, and itestimates that brand advertising has increased at least three hundredpercent since the national campaign began. Reproductions of thecommittee's advertisements, proofs of advertising electrotypes, and copysuggestions are circulated in advance to all roasters and to a largenumber of retailers, by means of the monthly organ, _The Coffee Club_. COFFEE WEEK. During the week of March 29 to April 4, 1920, the committeeorganized and financed the third national coffee week, which wasobserved by retailers throughout the country. The feature of this weekwas a window-trimming contest for which prizes of $2, 000 weredistributed among several hundred grocers. The contest resulted indisplays of coffee in nearly 10, 000 grocery windows, and greatlyincreased the sale and consumption of coffee during this period. MOTION PICTURES. The United States fund financed the production anddistribution of a coffee motion picture, 128 prints of which were soldto roasters, who exhibited them throughout the country. This picture wasshown during coffee week to more than six hundred theater audiences, andit remains in the possession of the trade as an active advertisingmedium. [Illustration: SPECIMENS OF THE 1921 MAGAZINE AND NEWSPAPER COPY] [Illustration: EDUCATING THE DOCTOR IN THE FACTS ABOUT COFFEE, 1922] NEW USES FOR COFFEE. An important factor in increasing consumption hasbeen the promotion of new uses for coffee. In winter, this has taken theform or recipes and suggestions for coffee as a flavoring agent; and inwarm weather, there has been a publicity drive for iced coffee. _Propaganda Results_ The joint coffee trade publicity campaign is progressive. New featuresare being developed, and plans are laid well in advance. It is expectedthat the reports of the scientific research will furnish fresh materialfor both direct and indirect advertising. One of the interesting prospects is a school exhibit, demand for whichhas been revealed by requests from a large number of teachers, principals, and school superintendents. Efforts to increase thepopularity of a product as widely used as coffee suggest almostunlimited opportunities. The campaign has brought into co-operation producers in one country, andmanufacturers and distributers in another country, several thousandmiles apart. Its international character, and also the fact that itdeals with a product of almost universal use, may account for theattention this campaign has received, not only in the United States, butin every country where advertising is a business factor. This kind of coffee publicity has given the consumer a better knowledgeof coffee, and broken down much of the prejudice against coffee thatrested upon popular misunderstanding of its physiological effects. As best evidence of its sincere wish to give the public the whole truthabout coffee, the committee points to the fact that a portion of itsfunds is being used to finance the scientific investigation at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology. Felix Coste, the secretary-manager of the campaign, spends much of histime traveling about the country and addressing gatherings of coffeewholesalers and dealers. By this means, and by continuouscircularization and correspondence, the trade is kept constantly intouch with the developments of the campaign. [Illustration: MAGAZINE AND NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING COPY, SPRING OF 1922] [Illustration: PRIVATE BRAND COFFEE ADVERTISING IN 1921 Report from 77 Advertisers] Although Brazil is the only coffee-producing country at presentco-operating, the advertising has treated all coffees alike. Efforts arebeing made to have the coffee growers of other countries contribute on abasis proportionate to the benefit they derive. Support from all thecoffee countries on the same scale as that on which the producers of SãoPaulo are contributing would almost double the size of the fund. [Illustration: SPECIMEN OF EARLY YUBAN COPY] _Coffee Advertising Efficiency_ Reverting to the original advertisement for coffee in English, when wecompare it with the latest examples of advertising art, it is of thesame order of merit. But Pasqua Rosée had no advertising experts toadvise him and no precedents to follow. Pasqua Rosée was a native ofSmyrna, who was brought to London by a Mr. Edwards, a dealer in Turkishmerchandise, to whom he acted as a sort of personal servant. One of hisprincipal duties was the preparation of Mr. Edwards' morning drink ofTurkish coffee. "But the novelty thereof, " history tells us, "drawing too much companyto him, he [Mr. Edwards] allowed his said servant, with another of hisson-in-law, to sell it publicly. " So it came about that Pasqua Rosée setup a coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill. And since Pasqua Rosée's idea, naturally, was to acquaint the Londonpublic with the virtues and delectable qualities of the product of whichhis prospective customers were naturally uniformed, he put into hisadvertisement those facts and arguments which he felt would be mostlikely to attract attention, to excite interest, and to convince. If thereader will glance at Rosée's advertisement, which is reproduced on page55, he will be struck with the well-nigh irresistible charm of hisunaffected, straightforward bid for patronage. Having no advertisingfetishes to warp his judgment, he told an interesting story in a naturalmanner, carrying conviction. It matters not that some of the virtuesattributed to the drink have since been disallowed. He believed them tobe true. Few there were in those days who knew the real "truth aboutcoffee. " Even his typography, unstudied from the standpoint of modern "display, "is attractive, appropriate, and exceedingly pleasant to the eye. Andsince at that time there was no cereal substitute or other bugaboos tocontend against, and to hinder him from doing the simple, obvious thingin advertising, he did that very thing--and did it exceedingly well. [Illustration: HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION IN ADVERTISING] [Illustration: PACKAGE-COFFEE ADVERTISING IN 1922 Specimens of newspaper copy used by some of the most enterprisingpackage-coffee advertisers, East and West] In fact, in the historic advertisement, Pasqua Rosée set an example andestablished a copy standard which had a very beneficial effect on allthe coffee advertising of that early date. This will be evident from aglance at the accompanying exhibits of other early advertisements. Itwas not until the days of so-called "modern" advertising that coffeepublicity reached low-water mark in efficiency and value. In these darkdays most coffee advertisers ignored the principles discovered andapplied in other lines of grocery merchandising. Instead of tellingtheir public how good their product was, they actually followed theopposite course, and warned the public against the dangers of coffeedrinking! Instead of saying to the public, "Coffee has many virtues, andour brand is one of the best examples, " their text said in effect, "Coffee has many deleterious properties; some, or most, of which havebeen eliminated in our particular brand. " They were, for the most part, apostles of negation. [Illustration: EMPHASIZING THE SOCIAL-DISTINCTION ARGUMENT] [Illustration: DRAWING UPON HISTORY FOR SOCIAL-INTERCOURSE ATMOSPHERE] Hopeful signs, however, are multiplying that this condition of things inthe coffee industry has passed, and that the practise of telling thecoffee story with certitude will soon become general. We may well applaud the publicity work of all coffee advertisers whofollow where Pasqua Rosée led--those who tell the public how good coffeeis to drink and how much good it does you if you drink it. Consideringthe advertising and typographical resources available to the modernadvertiser, it certainly should be possible for this message to beconveyed to the public with at least some of the charm of the firstcoffee message. One of the most notable examples of how to advertise coffee well is thatset by Yuban coffee. Unquestionably, Yuban is doing in a thoroughlyup-to-date and appropriate fashion what Pasqua Rosée started out to doin 1652. The effect on those who give only a superficial glance at a Yubanadvertisement is to arouse a keen desire to enjoy a cup of Yuban coffee. To induce such a state of mind is, of course, the object of all goodadvertising. [Illustration: AN ELECTRIC SIGN THAT IMPRESSED CHICAGO There were 4, 000 bulbs in this advertisement, which measured 50 x 55feet. The rental was $3, 500 a month] Yuban advertisements have utilized two vital principles in influencingthe minds of consumers. In the first place, they have made a cup ofcoffee seem to be a very delectable drink. In the second place, theyhave made the serving of a cup of coffee seem to be of the greatestsocial value. One does not see in a Yuban advertisement any reference to the "removalof caffein", or to Yuban's "freedom from defects common to othercoffees. " There is no reference to the ill effects of drinking ordinarycoffee. Yuban wastes no valuable space in unselling coffee. Instead, thewhole intent, effectively carried out, is to paint an enticing pictureby descriptive phraseology, typographic "manner", and illustrativetreatment. Until Yuban came, those of us in the coffee trade who had given thematter thought had often wondered why, with the wealth of materialavailable to writers of coffee advertisements, so little had been doneto make the product alluring--why so little had been done to giveatmosphere to the product. So many interesting things may be said aboutthe history of coffee; the spread of the industry through variouscountries; how Brazil came to be the coffee-producing country of theworld; how coffee is cultivated, harvested, and shipped; how it isstored, roasted, handled, delivered--in short, the entire process bywhich coffee reaches the breakfast table from the plantations of thetropics. Yuban made effective use of this material. Simply to tell these things in an interesting, natural, convincing waymakes coffee appear as a healthful, delicious drink; whereas thenegative, defensive sort of advertising, that plays into the hands ofthe substitutes, puts coffee in the wrong light. [Illustration: HOW THREE WELL KNOWN BRANDS OF COFFEE HAVE BEENADVERTISED OUTDOORS] [Illustration: ATTENTION-ATTRACTING CAR CARDS, SPRING OF 1922] [Illustration: EFFECTIVE ICED-COFFEE COPY--ADAPTABLE FOR ANY BRAND] When one reads Yuban advertisements, they are seen to be an entirelyacceptable and appropriate presentation of coffee merit and thoroughlyin accord with the principles of good advertising, as exemplified in allother lines of trade. The wonder grows why so many coffee advertisershave been content to remain in the defensive, controversial positioninto which the alarmist coffee-substitute advertising has jockeyed them. The Yuban advertisements are not without their faults; errors ofhistorical facts can be found in them; definitions are sometimes mixed;some of the drawings might be better; but, in the main, the copy isconvincing and praiseworthy. In Yuban advertisements the things that have been so long left undonehave now been done in a masterful way. If we refer to the accompanyingillustrations, we can see how effectively the public is being led torealize and believe in: 1. The intrinsic desirability of coffee--the actual pleasure to bederived from the act of partaking of it. 2. That it is delightful medium for social intercourse--part of theessential equipment for an intimate chat or more general assemblage offriends. 3. That its proper service is a badge of social distinction--the mark ofa successful hostess. These three thoughts, dominant in Yuban advertising, should be woveninto the fabric of all coffee advertising. For with these threethoughts, Arbuckle Brothers have blazed the trail for the right thing incoffee advertising. The Yuban case has been so largely dwelt upon here because it sets sobright and shining an example. Much that is praiseworthy in it and morealong the same lines is true of White House, Hotel Astor, and SealBrand; but the copy shown will illustrate this better than any comment. [Illustration: EUROPEAN ADVERTISING NOVELTY IN NEW YORK The absence of visible wheels aroused much curiosity in this slow-movingvehicle] [Illustration: COENTIES SLIP, NEW YORK, IN THE DAYS OF SAILING VESSELS Many coffee ships from the West Indies, Arabia and the Dutch East Indiesunloaded their cargoes here--From a copper-plate etching by F. LeeHunter] CHAPTER XXIX THE COFFEE TRADE IN THE UNITED STATES _The coffee business started by Dorothy Jones of Boston--Some early sales--Taxes imposed by Congress in war and peace--The first coffee plantation-machine, coffee-roaster, coffee-grinder, and coffee-pot patents--Early trade marks for coffee--Beginnings of the coffee urn, the coffee container, and the soluble-coffee business--Statistics of distribution of coffee-roasting establishments in the trade from the eighteenth century to the twentieth_ It appears from the best evidence obtainable that the coffee trade ofthe United States was started by a woman, one Dorothy Jones of Boston. At least, Dorothy Jones was the first person in the colonies to whom alicense was issued, in 1670, to sell coffee. It is not clear whether shesold the product in the green bean, roasted, "garbled" (ground), or"ungarbled". Soon after the introduction of the coffee drink into the New England, New York, and Pennsylvania colonies, trading began in the raw product. William Penn bought his green coffee supplies in the New York market in1683, paying for them at the rate of $4. 68 a pound. Benjamin Franklinengaged in the retail coffee business in Philadelphia, in 1740, as akind of side line to his printing business. "Tea, coffee, indigo, nutmegs, sugar etc. " were being advertised forsale in 1748 at a shop in Boston, "under the vendue-room inDock-Square. " Coffee was also to be had in that year at the shop ofEbenezer Lowell in King Street, and at the Sign of the Four Sugar Loavesnear the head of Long Wharf. During the sway of the coffee houses, coffee fell from $4. 68 a pound to40 cents a pound in 1750, and to 22 cents a pound just before theRevolution. As the war came on, however, dealers began to force upprices on a dwindling market. The situation became so serious that inJanuary, 1776, the Philadelphia Commission of Inspection issued afair-price list, setting an arbitrary price of eleven pence per pound oncoffee in bag lots. Persons found violating this price were to be"exposed to public view as sordid vultures preying on the vitals of thecountry. " Despite this threat, J. Peters in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, wrote to aPhiladelphia friend, "I cannot purchase any coffee without taking, too, one bill a tierce of Claret & Sour, and at £6. 8 per gall.... I have beentrying day for day, & never could get a grain of Coffee so as to sell itat the limited price these six weeks. It may be bought, but at 25/ perlb. " The important part played by the coffee houses of colonial America, beginning with the establishment of the London coffee house in Boston, in 1689, the King's Arms in New York in 1696, and Ye coffee house inPhiladelphia in 1700, has been related. "Females" of ye olde Boston, staging in 1777 a "coffee party" whichrivaled in a small way the famous Tea Party in 1773, personallychastised a profiteer hoarder of foodstuffs, and confiscated some of hisstock, according to a letter from Abigail Adams to her distinguishedhusband, later second president of the United States. Writing at Boston, under date of July 31, 1777, Abigail wrote to John, then attending the Continental Congress at Philadelphia: There is a great scarcity of sugar and coffee, articles which the female part of the state is very loath to give up, especially whilst they consider the great scarcity occasioned by the merchants having secreted a large quantity. It is rumored that an eminent stingy merchant, who is a bachelor, had a hogshead of coffee in his store, which he refused to sell under 6 shillings per pound. A number of females--some say a hundred, some say more--assembled with a cart and trunk, marched down to the warehouse, and demanded the keys. Upon his finding no quarter, he delivered the keys, and they then opened the warehouse, hoisted out the coffee themselves, put it into a trunk, and drove off. A large concourse of men stood amazed, silent spectators of the whole transaction. In 1783-84 the Congress of the United States considered the impositionof a duty on "seven classes of goods consumed by the rich or in generaluse; liquors, sugars, teas, coffees, cocoa, molasses and pepper; the taxto be determined by the yearly imports. " At that time there was being imported twelve times as much Bohea tea asof all others, but tea consumption was only one-twelfth pound percapita. Total tea imports were 325, 000 pounds. "Low as was theimportation of tea", says John Bach McMaster, "that of coffee was lowerstill by a third. Indeed, it was scarcely used outside of the greatcities. " The average annual coffee imports at that period were 200. 000pounds. Governor Bowdoin of Massachusetts introduced chicory into the UnitedStates in 1785. The first import duty, of two and one-half cents a pound, was levied oncoffee by the United States in 1789. The principal sources of supply upto that time were the Dutch East Indies, Arabia, Haiti, and Jamaica; andmost of the business was in the hands of Dutch and English traders. What is thought to be the first wholesale coffee-roasting plant inAmerica began operations at 4 Great Dock (now Pearl) Street, New York, early in 1790. In that same year the first American advertisement forcoffee appeared in the _New York Daily Advertiser_. A second "coffeemanufactory" started up at 232 Queen (also Pearl) Street, New York, latein 1790. In the same year, 1790, the government increased the import duty oncoffee to four cents a pound. In 1794 the tax was raised to five cents apound. In George Washington's household account book for 1793 appears an entryshowing a purchase of coffee from Benjamin Dorsay, a Philadelphiagrocer, for eight dollars. The quantity is not given. About 1804 Captain Joseph Ropes in the ship Recovery, of Salem, Mass. , brought from Mocha the first cargo of coffee and other East Indianproduce in an American bottom. The first cargo of Brazil coffee, consisting of 1, 522 bags, was receivedat Salem, Mass. , per ship Marquis de Someruelas in 1809. Brazil's totalproduction that year was less than 30, 000 bags; but by 1871 more than2, 000, 000 bags were exported. Java coffee could be bought on the Amsterdam market in 1810 for 42 to 46cents. By 1812, there had been an advance to $1. 08 per pound. Holland, not Brazil, ruled the world's coffee markets in those days. When the war of 1812 made necessary more revenue, imports of coffee weretaxed ten cents a pound. A war-time fever of speculation in tea andcoffee followed, and by 1814 prices to the consumer had advanced to suchan extent (coffee was 45 cents a pound) that the citizens ofPhiladelphia formed a non-consumption association, each member pledginghimself "not to pay more than 25 cents a pound for coffee and not toconsume tea that wasn't already in the country. " The coffee duty was reduced in 1816 to five cents a pound; in 1830, totwo cents; in 1831, to one cent; and in 1832 coffee was placed on thefree list. It remained there until 1861, when a duty of four cents apound was again imposed as a war-revenue measure. This was increased tofive cents in 1862. It was reduced to three cents in 1871; and the dutywas repealed in 1872. Coffee has remained on the free list ever since. The manufacture of machinery required in the coffee business began inthe eighteenth century. The first coffee-grinder patent in the UnitedStates was issued to Thomas Bruff, Sr. , in 1798. The first United Statespatent on an improvement on a roaster was issued to Peregrine Williamsonof Baltimore in 1820. The first United States patent on acoffee-plantation machine, a coffee huller, was granted to Nathan Reedof Belfast, Me. , in 1822. The first United States coffee-maker patentwas issued to Lewis Martelley of New York, in 1825. [Illustration: FIRST UNITED STATES COFFEE-GRINDER PATENT] Charles Parker, of Meriden, Conn. , began work on the original Parkercoffee mill in 1828. A complete English coffee roasting and grinding plant was installed inNew York City by James Wild in 1833-34. About 1840, Central America began making shipments of coffee to theUnited States. James Carter, of Boston, was granted (1846) a United States patent on animproved form of cylindrical coffee roaster, which subsequently waslargely adopted by the trade in the United States, being popularly knownas the Carter "pull-out". [Illustration: CARTER'S PULL-OUT ROASTER PATENT] The Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing Co. Of Buffalo began in 1857 themanufacture of coffee-plantation machinery. Marcus Mason invented hisfirst pulper in 1860; but the manufacture of coffee-plantation machineryunder the firm name of Marcus Mason & Co. Did not begin in the UnitedStates until 1873. The first paper-bag factory in the United States to make bags for loosecoffee, began operations in Brooklyn in 1862. The first ground-coffee package was put on the New York market about1860-63 by Lewis A. Osborn. It was known as Osborn's Celebrated PreparedJava Coffee and was later exploited by Thomas Reid as Osborn's OldGovernment Java. In 1864, Jabez Burns was granted a patent on the Burns roaster which wasto revolutionize the coffee-roasting business. In 1865, John Arbuckle brought out in Pittsburgh the first roastedcoffee in individual packages "like peanuts", the forerunner of theAriosa package. In 1869, B. G. Arnold started the first big speculation in coffee and forten years thereafter he was absolute dictator of the American coffeetrade. In 1869, three United States patents on a copper coffee urn lined withblock tin were granted to Élie Moneuse and L. Duparquet of New York. In 1870, John Gulick Baker, one of the founders of the EnterpriseManufacturing Company of Pennsylvania, was granted a United Statespatent on a coffee grinder which subsequently became one of the mostpopular store mills. The first trade mark registered for coffee or coffee essence bears thenumber 425, with date August 22, 1871, first use 1870, and is in thename of Butler, Earhart & Co. , Columbus, Ohio. The words "essence ofcoffee" appeared on the label. The next coffee mark was registered byButler, Earhart & Co. , October 3, 1871, number 455, first use, 1870. Itconsists of the word "Buckeye" with a branch of the buckeye(horse-chestnut) tree. [Illustration: FIRST REGISTERED TRADE MARK FOR COFFEE, 1871] The next registration for coffee was in the name of John Ashcroft ofBrooklyn. It is numbered 533, and the date is November 28, 1871. Itconsists of an anchor and chain enclosing a star. Ashcroft registeredalso a design of a coffee pot with the words "Mocha Steam", January 2, 1872. Today there are nearly three thousand registered trade-mark names usedfor coffee on file in the United States Patent Office in Washington. In 1873, Ariosa, the first successful national brand of package coffee, was launched in Pittsburg by John Arbuckle. In the same year, 1873, the first United States patent on a coffeesubstitute was issued to E. Dugdale of Griffin, Ga. In 1878, Chase & Sanborn, the Boston coffee roasters, were the first topack and to ship roasted coffee in sealed cans. A lead seal was used forthe large packages of bulk coffee; the smaller sizes being sealed by thelabel, which was made to cover the body of the can and to reach up overthe slip cover, so as to make a sealed package, to open which the labelmust be broken. In 1878, Jabez Burns, the coffee-machinery man, founded the _SpiceMill_, the first publication in America devoted to the coffee and spicetrades. In 1879, Charles Halstead brought out the first metal coffee pot with achina interior. In 1880, Henry E. Smyser, of Philadelphia, invented apackage-making-and-filling machine for coffee, the forerunner of theweighing-and-packing machine, the control of which later on by JohnArbuckle led to the coffee-sugar war with the Havemeyers. Smyser wassuperintendent at the plant of the Weikel & Smith Spice Company, Philadelphia. Other patents on weighing and package-making machines weregranted him in 1884, 1888, and 1891. In 1892, he began to assign hispatents to Arbuckle Brothers, some fifteen in all being granted him from1892 to 1898. He died in 1899. The year 1880 was notable for the many failures in the American coffeetrade, as a result of syndicate planting and speculative buying ofcoffees in Brazil, Mexico, and Central America. In 1881, Steele & Price, of Chicago, were the first to introduce to thetrade all-paper cans, made of strawboard, for coffee. In 1881, the New York Coffee Exchange was incorporated, beginningbusiness the year following at Beaver and Pearl Streets. In 1885, theproperty of the Exchange was transferred to the Coffee Exchange of theCity of New York, incorporated by special charter. In 1884, the Chicago Liquid Sack Company brought out the firstcombination paper and tin-end containers for coffee. The year 1887-88 was marked by a big boom in coffee, the total sales onthe Coffee Exchange amounting to 47, 868, 750 bags. Between July 1886 andJune 1887 prices advanced 1, 485 points. In 1888, the Engelberg Huller Company of Syracuse, New York, began themanufacture of coffee-plantation machinery. [Illustration: THE ORIGINAL ARBUCKLE COFFEE PACKAGES] In 1891, the New England Automatic Weighing Machine Company, Boston, Mass. Began the manufacture of machines to weigh coffee into cartons andother packages; and in 1894, installed in the Chase & Sanborn plant atBoston the first automatic weighing machine in the coffee trade. The NewEngland concern was subsequently (1901) succeeded by the AutomaticWeighing Machine Company of Newark, N. J. In 1893, the first direct-flame gas coffee roaster in America(Tupholme's English machine) was installed by F. T. Holmes at the plantof the Potter-Parlin Company, New York. In 1893, Cirilo Mingo, of New Orleans, was granted a United Statespatent on a method of aging green coffee to give it the characteristicsof green coffee stored in a confined space for a long period. Theoperation consisted in placing layers of green coffee between dry andwet empty coffee bags, and permitting the beans to absorb eight to tenpercent of the moisture in a period extending from six to sixteen hours. This was one of the earliest efforts to mature and age green coffee inthe United States. In 1894, the business of the Pneumatic Scale Corporation, Norfolk Downs, Mass. , had its start in Quincy, Mass. Where the first pneumatic weighingmachine was installed by the Purity Dried Fruits Cleansing Company. In1895, the Electric Scale Company was organized to build the machines, the subsequent development of this line of packaging machinery forcoffee being directed by the Pneumatic Scale Corporation, Ltd. , whichsucceeded it. In 1895, Adolph Kraut introduced the German-made grease-proof linedpaper bags for coffee to the American coffee trade. That same year, Thomas M. Royal, of Philadelphia, began the manufacture in the UnitedStates of a fancy duplex-lined paper bag for coffee. In 1896, natural gas was first used in the United States as a fuel forroasting coffee. In 1897, Joseph Lambert, Vermont, first introduced to the coffee trade aself-contained coffee roasting outfit without the brick setting requireduntil then. In 1897, the Enterprise Manufacturing Company of Pennsylvania was thefirst regularly to employ an electric motor to drive a coffee mill. The overproduction of coffee began to be so serious a question by 1898, that J. D. Olavarria, a distinguished Venzuelan, proposed a plan for therestriction of coffee cultivation and the regulation of coffee exportsfrom countries suffering from overproduction. In this same year, thebears forced Rio 7's down to four and one-half cents on the New YorkCoffee Exchange. In 1898, Edward Norton, of New York, was granted a United States patenton a vacuum process for canning foods, subsequently applied to coffee. Others followed. Hills Brothers, of San Francisco, were the first topack coffee in a vacuum, under the Norton patents, in 1900. M. J. Brandenstein & Company, of San Francisco, began to pack coffee in vacuumcans in 1914. Vacuum sealing machines to pack coffee under the Nortonpatents are now made by the Perfect Vacuum Canning Company of New York. About 1899, Dr. Sartori Kato of Tokio, who had invented a soluble tea inJapan, came to Chicago and produced a soluble coffee (introduced to theconsumer in 1901) on which he was granted a patent in 1903. In 1906, G. Washington of New York, an American chemist living in Guatemala City, produced a refined soluble coffee which was put on the United Statesmarket three years later. The full story of soluble coffee in America istold in chapter XXXI. (See page 538. ) The first gear-driven electric coffee mill was introduced to the tradeby the Enterprise Manufacturing Company of Pennsylvania in 1900. In 1901, there appeared in New York the first issue of _The Tea andCoffee Trade Journal_, devoted to the interests of the tea and coffeetrades. In 1900-01, Santos permanently displaced Rio as the world's largestsource of supply. In 1901, the American Can Company began the manufacture and sale of tincoffee cans in the United States. In this year Landers, Frary & Clark'sUniversal coffee percolator was granted a United States patent; andJoseph Lambert, of Marshall, Mich. , brought out one of the earliestmachines to employ gas as a fuel for the indirect roasting of coffee. Itwas in 1901, also, that F. T. Holmes joined the Huntley ManufacturingCompany, of Silver Creek, N. Y. , which began to build the Monitorgas-fired direct-flame coffee roasters. In 1902, the Coles Manufacturing Company (Braun Company, successor) andHenry Troemner, of Philadelphia, began the manufacture and sale ofgear-driven electric coffee grinders. As a result of the agitation for some way to deal with theoverproduction of coffee, the Pan-American Congress, meeting in MexicoCity in 1902, called an international coffee congress for New York inthe fall of that same year. It met from October 1 to October 30; but atthe close, the problem seemed no nearer solution than at the beginning. In 1906, Brazil produced its record-breaking crop of 20, 000, 000 bags, and the state of São Paulo inaugurated a plan to valorize coffee. In 1902, the first fancy duplex paper bag made by machinery from a rollof paper was produced by the Union Bag & Paper Corporation. It was ofsulphite fiber inside, and glassine outside; a style afterward reversed, so as to have the glassine the inner tube. In 1902, the Jagenberg Machine Company, Inc. (absorbed by the PneumaticScale Corporation in 1921) began the introduction to the trade of theUnited States of a line of German-made automatic packaging-and-labelingmachines for coffee. Subsequently, the Johnson Automatic Sealer Company, Battle Creek, Mich. , became well known as manufacturers of a line ofautomatic adjustable carton-sealing, wax-wrapping machines, packageconveyors, and automatic scales. Among other automatic weighers thathave figured in the development of the coffee business, mention shouldbe made of The National Packaging Machinery Company's Scott machine, ofE. D. Anderson's Triumph, and of Hoepner's Unit System. In 1903, as a result of overproduction in Brazil, Santos 4's dropped tothree and fifty-five hundredths cents on the New York Coffee Exchange, the lowest price ever recorded for coffee. In 1903, also, there was granted the first United States patent on anelectric coffee-roaster, the patentee being George C. Lester of NewYork. In 1904, green coffee prices on the New York Coffee Exchange were forcedup to eleven and eighty-five hundredths cents by a speculative cliqueled by D. J. Sully. In 1905, the A. J. Deer Co. , Buffalo, N. Y. (now of Hornell, N. Y. ) beganthe sale of its Royal electric coffee mills direct to dealers on theinstalment plan, revolutionizing the former practise of selling coffeemills through hardware jobbers. In 1905, F. A. Cauchois introduced to the trade his Private Estate coffeemaker, a filtration device employing Japanese filter paper. FinleyAcker, of Philadelphia, obtained a patent the same year on aside-perforation percolator employing "porous or bibulous paper" as afiltering medium. In 1906, H. D. Kelly, of Kansas City, was granted a United States patenton an urn coffee machine employing a coffee extractor in which theground coffee was continually agitated before percolation by a vacuumprocess. In 1907, P. E. Edtbauer (Mrs. E. Edtbauer), of Chicago, was granted aUnited States patent on a duplex automatic weighing machine, the firstsimple, fast, accurate and moderate-priced machine for weighing coffee. Eight others followed up to 1920. In 1907, the new Pure Food and Drugs Act came into force in the UnitedStates, making it obligatory to label all coffees correctly and causingmany trade practises to be altered or thrown into the discard. The mostimportant rulings that followed are referred to in more detail inchapter XXIII, telling how green coffees are bought and sold. In 1908, the Porto Rico coffee planters, presented a memorial to theCongress asking for a protective tariff of six cents a pound on allforeign coffees. Hawaii and the Philippines, also were to havebenefited by the protection asked for. The Congress failed to grant theplanters' prayer. This appeal for protection was repeated in 1921, whenthe Congress was asked to place a duty of five cents a pound on allforeign coffees. In 1908, J. C. Prims, of Battle Creek, Mich. Was granted a United Statespatent on a corrugated cylinder improvement for a gas and coal coffeeroaster of fifty to one hundred and thirty pounds capacity designed forretail stores. This machine was acquired the year following by the A. J. Deer Company, and was re-introduced to the trade as the Royal roaster. In 1908, Brazil's valorization-of-coffee enterprise was saved fromdisaster by a combination of bankers and the Brazil Government. A loanof $75, 000, 000 was placed, through Hermann Sielcken of New York, withbanking houses in England, Germany, France, Belgium, and America. Thecomplete story of this undertaking is told in chapter XXXI. In 1909, Ludwig Roselius brought to America from Germany thecaffein-free coffee which for several years had been manufactured andsold in Bremen under the Myer, Roselius, and Wimmer patent. In 1910, theproduct was first sold here by Merck & Company under the name of Dekafa, later Dekofa, and in 1914, by the Kaffee Hag Corporation as Kaffee Hag. In 1911 all-fiber parchment-lined Damptite cans for coffee wereintroduced to the trade by the American Can Company. As a result of preliminary meetings of Mississippi Valley coffeeroasters held in St. Louis in May and June, 1911, when the CoffeeRoasters Traffic and Pure Food Association was organized, a nationalassociation under the same name was started in Chicago, November 16-17, 1911. The complete story of the growth of this most important coffeetrade organization in the United States is told in the next chapter. In 1912, the United States government, after having examined into thevalorization enterprise, brought suit against Hermann Sielcken, _etal. _, to force the sale of valorized coffee stocks held in this countryunder the valorization agreement. In October, 1914, the first national coffee week to advertise coffee waspromoted by the National Coffee Roasters Association. _Merchants Coffee House Memorial_ On May 23, 1914, the Lower Wall Street Business Men's Associationunveiled a bronze memorial tablet set in the wall of the nine-storyoffice building occupied by the Federal Refining Company on thesoutheast corner of Wall and Water Streets, the former site of theMerchants' coffee house. This is the building where _The Tea and CoffeeTrade Journal_ had its offices for nine years before moving to 79 WallStreet. [Illustration: MERCHANTS COFFEE HOUSE TABLET Bronze marker, placed May 23, 1914, on the building occupying the siteof the old coffee house] Seth Low, introduced by William Bayne, Jr. , president of the Lower WallStreet Business Men's Association, gave an interesting sketch of thehistory of the coffee house. Abram Wakeman, secretary of theassociation, spoke, followed by Wilberforce Eames, of the Americanhistory division of the New York Public Library. After the flag that veiled the memorial tablet had been drawn aside, attention was called to a bronze chest which was hermetically sealed, and in which had been placed papers and other documents reflecting thelife of New York today. The chest was given over to the keeping of theNew York Historical Society, with the understanding that it was not tobe opened until 1974, which will be the two-hundredth anniversary of theunion of the Colonies. It was from the Merchants' coffee house that the letter of May 23, 1774, was written in reply to the Committee of Correspondence in Boston. Theletter suggested a "Congress of Deputies" from the Colonies, and calledfor a "virtuous and spirited Union. " The coffee house is consequentlyregarded as the birthplace of the Union. _Recent Activities_ A second national coffee week was held in October, 1915, under theauspices of the National Coffee Roasters' Association. In 1916, the Coffee Exchange of the City of New York changed its name tothe New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, to admit of sugar trading. In 1916, the National Paper Can Company of Milwaukee first introduced tothe trade its new hermetically sealed all-paper can for coffee. In 1916, Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind. , was granted two United Statespatents on cutting rolls to cut and not grind or crush corn, wheat, orcoffee. This idea was incorporated in the Ideal steel cut coffee millsubsequently marketed by the B. F. Gump Company, Chicago. In 1918, the World War caused the United States government to placecoffee importers, brokers, jobbers, roasters, and wholesalers under awar-time licensing system to control imports and prices. In 1918, John E. King, of Detroit, was granted a United States patent onan irregular grind of coffee consisting of coarsely grinding ten percentof the product and finely grinding ninety percent. The most notable event of the year 1919 was the inauguration by theBrazil planters, in co-operation with an American joint coffee tradepublicity committee, of the million-dollar campaign to advertise coffeein the United States. In 1919, as a result of frost damage, and of an orgy of speculation inBrazil, prices for green coffee on the New York Exchange were forced tothe highest levels since 1870; and a new high record was established forfutures, twenty-four and sixty-five hundredths cents for July contracts. In 1919, Floyd W. Robison, of Detroit, was granted a United Statespatent on a process for aging green coffee by treating it withmicro-organisms, the product being known as Cultured coffee. In the spring of 1920, there was held the third national coffee week, this time under the auspices of the Joint Coffee Trade PublicityCommittee. [Illustration] CHAPTER XXX DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE BUSINESS IN THE UNITEDSTATES _A brief history of the growth of coffee trading--Notable firms and personalities that have played important parts in green coffee in the principal coffee centers--Green coffee trade organizations--Growth of the wholesale coffee-roasting trade, and names of those who have made history in it--The National Coffee Roasters Association--Statistics of distribution of coffee-roasting establishments in the United States_ Coffee trading in the American colonies probably had its beginningsabout the middle of the seventeenth century. Tea seems to have precededcoffee as an article of merchandise. Several merchants in the NewEngland and New York settlements imported small quantities of coffeewith other foodstuffs toward the close of the seventeenth century. The early supplies of the green bean were brought from the Dutch EastIndies, Arabia, Haiti, and Jamaica. About 1787, the French openedMauritius and Bourbon to American ships, which then began to bring backcoffee and tea to the Atlantic-coast cities. Mocha coffee was beingimported direct in American bottoms about 1804. Coffee from Brazil wasfirst imported by the United States in 1809. Central America beganshipping coffee to the United States in 1840. The total coffee importsin 1876 were 339, 789, 246 pounds, valued at $56, 788, 997, and receivedchiefly from Brazil, Haiti, British and Dutch East Indies, the WestIndies, and Mexico. New York early became the leading green-coffee market of the country. There was a number of large importing merchants in New York in 1760, nearly all of whom brought in coffee. Among them were Isaac and NicholasGouverneur, Robert Murray, Walter and Samuel Franklin, John and HenryCruger, the Livingstons, the Beekmans, Lott & Low, Philip Cuyler, Anthony Van Dam, Hugh and Alexander Wallace, Leonard and AnthonyLispenard, Theophylact Bache, and William Walton. Some early green-coffee prices per pound were as follows: 1683--18s. 9d. ; 1743--5s. ; 1746--5s. ; 1774--9s. ; 1781[347]--96s. O. T. ;1782--2s. 1d. O. T. ; 1783--1s. ; 1789--10 cents. Leading New York coffee importers in 1786 were Henry Sheaff, on the dockbetween Burling Slip and the Fly Market; John Rooney, 26 Cherry Street;William Eccles, 10 Hunters Key; Ludlow & Goold, 47 Wall Street; Scriba, Schroppel & Starmen, 17 Queen Street; and William Taylor, Crane Wharf. The wholesale coffee roaster appeared about 1790; and from that time theseparation between the green-coffee trader and the coffee roaster becamemore marked. In 1794 the principal green-coffee importers in New Yorkwere: Lawrence & Van Zandt; D. Smith & Co. , 323 Pearl Street; GilchristDickinson, 17 Taylor's Wharf; Armstrong & Barnewall, 129 Water Street;William Bowne, 265 Pearl Street; Stephen Cole & Son, 26 Ferry Street;J. S. De Lessert & Co. , 123 Front Street; Joseph Thebaud, 262 PearlStreet; Nathaniel Cooper & Co. , 38 Little Dock Street; Coll. M'Gregor, 28 Wall Street; David Wagstaff, 137 Front Street; Conkling & Lloyd, 15Taylor's Wharf; and S. B. Garrick, Westphal & Co. , 43 Cherry Street. [Illustration: Hermann Sielcken B. G. Arnold F. B. Arnold Joseph Purcell SOME DEPARTED DOMINANT FIGURES IN THE NEW YORK GREEN COFFEE TRADE] The leading New York coffee importers in 1848 were Henry and WilliamDelafield, 108 Front Street; and Des Arts & Henser, 78 Water Street. There were seven leading New York coffee importers in 1854, as follows:Aymar & Co. , 34 South Street; Henry Coit & Son, 43 South Street; HenryDelafield, 129 Pearl Street; Howland & Aspinwall, 54 South Street; Mason& Thompson, 33 Pearl Street; J. L. Phipps & Co. , 19 Cliff Street; andMoses Taylor & Co. , 44 South Street. Following the so-called "consortium" of 1868, the ramifications of whichcentered in Frankfort-on-the-Main--its speculations finally ending indisaster to many--the green-coffee trade was in a precarious conditionuntil well into the eighties. "Previously, " says a contemporary writer, "it had been the safest and prettiest of all colonial produce. " About 1868, "iron steamers began to be freely availed of as carriers ofcoffee; and later on, the telegraph became a factor, rendering thebusiness more exciting and expensive". Coffee consumption in the United States had, moreover, increased fromone pound per capita in 1790 to nine pounds per capita in 1882. 1892-93 the biggest figure in the world's coffee trade was GeorgeKaltenbach, a German living in Paris, whose resources were estimated attwelve million to fifteen million dollars, and whose holdings at onetime were said to be one million bags. He was reported to have made$1, 500, 000 on his coffee corner. In September, 1892, he bested a bullclique and forced prices down to twelve cents. Aided by three otherEuropean operators, he then started a bull syndicate, and put the priceup to seventeen cents. The story of this corner, and of other notablecoffee booms and panics, is told in more detail in chapter XXXI. _Early Days of the Green Coffee Business_. For a long time New York was the only important entry port for greencoffee. Before the rise of New Orleans and San Francisco, many inlandcoffee roasters and grocers had their own buyers in the New York market. The coffee district that still clings about lower Wall Street is rich inmemories of by-gone merchants who once were big factors in the trade, and whose names, in many instances, have been handed down fromgeneration to generation in the businesses that have survived them. Any reference to the early days of the green-coffee importing, jobbing, and brokerage business in New York would not be complete without mentionof a few of the pioneers: P. C. Meehan is eighty-four years old at the time of writing (1922) andis dean of the New York green-coffee trade. With James H. Briggs heformed the firm of Briggs & Meehan. This later became Meehan & Schramm, with Arnold Schramm. The latter withdrew, and the firm became Creighton, Morrison & Meehan. Finally, Mr. Meehan established the present firm ofP. C. Meehan & Co. [Illustration: James H. Taylor H. Simmonds Edwin H. Peck P. C. Meehan THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH THE NEW YORK GREEN COFFEE TRADE DATES BACK NEARLYFIFTY YEARS] When Mr. Schramm withdrew from the firm of Meehan & Schramm he foundedthe house of Arnold Schramm, Inc. Upon his retirement, this wassucceeded by Sprague & Rhodes, the firm being composed of BenjaminRhodes and Irvin A. Sprague. Next oldest to P. C. Meehan in the New York green-coffee trade isClarence Creighton, who started with Youngs & Amman, later C. Amman &Co. , then Waite, Creighton & Morrison, then Creighton, Morrison &Meehan. Upon the breaking up of this firm, Mr. Creighton formed apartnership with James Ashland, under the name of Creighton & Ashland. He later operated alone, and died August 15, 1922. James H. Taylor is another "old-timer" who is still active. He beganwith T. T. Barr & Co. Later, with F. T. Sherman, he formed the firm ofSherman & Taylor. When Mr. Sherman withdrew, the firm became James H. Taylor & Co. Mr. Taylor is now with Minford, Lueder & Co. He has beenfive years president, eleven years treasurer, and twenty-six years onthe board of governors of the New York Coffee Exchange. One of the most honored names in the green coffee trade of New York isthat of Peck. Edwin H. Peck began, at the age of seventeen years, withHart & Howell, butter and cheese merchants. He then went in the samebusiness for himself. Four years later, he abandoned this to go into thecoffee brokerage business with his brother, Walter J. Peck. In aboutfive years, the brothers branched into the coffee importing and jobbingbusiness under the firm name of Edwin H. Peck & Co. Later it was changedto the present style of E. H. & W. J. Peck. Since the death of Walter J. Peck in 1909, Edwin H. Has conducted the business. The latter was amember of the board of governors of the New York Coffee Exchange fortwelve years, and has been an important factor in the upbuilding of thatinstitution. William D. Mackey began with Small Bros. & Co. He then went intopartnership with C. K. Small as Mackey & Small. Later, he formed the firmof Arnold, Mackey & Co. With Francis B. Arnold. The latter dropped out, and the firm became Mackey & Co. He is now operating alone. Mr. Mackeywas another of the incorporators of the New York Coffee Exchange. Alexander H. Purcell, a brother of Joseph Purcell, entered the employ ofBowie Dash & Co. As a boy. From there he went to Williams, Russell &Co. , then to the Union Coffee Co. , and later to Hard & Rand. He is nowhead of the firm of Alex. H. Purcell & Co. Robert C. Stewart first became known with Booth & Linsley. He later wentwith Joseph J. O'Donohue & Sons, leaving there to establish the presentfirm of R. C. Stewart & Co. Another old-timer, Joseph D. Pickslay, may be seen at his desk inWilliams, Russell & Co. 's office every day, although Frank Williams, whobegan with Winthrop G. Ray & Co. , and Frank C. Russell, both ofWilliams, Chapin & Russell, and then of Williams, Russell & Co. , havepassed on. Fred P. Gordon, now head of Fred P. Gordon & Co. , wasformerly with Williams, Russell & Co. The Mitchell brothers, William L. And George, forming the firm ofMitchell Bros. , have been familiar Front Street figures for many years. A. Wakeman, "the historian of the coffee trade, " as he is often called, began with Olendorf, Case & Gillespie. Later he went with Thompson &Bowers, and then became a member of the firm of Baiz & Wakeman. He isnow in business alone. For thirty-eight years Mr. Wakeman has beensecretary of the Lower Wall Street Business Men's Association. He is theauthor of _History and Reminiscences of Lower Wall Street and Vicinity_. H. Simmonds, of Simmonds & Bayne; later, of Simmonds & Newton; then, ofthe Brazil Coffee Co. ; and finally, of H. Simmonds & Co. , is at the timeof writing one of the oldest coffee merchants on Front Street, havingbeen in business in Baltimore and New York for more than fifty years. Hehas a desk in the office of his son, W. Lee Simmonds, of W. Lee Simmonds& Co. Bayne is another well known Front Street name. The firm of William Bayne& Co. Was established by William Bayne, Sr. , in Baltimore. The businesswas moved to New York about 1885. The founder's three sons, William, Jr. , Daniel K. , and L. P. , entered the employ of the firm in Baltimore, and moved with it to New York. Daniel K. Bayne became associated with Henry Sheldon & Co. , and laterwas a member of Simmonds & Bayne. He then returned to William Bayne &Co. And was senior partner at the time of his death in 1915. WilliamBayne, Jr. , for many years one of the governors and a past-president andvice-president of the New York Coffee Exchange, and his brother, L. P. Bayne, now conduct the business. John T. Foley, now of the Commercial Coffee Co. , began with KirklandBros. From there he went to Ezra Wheeler & Co. , then to H. W. Banks &Co. , Thompson, Shortridge & Co. , and William Hosmer Bennett & Son. Joshua Walker formed a partnership with James Stewart as Stewart &Walker. Since the retirement of Mr. Stewart some years ago, Mr. Walkerhas been in business alone. Three other veterans of the trade are still in the harness: LouisSeligsberg, formerly of Wolf & Seligsberg, is now alone; Henry Schaeferhas been at the head of S. Gruner & Co. Since the death of SiegfriedGruner; Col. William P. Roome, who operated for some time as Wm. P. Roome & Co. , is now head of the coffee department of Acker, Merrall &Condit Co. [Illustration: O. G. Kimball Boston James C. Russell New York James W. Phyfe New York C. E. Bickford San Francisco GREEN COFFEE TRADE BUILDERS WHO HAVE PASSED ON] Gregory B. Livierato, who founded the business of Livierato Bros. AtPort Said, with branches at Aden and Marseilles, and later at Hodeidaand Harar, entered the green coffee trade of New York in 1855, althoughhis L F Mocha marks had been introduced here many years before. Heremained here for eighteen years, returned to his home in Cephalonia, Greece, in 1904, and died there in 1905. His nephew, B. A. Livierato, then assumed charge of the New York coffee business, which in 1913became the Livierato-Kidde Co. , with B. A. Livierato and Frank Kidde. Benjamin Green Arnold, one-time "coffee king, " first became well knownas a member of Arnold, Sturgess & Co. , afterward B. G. Arnold & Co. Mr. Arnold was one of the incorporators, and the first president, of the NewYork Coffee Exchange. Francis B. Arnold, with Arnold, Sturgess & Co. , later of Arnold, Mackey & Co. , afterward Arnold, Dorr & Co. , was a sonof Benjamin Greene Arnold; and to him and to Major John R. McNultybelongs a great part of the credit for the organization of the New YorkCoffee Exchange. Major McNulty was with Minford, Thompson & Co. , andthen formed the firm of J. R. McNulty & Co. Bowie Dash, a member of the famous Arnold-Kimball-Dash triumvirate, began with Scott & Meiser, later Scott, Meiser & Co. , then Scott & Dash, afterward Scott, Dash & Co. , and finally Bowie Dash & Co. Other wellknown men with this last company were L. F. Mason, A. C. Foster, S. L. Swazey, L. J. Purdy, and John B. Overton. Then there were: Rufus G. Story; Thomas Minford, Francis Skiddy, andGeorge J. Nevers, of Skiddy, Minford & Co. ; W. D. Thompson, of Minford, Thompson & Co. , later L. W. Minford & Co. , afterward Minford, Lueder &Co. , Thompson, Shortridge & Co. , later Thompson Bros. , then Thompson &Davis; John Randall, with L. W. Minford & Co. , later, with J. C. Runkle &Co. ; Eugene and James O'Sullivan of Eugene O 'Sullivan & Co. The following names figured prominently in the trade's early history:Charles Maguire, of James H. Taylor & Co. ; George F. Gilman, organizerof the Great American Tea Co. And of the Great Atlantic & Pacific TeaCo. ; H. W. Banks, of Reeve, Case & Banks, afterward of Stanton, Sheldon &Co. , later Sheldon, Banks & Co. , and then of H. W. Banks & Co. ; HenrySheldon, of Stanton, Sheldon & Co. , later Sheldon, Banks & Co. ; and thenHenry Sheldon & Co. ; William McCready, with Small Bros. & Co. , laterwith H. W. Banks & Co. , and then with B. H. Howell, Son & Co. , C. R. Blakeman, with Gross, March & Co. , afterward with Wm. Scott's Sons &Co. ; William Scott, of William Scott & Sons, later Wm. Scott's Sons &Co. , including George W. Vanderhoef, who later succeeded to the businessunder the name of George W. Vanderhoef & Co. ; Christopher and Leander S. Risley, of C. Risley & Co. ; and Charles Naphew, with C. Risley & Co. , later with Edwin H. Peck & Co. [Illustration: William Bayne New York George W. Crossman New York George Westfeldt New Orleans Wm. H. Bennett New York THEIR RACE IS RUN, THEIR COURSE IS DONE] Another group of old-timers includes: William Newbold, with Ezra Wheeler& Co. , later alone; Augustus Ireland, with Ezra Wheeler & Co. ; J. M. Edwards, of Edwards & Maddux, later of J. M. Edwards & Co. ; Frank M. Anthony, of J. M. Edwards & Co. ; H. Clay Maddux, one of the incorporatorsof the New York Coffee Exchange, of Edwards & Maddux; Baron Thomsen, ofThomsen & Co. ; Gustave Amsinck, of G. Amsinck & Co. ; James N. Jarvie, with Small Bros. & Co. , later of Arbuckle Bros. ; John C. Lloyd, of JohnC. Lloyd & Co. , afterward with Arbuckle Bros. ; John Small, of Smalls &Bacon, later Small Bros. & Co. ; Williamson Bacon, of Smalls & Bacon, afterward of Williamson Bacon & Co. ; C. K. Small, of Mackey & Small, Anson Wales Hard and George Rand, of Hard & Rand; Joseph Purcell, firstof W. J. Porter & Co. , and then of Hard & Rand; Henry F. McCreery, withO'Shaughnessy & Sorley, later of Hard & Rand; William Sorley and John W. O'Shaughnessy, of O'Shaughnessy & Sorley, Mr. O'Shaughnessy laterforming John W. O'Shaughnessy & Co. , and Mr. Sorley going to Hard &Rand. Mr. Sorley was one of the incorporators of the New York CoffeeExchange. [Illustration: 112 FRONT STREET, NEW YORK, IN 1879 A group of old-time green coffee men, including R. C. Stewart, J. D. Pickslay, Frank Williams, Charles P. Chapin, and Fred P. Gordon] Special mention should be made of: Kirkland & von Sacks; A. Kirkland, one of the incorporators of the New York Coffee Exchange, with SmallBros. & Co. , then with W. J. Kirkland as Kirkland Bros. , and, upon thedissolution of that firm, with F. H. Leggett & Co. ; Thomas Rutter & Co. ;Teacle Wallace Lewis, with Rowland, Humphreys & Co. , later head of thecoffee department of Carter, Macy & Co. , and still later, head of T. W. Lewis & Co. ; Abraham Sanger, of Sanger, Beers & Fisher, later Sanger &Wells; J. W. Wilson & Co. ; Dykes & Wilson; Peter, John, and Joseph J. O'Donohue, of John O'Donohue's Sons; Joseph J. O'Donohue & Sons; Otis W. Booth, of Booth & Linsley; A. G. Hildreth; James H. Kirby, of B. G. Arnold& Co. , later of Kirby, Halstead & Chapin, afterward Kirby & Halstead;Major Henry D. Tyler; Thomas H. Messenger & Co. ; Harvey H. Palmer, ofH. H. Palmer & Co. ; B. O. Bowers, of Wilson & Bowers, later Thompson &Bowers; and August Haeussler, first with C. Risley & Co. , then with J. H. Labaree & Co. , and finally with the green coffee department of Geo. H. McFadden & Brother. John Hanley, with Carey & Co. , later of Hanley & Kinsella, St. Louis;Robert C. Hewitt, Jr. , who wrote one of the early books on coffee(_Coffee, its History, Cultivation, and Uses_, 1872), of Hewitt & Phyfe, later Jas. W. Phyfe & Co. ; James W. Phyfe of Hewitt & Phyfe, later Jas. W. Phyfe & Co. ; Daniel A. Shaw, of Jas. W. Phyfe & Co. ; B. Lahey, ofJas. W. Phyfe & Co. ; and Winthrop G. Ray & Co. These names, too, will live long in green coffee history: Reid, Murdock& Fischer, New York and Chicago; Charles A. And Watts Miller, and DavidPalmer, of D. J. Ely & Co. , formerly D. J. & Z. S. Ely Co. , New York andBaltimore; Harry Miller, with D. J. Ely & Co. , later of Miller &Walbridge; Augustus Walbridge, of Smith & Walbridge, afterward AugustusM. Walbridge, Inc. ; Clarence Smith, of M. V. R. Smith's Sons, later ofSmith & Walbridge; Stevens, Armstrong & Hartshorn, later Stevens &Armstrong, then Stevens Bros. & Co. , and finally Reamer, Turner & Co. , including Abraham Reamer, Sr. , and William F. Turner. [Illustration: AT 87 WALL STREET, N. Y. , YEARS AGO Among the green coffee men in this picture are Clarence Creighton, JohnEnright, Chris Arndt, W. Lee Simmonds, John Ashlin, F. Loderose, JuliusSteinwender, and Clinton Whiting] [Illustration: WALL AND FRONT STREETS, NEW YORK, SPRING OF 1922 Looking up Wall Street from the East River. The first cross street isFront; beyond are to be seen the Munson, Stock Exchange, and Bankers'Trust Company's buildings, with Trinity Church marking the Broadwaygateway] Other familiar old-time names were: George W. Pritchard, of George W. Pritchard & Sons; Dayton & Co. ; Dimond & Lally, later Dimond & Gardes;Arthur W. Brown; Robert Russell, of Russell & Co. ; J. F. Pupke andThomas Reid, of Pupke & Reid, later Eppens, Smith & Wiemann, afterwardEppens, Smith & Co. , with William H. And Frederick P. Eppens; Joseph A. O'Brien, with Pupke & Reid, and later in business for himself; R. P. McBride, of the Union Pacific Tea Co. ; Ripley Ropes; Saportas Bros. ;Mayer Bros. & Co. Of Hamburg, with Moses G. Hanauer, manager, and D. K. Young and Herman Hanauer, salesmen; H. M. Humphreys, with J. W. Doane &Co. , later with Arbuckle Bros. ; Henry Nordlinger, of Henry Nordlinger &Co. ; Charles Campbell, of W. R. Grace & Co. ; D. A. DeLima, of D. A. & J. DeLima, later D. A. DeLima & Co. ; Henry Kunhardt and George F. Kuhlke, ofKunhardt & Co. ; Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, later Bliss, Dallett & Co. , general managers of the Red D line of steamships; Prendergast Bros. ;W. H. And George W. Crossman, of W. H. Crossman & Bros. , later Crossman &Sielcken, with Hermann Sielcken, afterward Sorenson & Nielson; F. Probst& Co. ; H. H. Swift & Co. ; J. L. Phipps & Co. ; James Bennett and JosephBecker, of Bennett & Becker; and Arnold, Hines & Co. (Diamond A Mocha), later Arnold, Cheney & Company. Honorable mention should be accorded: Samuel Wilde (Old Dutch Mills);John Phoenix, with Husted, Ferguson & Titus, later of J. W. Phoenix &Co. ; H. K. Thurber, of H. K. & F. B. Thurber & Co. ; Michael Barnicle, withWalter Storm, later Storm, Smith & Co. , then Abbey, Freeman & Co. , thenwith Husted, Wetmore & Titus, and finally alone; August Stumpp, ofAugust Stumpp & Co. ; J. K. And E. B. Place; Beards & Cummings, laterBeards & Cottrell, then S. S. Beard & Co. ; Philip and Henry Dater, ofPhilip Dater & Co. ; Hugh Edwards, of Edwards & Raworth; William Bennett, of Wm. Hosmer Bennett & Son; Kalman Haas, of Haas Bros. ; J. C. Runkle &Co. ; Thomas T. Barr and Fred T. Sherman, of Barr, Lally & Co. , laterT. T. Barr & Co. ; Henry Hentz & Co. ; Elmenhorst & Co. ; A. S. Lascelles &Co. ; D. Henderson (Harry) and John Wells, of Wells Bros. ; G. Weyl & Co. , later Norton, Weyl & Beven, and then Weyl & Norton; Warren & Co. ; J. H. Labaree & Co. ; Schultz & Ruckgaber; Henry Eyre; Rowland, Terry &Humphreys, later Rowland & Humphreys; Bentley, Benton & Co. ; Winter &Smilie; Weston & Gray; John S. Wright, one of the incorporators of theNew York Coffee Exchange, of Wright, Hard & Co. ; Watjen, Toel & Co. ; A. Behrens & Co. ; "Steve" Matheson, of S. Matheson, Jr. & Co. ; C. Wessels &Bros. , later Wessels, Kulenkampff & Co. , and finally Fromm & Co. ; JuliusSteinwender, of Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co. ; Leon Israel, of LeonIsrael & Bros. ; Herklotz, Corn & Co. ; Ponfold, Schuyler & Co. ; Maitland, Phelps & Co. , later Maitland, Coppell & Co. ; F. H. Leggett, of F. H. Leggett & Co. ; Carhart & Brother; George W. Flanders, of George W. Flanders & Co. ; Jonas P. O'Brien; George S. Wallen, of George S. Wallen& Co. ; Charles F. Blake, of Blake & Bullard; and Martin J. Glynn, ofMcDonald & Glynn, later Martin J. Glynn & Co. , who had their office atFront Street and Old Slip for twenty-five years. Three other names closely associated with the early days of the New Yorkgreen-coffee trade were: Glover, Force & Co. , later Waterbury & Force, then W. H. Force & Co. , and finally W. S. Force & Co. , weighers andforwarders; Daniel Reeve, of Reeve & Van Riper, mixers and hullers; andJohn H. Draper & Co. , auctioneers. _Growth of the Leading Coffee Ports_ Twenty-two years ago, when the century opened, New York passed over herdocks a total of 676, 000, 000 pounds of coffee, which representedeighty-six percent of the total for the country. In 1920, juggling thefigures a little, she imported 767, 000, 000 pounds, which was fifty-ninepercent of the total. While she was thus practically marking time, shewatched New Orleans run wild with an increase from 44, 000, 000 pounds to380, 000, 000 pounds, or 763 percent gain; this meaning also the supplyingof twenty-nine percent of the country's demands instead of five percent, while San Francisco in the same time jumped from 24, 000, 000 pounds to137, 000, 000 pounds, or 470 percent gain, her share of the total tradenow being ten percent instead of three percent in 1900. These gains, however, have not all been made at the expense of the city on theHudson. In 1900, Baltimore was a close rival of New Orleans and was farahead of all other ports except New York; but a decline in her importsbegan about 1903, and was so swift, that five years later her importswere almost negligible. [Illustration: LOOKING SOUTH FROM WALL STREET INTO THE HEART OF THEGREEN COFFEE DISTRICT On the left-hand corner is Hard & Rand's, opposite Leon Israel & Bros. 'building, and beyond are many other leading green coffee firms. ] [Illustration: LOOKING NORTH FROM WALL STREET. HERE A FEW WELL KNOWNCOFFEE FIRMS ARE LOCATED The trend of the trade is south from Wall St. Rather than north] [Illustration: FRONT STREET, NEW YORK'S GREEN COFFEE DISTRICT, IN 1922] IMPORTS OF COFFEE AT LEADING PORTS OF ENTRY IN THE UNITED STATES New York New Orleans San Francisco Total Imports _Pounds_ _Pounds_ _Pounds_ _Pounds_ 1900 676, 227, 269 44, 335, 717 24, 562, 578 787, 991, 9111913 554, 571, 449 263, 382, 962 36, 067, 073 863, 130, 7571914 633, 400, 209 308, 008, 145 46, 721, 824 1, 001, 528, 3171915 758, 160, 133 307, 868, 932 45, 844, 060 1, 118, 690, 5241916 814, 394, 074 308, 513, 290 71, 346, 788 1, 201, 104, 4851917 932, 098, 113 274, 989, 692 97, 821, 069 1, 319, 870, 8021918 779, 025, 781 219, 330, 461 134, 729, 019 1, 143, 890, 8891918[K] 757, 710, 001 146, 621, 857 130, 178, 288 1, 052, 201, 5011919[K] 804, 177, 446 356, 608, 477 160, 426, 467 1, 333, 564, 0671920[K] 767, 242, 636 380, 293, 701 137, 043, 281 1, 297, 439, 3101921[K] 790, 559, 919 331, 036, 770 139, 069, 286 1, 340, 979, 776 [K] Calendar years. All others fiscal years. New Orleans began her advance at about the same time that Baltimorebegan to fall off, so that her rise to a place of importance as a coffeeport has been practically coincident with the twentieth century. Herfirst big step upward was in 1901, from 44, 000, 000 to 72, 000, 000 pounds, and was followed by another the next year to 115, 000, 000. Thereafterthere was a steady gain to 213, 000, 000 pounds in 1906 and to 301, 000, 000pounds in 1910, and after that wide fluctuations, especially during thewar. In 1918, doubtless because of the draining of shipping to the NorthAtlantic service, there was a heavy slump; but immediately after thewar, in the calendar year 1919, there was a big jump to a record mark, up to that time, of 356, 000, 000 pounds. This was followed by the recordof 380, 000, 000 pounds in the calendar year 1920, although the 1921figure of 331, 036, 770 shows a falling off of nearly 50, 000, 000 pounds. San Francisco's growth, on the other hand, is of recent occurrence. Thestory is told farther along in this chapter, how the city was definitelyplaced on the coffee map by the provision of adequate shippingfacilities to Central America. The outbreak of the war in Europe, however, which loosened the grip of European nations on the coffee cropsof Central America, was the prime cause of San Francisco's rise in thecoffee world, affording her an opportunity of which she had theenterprise to take full advantage. In 1913, her imports were only about36, 000, 000 pounds, at which mark they had stood for many years. Therewas only a slight gain until 1916, when 71, 000, 000 pounds were recorded;but this increased to 97, 000, 000 pounds in 1917, to 134, 000, 000 poundsin 1918 (fiscal year), and to 160, 000, 000 pounds in the calendar year1919. In 1920, there was a falling off to 137, 000, 000 pounds, and it maybe that the high figure reached the year before represents about themaximum that her natural market, the Pacific-coast region, can wellabsorb. For the benefit of those who like to do their own interpreting offigures, we present in the table at the top of this page the officialrecord for recent years. The leading importers of Brazil coffee direct to New York and Baltimorein 1894, as compiled by William H. Force & Co. , were as follows. Included in this list are a number of names well known in the green androasted coffee trades of other cities: DIRECT IMPORTERS OF BRAZIL COFFEE _New York, 1894_ _Bags_ Arbuckle Bros. 688, 726W. H. Crossman & Bro. 355, 864Hard & Rand. 345, 541W. F. McLaughlin & Co. 227, 935J. W. Doane & Co. 207, 170Steinwender, Stoffregen Co. 132, 482J. L. Phipps & Co. 54, 617Dannemillers & Co. 49, 449E. Levering & Co. 47, 322Aug. Stumpp. 44, 959Thomson & Taylor Spice Co. 44, 017G. Amsinck & Co. 38, 350E. H. & W. J. Peck. 33, 278J. H. Labaree & Co. 32, 071Fitch & Howland. 31, 515Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co. 25, 951C. D. Lathrop & Co. 23, 263Taylor & Levering. 21, 501Heinrich Haase. 18, 976William T. Levering. 18, 796T. G. Lurman & Co. 18, 017Elmenhorst & Co. 16, 221Sprague, Warner & Co. 14, 856Sorver, Damon & Co. 14, 675Sutton & Vansant 13, 957John O'Donohue's Sons 13, 681Hoffman, Lee & Co. 13, 598S. R. Alexander 12, 805Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co. 12, 719Baker & Young 11, 906Hanley & Kinsella C. & S. Co. 11, 318Durand & Kasper Co. 11, 124Wm. Schotten & Co. 11, 005C. G. Bullard & Co. 10, 653H. W. Banks & Co. 10, 351Ellis Bros. 10, 282Jacob Baiz 9, 146A. Lueder & Co. 8, 492C. F. Pitt & Sons 8, 262G. F. Gillman 7, 927Bell, Conrad & Co. 6, 528N. Martin & Co. 6, 507J. B. O'Donohue & Co. 6, 102Steele, Wedeles Co. 5, 700G. O. Gordon 5, 550Sherman Bros. & Co. 4, 998F. MacVeagh & Co. 4, 763Benedict & Co. 4, 717Chase & Sanborn 4, 505West & Melchers 4, 500Mokaska Mfg. Co. 4, 013Haebler & Co. 4, 000Robt. Crooks & Co. 3, 509M. M. Levy & Co. 3, 037J. A. Tolman Co. 3, 004Tracy & Avery Co. 3, 000Wells Bros. 2, 800Kirby, Halsted & Chapin Co. 2, 754W. M. Hoyt Co. 2, 252Gt. A. & P. Tea Co. 2, 250Foote & Knevals 2, 000L. W. Minford & Co. 1, 800Wm. Bayne & Co. 1, 755Indiana Coffee Co. 1, 650W. K. Carson & Co. 1, 501Miller, Smith & Co. 1, 500Rufus Woods 1, 498J. G. Flint 1, 345Davenport & Morris 1, 250Canada 1, 140Westfeldt Bros. 1, 000Edw. Westen T. & S. Co. 800Corbin, May & Co. 750F. Cannon & Co. 618Adam Roth Gro. Co. 500Scudder, Gale Gro. Co. 500J. H. Taylor & Co. 500Wm. B. Willson 500Dwinell, Wright & Co. 500Swift, Billings & Co. 500New Orleans Coffee Co. 500B. Fischer & Co. 401Smith & Schipper 300Ulman, Lewis & Co. 281Ridenour, Baker Gro. Co. 250W. H. Minor 250Nave & McCord Merc. Co. 202Skiddy, Minford & Co. 196Rossbach & Bro. 184L. Wolff 149Reimers & Meyer 50W. F. Jackson 5 ---------Total 2, 791, 642 DIRECT IMPORTERS OF BRAZIL COFFEE _Baltimore, 1894_ _Bags_E. Levering & Co. 40, 965T. G. Lurman & Co. 29, 325C. M. Stewart & Co. 25, 499Thornton Rollins 21, 436William T. Levering 15, 884Steinwender, Stoffregen 12, 852W. B. Willson 11, 540Hoffman, Lee & Co. 8, 953Rufus Woods 8, 020P. T. George & Co. 7, 463Taylor & Levering 6, 440Benedict & Co. 5, 434Brazil Trading Co. 2, 666C. F. Pitt & Sons 2, 505J. W. Doane & Co. 2, 500Enterprise Coffee Co. 1, 811H. M. Wagner & Co. 504C. D. Lathrop & Co. 503Mokaska Manufacturing Co. 500Hanley & Kinsella C. & S. Co. 500Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co. 404G. Amsinck & Co. 400Indiana Coffee Co. 251 -------Total 206, 355 _Early Days of Green Coffee in New Orleans_ The history of New Orleans as a coffee port may be considered asbeginning with the transfer of Louisiana by Napoleon Bonaparte to theUnited States in 1803. In this year, according to Martin's _History ofLouisiana_, New Orleans imported 1438 bags of coffee of 132 pounds each. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, settlers in large numbershad crossed the Allegheny Mountains from the Atlantic states into thevalley of the Ohio River; and their crops of grain and provisions wereexported by means of cheaply constructed rafts and boats, which werefloated down the river to New Orleans, where they were generally brokenup and sold for use as lumber and firewood--there being, at that time, no power available for propelling them back against the current of theriver. From 1803 until 1820, on account of the difficulty of navigatingupstream, New Orleans imports did not increase as rapidly as exports. In1814, however, the first crude steamboat had begun to carry freight onthe river; and by 1820, the supremacy of New Orleans as the gateway ofthe Mississippi Valley had been for the time established by this newmeans of transportation. The coffee-importing business flourished; and, from its modest beginning in 1803, grew to 531, 236 bags in 1857. By this time, however, New Orleans had begun to feel the competition ofthe Erie Canal, and of the systems of east and west railroad lines whichhad been in the course of active construction during the precedingfifteen years. The railroad systems which had as their ports Boston, NewYork, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, entered upon a desperate war offreight rates, each in the endeavor to establish the supremacy of itsown port. As the building of railroads had been entirely east and west, and no large amount of capital had been invested in north and southlines, much of the business of the valley was diverted to the Atlanticports, apparently never to return to New Orleans. In 1862, on account of the blockade of the port, not a bag of coffee wasimported through New Orleans, and practically none came in until theyear 1866, when the small amount of 55, 000 bags was the total for theyear. At about this time, Boston and Philadelphia became negligibleimporting quantities; the business of Baltimore continued to be quiteprosperous; and New York rapidly increased her imports and took thecommanding position. [Illustration: IN THE NEW ORLEANS COFFEE DISTRICT] New Orleans had increased her coffee imports to 250, 000 bags in 1871, and the yearly imports continued at about this figure until the lastdecade of the century, when the business began to expand. The importshad reached a total of 337, 000 bags in 1893-1894; and of 373, 000 in1896-97. This was the beginning of a new era, and the coffee business ofNew Orleans entered upon the period of its greatest growth. Imports were514, 000 bags in 1900-01, and were slightly more than twice that by1903-04. In 1909-10 the imports had again doubled, and had reached atotal for the twelve months ending July 1, 1909, of slightly more than2, 000, 000 bags; while the figures for the calendar year 1909 totaled2, 500, 000 bags. Borino & Bro. , 77 Gravier Street, were the largest importers of coffeein New Orleans in 1869. The principal importers in 1880 were P. Poursine& Co. , Westfeldt Bros. , Dymond & Gardes, Schmidt & Ziegler, J. L. Phipps& Co. , Geo. O. Gordon & Co. , and Smith Bros. Shipments were by sailing vessels, a full cargo being about 5000 bags. Fancy grades, like Golden Rios, washed and peaberries, were shipped indouble bags. Musty coffees were common, and every bag in a cargo wassampled for must. S. Jackson was first to issue regular manifests. Withthe entry of steamers into the coffee transport business, New Orleanswas placed at a disadvantage as steamer rates were about twenty cents abag higher to New Orleans than to New York, and imports were limited. The subsequent revival of the business was due largely to Hard & Rand. Being unable to obtain steamer rates equal to those quoted in New York, Hard & Rand chartered steamers for New Orleans; and soon the trade beganto offer cost and freight to New Orleans, and the business grew fromabout 350, 000 bags of green coffee per annum to 2, 500, 000 bags. One of the best remembered names in the green coffee trade of NewOrleans is that of Charles Dittman (1848-1920), who for nearly fiftyyears was one of the leading coffee commission merchants of the country. Mr. Dittman entered the coffee business with Napier & Co. , representingE. Johnston & Co. , of Rio de Janeiro. In 1875, upon the death of Mr. Napier, the firm changed to Johnston, Gordon & Co. , later to G. O. Gordon, and in 1886 to the Charles Dittmann Co. Since his death in1920, the business has been continued by F. V. Allain and CharlesDittmann, Jr. [Illustration: A SECTION OF THE GREEN COFFEE DISTRICT OF NEW ORLEANS Most of the buildings shown here are occupied by green coffee importinghouses. The one on the right with the balconies is the old Board ofTrade Building] _Green Coffee in San Francisco_ In the early days of the green coffee business in San Francisco thesenames stood out as most important among the coffee importers: HellmannBros. & Co. , Montealegre & Co. , E. L. G. S. Steele & Co. , and Urruella &Urioste. From their many friends in Central America, they, and others in theirline, obtained small consignments that were bought by the roastersaccording to their immediate needs. Often as many as five or six buyerswould share in a parcel of fifty bags, as they were not in the custom offilling up the larder for days of want. There always seemed to besufficient for every one, and bull movements and corners had not thenbecome the vogue. Just as today, the mainstays of the early San Francisco trade werecoffees produced in Costa Rica, Salvador, and Guatemala, although somewere brought from the Colima district of Mexico. The broker had acomparatively easy job in selling his wares. Samples of the lots wouldbe given to him in carefully sealed glass bottles, and usually the buyerwould trust his discerning eye to judge correctly the quality of thegoods, not even taking the trouble to uncork the bottle. Size, color, and imperfections would be his criterion. The leading coffee importers at San Francisco in 1875 were B. E. Auger &Co. , 409 Battery; S. A. Carit & Co. , 405 Front Street; Hellmann Bros. &Co. , 525 Front Street; Adolphe Low & Co. , 208 California Street; S. C. Merrill & Co. , 204 California Street; Parrott & Co. , 306 CaliforniaStreet; and Urruella & Urioste, 405 Front Street. The annual consumption of green coffee in San Francisco in the earlyeighties was estimated at 100, 000 bags. A marked change in the coffee business of San Francisco was broughtabout by the discovery that the differences in the taste of coffeescould not be accurately detected from their color or from the size ofbean. To Clarence E. Bickford belongs the credit of having discoveredthe cup qualities of high-grown Central American coffees. He wasemployed at the time by a broker named Hockhofler, and probably did notrealize what far-reaching effect his discovery would have on the futureof San Francisco's coffee trade; but no other factor has contributed somuch to its growth. When the roasters began to examine coffees for theirtaste, values were of course revolutionized. Antiguas, and otherhigh-grown coffees, that had theretofore been penalized for the smallsize of bean, soon brought a premium, and have ever since been in greatdemand. It goes without saying that the new classification was ofmaterial assistance to the roasters in bettering their output, asblending was then put on a scientific basis. About the middle of the nineties San Francisco began to function as adistributing center, and shipments were made from there to St. Louis andCincinnati. The selection of coffees on their cup merit was undoubtedlya factor of considerable importance in creating new outlets; although itis generally conceded that the winning personality of C. E. Bickfordhelped considerably. Mr. Bickford, by this time, had succeeded hisformer employer. He served the trade by living up to the best standardsof business practise until his death in 1908; when the institution hefounded was continued by E. H. O'Brien under the name of C. E. Bickford &Co. [Illustration: CALIFORNIA STREET, THE COFFEE-TRADING CENTER OF SANFRANCISCO] San Francisco imported 175, 293 bags of coffee in 1900. Imports had grownto 256, 183 bags by 1906; and the following were the leading importers, as taken from a compilation by C. E. Bickford & Co. : IMPORTERS OF COFFEE BY SEA _San Francisco, 1906_ _Bags_ Haas Bros. 38, 947Otis, McAllister & Co. 34, 342Jno. T. Wright 21, 741Geo. A. Moore & Co. 17, 851Castle Bros. 17, 397Lastreto & Co. 15, 609Bloom Bros. 14, 372W. R. Grace & Co. 14, 143Baruch & Co. 9, 400Schwartz Bros. 7, 310Dieckmann & Co. 6, 981H. Hackfeld & Co. , Ltd. 4, 466M. J. Brandenstein & Co. 4, 281Urioste & Co. 4, 081Goldtree, Liebes & Co. 3, 962J. Z. Posadas. 3, 950Mohns-Frese Com. Co. 3, 714Welch & Co. 3, 385Thannhauser & Co. 3, 328E. Mejia 2, 965Hind, Rolph & Co. 2, 814Hellmann Bros. & Co. 2, 170Parrott & Co. 2, 137J. A. Folger & Co. 2, 094S. L. Jones & Co. 2, 042Ariza & Lombard 1, 133Hamberger-Polhemus Co. 1, 096Theo. H. Davies & Co. , Ltd. 955Livierato Frères 927J. D. Spreckels & Bros. Co. 828McCarthy Bros. 795W. Loaiza & Co. 642Wm. Halla 591H. W. Burmester 582Williams, Dimond & Co. 399M. Phillips & Co. 381Alexander & Baldwin 358London, Paris & Am. Bank, Ltd. 333P. J. Knudsen Co. 309Ballou & Cosgrove 300M. Schweitzer & Co. 300Johnson-Locke Merc. Co. 270The Lewin-Meyer Co. 250Sperry Flour Co. 231Canadian Bank of Commerce 200Porto Rico Coffee Co. 148McChesney & Sons 145Bowring & Co. 145China & Java Export Co. 140John Weissman 126Montealegre & Co. 120W. H. Miller 109Maldonado & Co. 105De Fremery & Co. 100Sundries 683 -------Total 256, 183 [Illustration: BIRD'S EYE VIEW OF SAN FRANCISCO'S COFFEE DISTRICT] The imports of green coffee at San Francisco in 1914-15 amounted toabout 400, 000 bags. The beginning of the World War was almostcoincidental with an energetic campaign waged by San Francisco coffeeinterests to popularize Central American coffees, and particularlyGuatemalas, in this country. The time was well chosen, as the world'sexposition at San Francisco offered a good opportunity to acquaint thepublic with the fine qualities of Guatemala growths. Furthermore, it wasnecessary to create new markets for these coffees, which in former yearshad been very extensively used in Europe. Figures show that SanFrancisco's efforts were crowned with success. In 1916, the importationincreased by fifty percent; and in 1917, importations were double thoseof 1915. In 1918, a total of nearly 1, 000, 000 bags was reached; and thismark was passed by almost 200, 000 in 1919. In 1920, 971, 567 bags wereimported. The origin of San Francisco's fight for control of Central Americancoffee dates back to the years 1908 to 1910, when the German Kosmos Linewas fighting the Pacific Mail for the Central and South Americanshipping business. W. R. Grace & Co. , at that time, were already theheaviest shippers of American merchandise to the Latin-Americancountries; and while their own steamers were not touching at CentralAmerican ports, they were handling merchandise from the United Statesand nitrates from the South American countries in their own bottoms, andwere also engaged as general carriers for that trade. The fight directedby the Kosmos Line against the Pacific Mail, which at that time wasunder the control of the Southern Pacific Company, was accordinglydirected against the Grace interests also, so far as South Americancountries were concerned. The fight was long and bitter, and costly toboth sides. At times, the contenders offered to take freight, not onlywithout charge, but to pay the shipper a premium for the privilege ofcarrying his freight. Differences were finally settled in conference; but the experiencetaught the American interests that they could survive in any territoryonly if at all times they were able to provide their own cargoes fortheir own boats, as had been accomplished with nitrate in South America. J. H. Rosseter, the Grace manager, who later became well known asdirector of operations of the United States Shipping Board during thewar, undertook an extended trip to Central America in 1912 to study thesituation at close range. There was only one product of Central Americathat was available in cargo quantities, namely coffee; and naturally hisattention was drawn to the possibility of carrying coffee to SanFrancisco to provide return cargoes for ships of the Pacific Mail, orassociated lines, carrying merchandise for the Central Americancountries. While in Guatemala, Mr. Rosseter outlined a future policy in regard toCentral American coffees; the basis being his firm determination thatcoffees grown in Central America, and logically and geographicallytributary to San Francisco distribution, should come to San Francisco inlargely increasing quantities. Up to that time San Francisco had received, on an average, only 200, 000bags of Central American coffee annually for the ten preceding years;while Europe had received about 1, 500, 000 bags a year. The quantitynecessary to make San Francisco a factor would call for an importation, on an average, of 750, 000 bags--a quantity almost four times as large asthen established. This was an extremely ambitious undertaking, considering the conditionsthen prevailing in Central America. European countries were firmlyentrenched in the coffee business in Central America, with Germanyleading in Guatemala, France in Salvador and Nicaragua, England andFrance contending for superiority in Costa Rica, and the United Statesgetting only the leavings. The European countries held their position in the Central AmericanCoffee trade by liberal financing, and a thorough knowledge of thevarying qualities of coffee produced on the different plantations. SanFrancisco, the only important port in the United States dealing inCentral American coffees, had neither strong financial entrenchment inCentral America nor expert knowledge of coffee quality. Year after year, San Francisco merchants had depended on consignments chosen by theconsignors. This rendered quality selection of coffees by the importersimpossible. Rosseter, being primarily a steamship man, tackled the proposition fromthe standpoint of transportation, figuring that if he could establishand maintain preferential steamer service to San Francisco, and steadyfreight rates, a great step would be accomplished toward the desiredend. This led to his interest in the Pacific Mail Company, of which thefinal outcome was his present position as vice-president of thereorganized Pacific Mail Company. In that capacity he maintained, practically throughout the entire period of the World War, freight rateson coffee from Central America to San Francisco that gave that Pacificport an immediate and definite advantage. This gave merchants in San Francisco the chance to build up a steadytrade, and prevented other ports in the United States from entering intoserious competition with San Francisco as a distributing point forCentral American coffees. The view taken by Rosseter was as far-sightedas it was broad. He argued that with the end of the war there would beno strength in a scattering distribution of Central American coffees byNew York, New Orleans, and San Francisco; and the only promise ofmaintenance of the business for the United States would be inmaintaining unity of distribution in one port of the United States, namely San Francisco. The first year open to European competition after the war showed thatSan Francisco was well able to maintain its lead in Central Americancoffees. Today, the mortgages formerly held by European merchants on thenative coffee plantations, and the control thereby of the produce ofthese plantations, are in the hands of American merchants; and what ismore, out of general merchandising and importing by merchants of SanFrancisco there have developed expert coffee departments in all of thelarger houses. The years of the war brought the product of virtually allplantations in Central America to the intimate knowledge of these expertcoffee departments; and today the advantage that Europe formerly had--ofknowing exactly what a specific plantation produced--is possessed bySan Francisco merchants. This is no small advantage when we consider that in Guatemala and CostaRica, qualities vary from plantation to plantation, and that often onadjoining plantations there is from three to five cents a pounddifference in quality, from the standpoint of cup merit. One can not buy coffee in Central America as in Brazil, as thesecountries are not highly organized commercially, and the importers hereare forced to assume the rôle of the Brazilian _commisario_ and banker. The crop has to be financed from six to nine months before it is broughtto the port; and the securities covering such advances are at best ofquestionable value, on account of political insecurity, and theever-threatening earthquakes, and the uncertainty of the elements. Distribution of the coffee after it has been brought to San Franciscoalso involves many difficulties, notwithstanding that the demand isgood. This will be better realized when we consider that the Pacificcoast, from Alaska to Mexico, and eastward as far as the RockyMountains, embraces a population of about 8, 000, 000, whose annualconsumption is estimated at 400, 000 bags; and that, as already stated, treble that quantity was imported to San Francisco in 1919. In 1900, ninety-nine firms were engaged in the green coffee importingbusiness (some were roasters also) in New York; six in Philadelphia;twenty-eight in San Francisco; twelve in New Orleans. In 1920, therewere two hundred and sixteen in New York; thirty-one in San Francisco;fifteen in New Orleans. _Green Coffee Trade Organizations_ Previous to the organization of the roasters, the only kind of coffeeorganization in this country of more than local importance was the NewYork Coffee Exchange, which came into existence in 1881, theorganization meeting being held in the offices of B. G. Arnold & Co. , at166 Pearl Street, New York. The Exchange was incorporated December 7, 1881, the incorporators being Benjamin Green Arnold, Francis B. Arnold, William D. Mackey, John S. Wright, William Sorley, Joseph A. O'Brien, H. Clay Maddux, C. McCulloch Beecher, Geo. W. Flanders, and John R. McNulty. B. G. Arnold was the first president. Soon afterward, rooms wererented and fitted up for trading purposes at 135 Pearl Street, at thejunction of Beaver and Pearl Streets, and only two blocks away from themore pretentious structure now housing the Coffee Exchange. Actualtrading operations did not begin until March 7, 1882. The New York Coffee Exchange was the world's first coffee-tradeorganization of national proportions. Havre's exchange was inauguratedin 1882, under the name of the Coffee Terminal Market. Five years later, coffee exchanges were opened in Amsterdam and Hamburg; while theexchanges of London, Antwerp, and Rotterdam did not come into existenceuntil the year 1890. The exchange in Trieste, Italy, was organized in1905; while the Coffee Trade Association of London was started in 1916. The first exchange in Santos was started in 1914. The success of the New York Coffee Exchange led to its imitation inother coffee ports of the United States. Baltimore started a similarorganization, early in 1883, under the name of the Baltimore CoffeeExchange; but after a short existence, it petered out. New Orleansorganized a green coffee trading association in 1889, as a coffeecommittee of the Board of Trade. It is still active. The Green CoffeeAssociation of New Orleans, Inc. , which is distinct from the CoffeeCommittee, was established January 7, 1920. San Francisco did not have atrading exchange until 1918, in which year the Green Coffee Associationof the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce began operations. _Growth of the Coffee-Roasting Trade_ The wholesale coffee roasting business in the United States seems tohave started in the closing years of the eighteenth century. InFebruary, 1790, a "new coffee manufactory" began business at 4 GreatDock Street, New York, and the proprietor announced that he had providedhimself at considerable expense with the proper utensils "to burn, grindand classify coffee on the European plan. " He sold the freshly roastedproduct "in pots of various sizes from one to twenty weight, well packeddown, either for sea or family use so as to keep good for twelvemonths. " A second roasting plant started up at 232 Queen Street, New York, nearlyopposite the governor's house, toward the close of 1790. This secondcoffee roasting plant was known in 1794 as the City Coffee Works. JamesThompson operated a "coffee manufactory" at 25 Thames Street in 1795. Inthis year there was also the "Old Ground Coffee Works" in Pearl Street, formerly Hanover Square, "three doors below the bank at number 110, "operating "two mills, one pair French burr stones" but no orders wereaccepted here for less than six pounds, at "two pence advanced from theroasting loss. " Other coffee manufactories followed in the large towns of the newstates; and, always, the coffee was treated "on the European plan. " Thismeant that it was "burnt over a slow coal fire, making every grain acopper color and ridding it all of dust and chaff. " There was usually adifference in price of three to four pence a pound between the green androasted product. Packages of roasted coffee under the half-dozen weightwere sold in New York in 1791 for two shillings and three pence perpound, allowance being made for grocers at a distance. In those days, the favorite container was a narrow-mouthed pot or jar of any size. Thiswas the first crude coffee package. In retailing the product, cornucopias made of newspapers, or any other convenient wrapping, werefirst employed; but, with the introduction of paper bags in the earlysixties, the housekeeper soon became educated to this more sanitary formof carry package, and its permanence was quickly assured. The following were listed in Longworth's _Almanack_ as coffee roastersin New York in 1805: John Applegate; Cornelius Cooper; Benjamin Cutler, 104 Division Street; George Defendorf, 83 Chapel Street; William Green;Cornelius Hassey, 14 Augustus Street; Joseph M'Ginley, 28 Moore Street;John W. Shaw, 43 Oliver Street; John Sweeney, Mulberry Street; PatienceThompson, 23 Thames Street. Elijah Withington came from Boston to New York in 1814. He set up acoffee roaster in an alley behind the City Hall and engaged a big, raw-boned Irishman to run it. This was the beginning of a coffeeroasting business that has continued until the present day. Withingtondealt in Padang interiors, Jamaica, and West Indian coffees, andnumbered many society folk among his customers. Withington's businessremoved to 7 Dutch Street in 1829: and the firm became Withington & Pinein 1830. The roasted coffee business in New York had grown to such proportions in1833 and gave such promise, that James Wild considered it a goodinvestment to bring over from England for his new coffee manufactory inNew York a complete power machinery equipment for roasting and grindingcoffee. There was also an engine to run it. It was set up in WoosterStreet opposite the present Washington Square. Samuel Wilde, son of Joseph Wilde, of Dorchester, Mass. , came to NewYork about 1840 to make his fortune. He was a young man with vision; andfirst applied himself with diligence to the hardware and looking-glassbusiness. When he found that most of his customers were theaters andsaloons, his religious scruples bade him abandon it, which he did. Meanwhile, in 1844, Withington's pioneer roasting enterprise hadadmitted Norman Francis and Amos S. Welch as general partners, andSamuel and Charles C. Colgate as special partners, under the style ofWithington, Francis & Welch. It so continued until 1848, when SamuelWilde--who had selected the coffee business as more honorable than theone in which he started--was admitted, and the firm became Withington &Wilde. Mr. Withington retired in 1851, and Samuel Wilde associated with him inthe business his sons Joseph and Samuel, Jr. , the title becoming SamuelWilde & Sons. Samuel Wilde, Sr. , died in 1862. The title then becameSamuel Wilde's Sons. Joseph Wilde died in 1878, and Samuel Wilde, Jr. In1890, the business being left to and continuing with a younger brother, John, from 1878 to 1894, when John's son, Herbert W. Wilde, became amember of the firm, which continues the old title at 466 GreenwichStreet, as Samuel Wilde's Sons Company, having been incorporated in1902. John Wilde died in 1914. Another grandson of Samuel Wilde is William B. Harris, who engaged inthe coffee roasting business in Front Street from 1904 to 1917. From1908 to 1918 he acted as coffee expert for the United States Departmentof Agriculture. William B. Harris is a son of Samuel L. Harris, whomarried a daughter of Samuel Wilde, and who for a number of years wasconnected with Samuel Wilde's Sons. [Illustration: PIONEERS IN THE ROASTED COFFEE BUSINESS OF NEW YORK CITY With approximate dates of their entry into the trade] Although a number of roasters and grinders for family use were patentedin the United States in the first half of the nineteenth century, thecoffee merchants depended almost entirely on English manufacturers fortheir wholesale equipment until 1846, when James W. Carter of Bostonbrought out his "pull-out" roaster. This machine, and others like it, encouraged the development of the coffee-roasting business, so that whenthe Civil War came, coffee manufactories were well scattered over thecountry. The demand for something better in coffee-machinery equipmentwas answered by Jabez Burns with his machine for filling and dischargingwithout moving the roasting cylinder from the fire. Among the early grocery concerns in New York that were also coffeeroasters were: R. C. Williams & Co. , starting as Mott & Williams in 1811, changing to R. S. Williams & Co. In 1821, to Williams & Potter in 1851, and to its present title in 1882; Acker, Merrall & Condit Co. , foundedin 1820; Park & Tilford, founded in 1840; Austin, Nichols & Co. , foundedin 1855; and Francis H. Leggett & Co. , founded in 1870. There were twenty-one "coffee roasters and spice factors" in New York in1848. Among them were: Beard & Cummings. 281 Front Street; Henry B. Blair, 129 Washington Street; Colgate Gilbert, 93 Fulton Street; WrightGillies, 236 Washington Street; and Withington, Wilde & Welch, 7 DutchStreet. In this year, two coffee importers, fourteen tea importers, andforty-one tea dealers were listed in the _City Directory_. The _Directory_ for 1854 listed twenty-seven coffee roasters and spicefactors, among them, in addition to the above, being Peter Haulenbeek, 328 Washington Street; Levi Rowley, 102 West Street; William J. Stitt, 159 Washington Street; and George W. Wright, 79 Front Street. In thosedays not all the wholesale coffee factors were roasters; there was muchtrade roasting by a few large plants. While the coffee-roasting business of Samuel Wilde's Sons appears to bethe oldest in New York, having descended in a practically unbroken linefrom 1814, several others continued considerably past the half-centurymark, and among them special mention should be accorded to: LeviRowley's Star Mills, dating back to 1823; Beard & Cummings, 1834; WrightGillies & Bro. , 1840; Loudon & Son, the Metropolitan Mills, 1853; andthe Eppens Smith Co. , present day successors of Thomas Reid's GlobeMills of 1855. The Star Mills in Duane Street became a real factor in the wholesalecoffee-roasting business on Manhattan Island about 1823. At a laterdate, Levi Rowley secured control, and under his able direction thebusiness flourished. Benedict & Gaffney bought the Star Mills fromRowley in 1885. A few years later the firm became Benedict & Thomas, then Thomas & Turner, and finally the R. G. Thomas Co. R. G. Thomas soldthe equipment in 1920, ending the manufacturing end of the business justabout a century from the time it started. Mr. Thomas is now with Russell& Co. Before being identified with the Star Mills, he was for twentyyears with Packard & James, 123 Maiden Lane. While still a lad of nineteen, Wright Gillies came from a Newburgh farmin 1838, and obtained a clerkship in a tea store in Chatham Street, nowChambers and Duane Street. He branched out for himself in the tea andcoffee business at 232 Washington Street in 1840, removing in 1843 to236, which had a courtyard where he installed a horse-power coffeeroaster. In the same building, over the store, lived Thomas McNell andhis wife. Mr. McNell afterward became a member of the firm of Smith &McNell, proprietors of the Washington Street hotel and restaurant, formany years one of New York City's landmarks. The coffee business, thus started by Wright Gillies, is still conducted, as the Gillies Coffee Co. , by the same family and at practically thesame location; and it is interesting to note that the roasting roomstill has the original arrangement, partly below the street level butwith the machinery in view from the sidewalk. This arrangement wascharacteristic of the old roasting establishments. [Illustration: GROUP OF OLD-TIME NEW YORK COFFEE ROASTERS, 1892 Standing, left to right, W. H. Eppens, Fred Reid, unknown, Julius A. Eppens, Fred Eppens. Seated, left to right, John F. Pupke, Thomas Reid, Henry Mayo, Fred Akers, Alexander Kirkland] James W. Gillies, a younger brother, came from Newburgh in 1848 toassist in the enterprise. Young Gillies superintended the horse-powerroaster and drove the light spring delivery cart. Soon the firm becameWright Gillies & Bro. Fires visited the business in 1849 and in 1858;but each time it arose the stronger for the experience. Wright Gilliesretired in 1884, and James W. Gillies assumed entire charge under thename of the Gillies Coffee Co. He continued active until his death in1899. The business was incorporated by his children under the same namein 1906. Edwin J. Gillies, son of James W. Gillies, started a separate coffeebusiness at 245 Washington Street, in 1882. In 1883 he admitted as apartner James H. Schmelzel, a fellow Columbia alumnus. The enterprisewas successful for many years, being incorporated under the title ofEdwin J. Gillies & Co. , Inc. It was consolidated in 1915 with thebusiness of Ross W. Weir & Co. , 60 Front Street, Edwin J. Gilliesbecoming a vice-president (with L. S. Cooper also vice-president) of thecorporation of Ross W. Weir, Inc. Burns & Brown started in the coffee roasting business in 1853 in an oldbuilding at the corner of Washington and Chambers Streets for which theypaid an annual rental of one thousand dollars. This was the beginning ofthe Metropolitan Mills, opposite to the present location of Loudon &Son, 181 Chambers Street, the latest successors to the business. Burns &Brown continued for two years, when they failed, and Wright Gillies &Bro. Succeeded, and put in Ebenezer Welsh as manager. Later, WrightGillies & Co. Sold out the plant to Capt. Edward C. Russell, whoassociated with him his son-in-law, Edward A. Phelps, Jr. At thedissolution of this partnership in 1870, the firm became Trusdell &Phelps. Mr. Phelps succeeded Trusdell, and sold out to Loudon & Stellwagin 1877. They were succeeded by Loudon & Johnson in 1879, and this firmcontinued until 1910, when James D. Johnson retired, and the firm ofLoudon & Son took charge. These were J. Carlyle Loudon and his son, Howard C. Loudon, who died in 1911. The firm name of Loudon & Soncontinues. One of the most vigorous personalities of the sixties, and one whoseinfluence extended well into this generation, was Thomas Reid. Born inBridgeport, England, he came to the United States as a boy, and startedhis business career as a grocer's clerk in Brooklyn. Within three monthsafter landing, he bought out his employer. He entered the wholesalecoffee-roasting business at 105 Murray Street, New York, in 1855, inpartnership with a Mr. Townsend under the style of the Globe Mills, which were the predecessors of the Eppens Smith Co. Now in WarrenStreet. Jabez Burns, inventor of the Burns coffee roaster, before this ateamster for Henry Blair, was at one time bookkeeper for the GlobeMills. In 1864, Mr. Burns sold to the Globe Mills the first roasters ofhis manufacture--two one-bag, four-foot machines that were given a placealongside of four of the old-style Carter pull-outs. Mr. Townsend died the first year of the Globe Mills' existence; andThomas Reid continued without a partner until 1863, when he becameassociated with John F. Pupke, as Pupke & Reid. The business was then at269 Washington Street. Thomas Reid was resourceful and enterprising;also he had vision. He saw the day of package coffee coming, and nearly"beat" John Arbuckle to it. As early as 1861 we find him advertising inthe _City Directory_, "spices put up in every variety of package. " Lewis A. Osborn, 69 Warren Street, New York, and 81-83 South WaterStreet, Chicago, was advertising "Osborn's Celebrated Prepared JavaCoffee--put up only by Lewis A. Osborn" in 1863-64. Thomas Reid appearsto have acquired this brand and to have begun its exploitation as"Osborn's Old Government Java, " a ground package coffee, and certainlyone of the earliest package coffees. However, this brand never attainedthe national vogue achieved by John Arbuckle's package coffee, whichfirst appeared in 1865, although the name Ariosa was not given it until1873. Between 1855 and 1865 there were only half-a-dozen wholesale coffeeroasters on Manhattan Island, and Thomas Reid was their leader. Much ofhis work was roasting for the trade, and this undoubtedly interferedwith the logical development of his package-coffee ideas. The firm became Pupke, Reid & Phelps in 1882. In 1885, it became theoriginal Eppens-Smith Co. ; later, the Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co. , andlastly, the Eppens Smith Co. Thomas Reid was vice-president of theEppens, Smith & Wiemann Co. , and continued in that position until hisdeath in 1902. Julius Eppens is the present head of the business. Other package coffees of the sixties were Government coffee put out byTaber & Place's Rubia Mills, 353-355 Washington Street, in "tin foilpound papers, " and L. Bruckmann & Co. 's London Club, packed at 107Warren Street. Another old-time New York coffee-roasting business is that of Samuel S. Beard & Co. This business was founded in 1834 on Front Street by EliBeard (father of Samuel S. Beard, ) and W. A. Cummings as Beard &Cummings. In 1872, the firm moved to Duane Street, where it was joinedby Messrs. S. S. Beard and Cottrell, and the new firm became Beards &Cottrell. Mr. Cottrell retired in 1883, and the firm became Samuel S. Beard & Co. Upon the death of S. S. Beard in 1905, James H. Murray, whohad been with the concern for many years, became head of the house. Mr. Murray died six months later. The business moved in 1913 to 92 FrontStreet, where it continues as a stock company, with J. R. Westfal asmanager. Austin C. Fitzpatrick, well known among New York coffee roasters, is agraduate of the Thomas Reid school, having entered the business of thispioneer roaster in 1865. He was western salesman for Pupke & Reid until1871, when he became associated with Rufus G. Story under the firm nameof R. G. Story & Co. Later, he formed a partnership with Howard E. Case, buying out the old house of Beard & Howell. When Mr. Case retired in1887, the firm became A. C. Fitzpatrick & Co. This title continued fortwelve years, when the Knickerbocker Mills were taken over, and thebusiness was incorporated as the Knickerbocker Mills Co. , with Mr. Fitzpatrick as president. The Knickerbocker Mills, acquired by thecorporation, had been founded in 1842 and were for more than forty yearsat 154-156 Chambers Street. The business is now at 196-198 ChambersStreet. [Illustration: JULIUS A. EPPENS, NEW YORK] Many of the pioneers in the coffee roasting business of this countrywere men who came from the British Isles and Germany. A notable figurefrom the latter country was Benedickt Fischer, who knew coffee inGermany before coming to New York in his nineteenth year. He started at323-329 Greenwich Street, near Duane Street, in 1859. His first roasterwas a primitive affair built under the E. J. Hyde patent by the CoffeeRoaster & Mill Manufacturing Co. Of Philadelphia. It was turned by handby Fischer and his helper. This was about 1862. In 1864, the businessrequired larger quarters, and was removed to the corner of Duane andGreenwich Streets. A new plant was erected at the corner of Beach andGreenwich Streets in 1894, and the present plant was erected at thecorner of Franklin and Greenwich Streets in 1906. Upon the death ofBenedickt Fischer in 1903, the business passed under the control ofWilliam H. Fischer, son of Benedickt, and Benedickt's son-in-law, Charles E. Diefenthaler, for many years associated with the house. Atpresent, the company is a corporation, with C. E. Diefenthaler, president; T. F. Diefenthaler, vice-president and treasurer; and T. O. Budenbach, secretary. Bowie Dash, a commanding figure in the New York green coffee trade, founded the Holland Coffee Co. , roasters, in 1885. He placed H. Bartowin charge. Mr. Dash himself was never active in the affairs of thecompany. J. Bowie Dash, son of Bowie Dash, entered the Holland CoffeeCo. As a boy. Bowie Dash died in 1894. Mr. Bartow left The HollandCoffee Co. In 1897 and J. Bowie Dash became president. He sold thecompany in 1917 to S. B. Morrison, who consolidated it with his EsperanzaCoffee Co. The business is still conducted as the Holland Coffee Co. , with Mr. Morrison as president, at 162 Front Street. George Fisher was a well known coffee roaster of the sixties. He beganin the old Hope Mills, 71 Fulton Street, and, at the age of thirty, entered into partnership with D. C. Ripley, establishing the HudsonMills. The firm became Sanger, Beers & Fisher in 1868; Mr. Fisherretired in 1882; and died in 1896. Peter Haulenbeek began work as delivery boy in a grocery store. Heentered the coffee business in the sixties in the employ of WrightGillies, and went into the wholesale coffee-roasting trade under his ownname at 170 Duane Street in 1876. His son, John W. Haulenbeek, Sr. , cameinto his father's business in 1887. Peter Haulenbeek died January 15, 1894, and the firm name was changed to John W. Haulenbeek & Co. Thebusiness remained in the same building up to 1916, when it was moved toits present location at 393 Greenwich Street. John W. Haulenbeek, Jr. , of the third generation, is now active in the business. A leading figure in the sixties was James Brown, who started as anengineer, rose to a partnership, and retired after the Civil War, awealthy man. He was a partner with Thomas Reid in the old Globe Mills. He was also associated with B. Fischer in the firm of Fischer, Kirby &Brown, and established the firm of Brown & Scott in Duane Street, wherePeter Haulenbeek succeeded to the business. Afterward, he continued inthe firms of Brown & Jones and Bisland & Brown, and died in 1898. Van Loan, Maguire & Gaffney was a formidable combination in thecoffee-roasting business in its day. Thomas Van Loan was for thirtyyears a partner in the firm of W. J. Stitt & Co. (William J. Stitt was inbusiness at 173 Washington Street in the fifties). Joseph Maguire was apractical spice grinder. Hugh Gaffney was with Brown & Scott until thefirm retired in 1879, and for ten years thereafter he traveled for B. Fischer & Co. Then he became a member of the firm of Benedict &Gaffney. Ill health caused his temporary retirement; but he returned tothe business in 1897 when he organized the firm of Van Loan, Maguire &Gaffney. Joseph Maguire died in 1904. [Illustration: THOMAS VAN LOAN, NEW YORK] Mr. Gaffney died on March 20, 1912, and the name of the business waschanged to Van Loan & Co. , with Thomas Van Loan as the head of thebusiness, under which name and management it still continues at 64 NorthMoore Street. O'Donohue is a well known name in the development of both the green androasted coffee trade of New York City. John O'Donohue was a leader inthe green coffee business in 1830. It was John O'Donohue's Sons in 1873. John B. O'Donohue, son of Peter O'Donohue and grandson of the originalJohn, after leaving John O'Donohue's Sons, formed a partnership withRobert C. Stewart (the present head of R. C. Stewart & Co. ) to engage inthe green coffee jobbing business as O'Donohue & Stewart. Thispartnership was dissolved in 1893. For a few years, John O'Donohue wasassociated with the coffee-roasting firm of Wing Bros. & Hart. About1898, he formed the O'Donohue Coffee Co. At 284 Front Street. In 1910, this was consolidated with the Potter Coffee Co. And Bennett, Sloan &Co. To form the Potter, Sloan, O'Donohue Co. The firm dissolved in 1915. Ellis M. Potter came to New York from the Potter-Parlin Spice Mills inCincinnati. Mr. O'Donohue died in 1918. In the seventies Frederick Akers was proprietor of the oldest and bestknown trade roasting establishment in New York. The plant was known asthe Atlas Mills, and was at 17 Jay Street. Mr. Akers died in 1901. Thesame year, William J. Morrison and Walter B. Boinest, former employeesof Akers, formed a partnership to carry on the same kind of business at413 Greenwich Street. It is still at that address under the name ofMorrison & Boinest Co. Col. William P. Roome, a Chesterfieldian figure among New York coffeeroasters, came into the trade in 1876, when he established the firm ofWilliam P. Roome & Co. , with T. L. Vickers as partner. In the Civil Warthat had preceded, young Roome (he was then nineteen) had distinguishedhimself as a conspicuous hero of the Sixth Army Corps, having enteredthe service as a second lieutenant in the Sixty-fifth New YorkVolunteers. William P. Roome & Co. First engaged in the importation of tea, but theyadded coffee to the business in 1889. Col. Roome disposed of it in 1903to assume charge of the tea and coffee department of the Acker, Merrall& Condit Company, a position which he still holds. Frederick A. Cauchois, another picturesque figure among New York coffeeroasters, entered the trade as a clerk in the New York office of Chase &Sanborn in 1875. After further tutelage under Frank Williams in thecoffee brokerage business, he bought the old Fulton Mills (ColgateGilbert & Co. , 1848), in Fulton Street, where he did some of the mostoriginal advertising for coffee that the trade has seen. His PrivateEstate coffee in little burlap bags, his donkey train that carried thebags of green coffee through the streets of the metropolis, his systemof delivering fresh coffee daily to the grocery trade, and his Japanesepaper filter device to insure the proper making of the coffee, made himfamous. He brought something of the spirit of the old English coffeehouse to America, and incorporated it in Keen's Chop House in New York. He died in 1918. The business of Russell & Co. Was founded by Robert S. Russell & FrankSmith at 107 Water Street in 1875. In 1895, S. L. Davis, one of thepresent owners, formerly with Merrit & Ronaldson, became a partner. In1900, Frank C. Russell, son of the senior member, was admitted to apartnership; and upon the death of his father in 1904, he and Mr. Davisbecame owners of the business. Ross W. Weir, who, in addition to being a successful New York coffeeroaster, has also attained prominence as president of the NationalCoffee Roasters Association and chairman of the Joint Coffee TradePublicity Committee, handling the million dollar coffee advertisingcampaign, was born in New York in 1859, the son of J. B. Weir, one of thepioneer forty-niners, who at one time was engaged in the exportcommission business in San Francisco. Mr. Weir began his business career as a general utility boy in thejobbing grocery house of S. H. Williamson, 36 Broadway, New York, in1875. Then he was a clerk for Park & Tilford, office man with ArbuckleBros, and with Geo. C. Chase & Co. , tea importers, for two years, afterward being admitted to a junior partnership. In 1886, the firm ofRoss W. Weir & Co. Was formed to engage in the roasting of coffee andimporting and jobbing of teas at 105 Front Street. In 1887, the businesswas removed to 58-60 Front Street. When the corporation of Ross W. Weir, Inc. Was formed in 1915 to take over the business of E. J. Gillies & Co. Inc. , Mr. Weir became president and treasurer of the combinedorganization. [Illustration: COL. WILLIAM P. ROOME, NEW YORK] _Pioneer Wholesale Coffee Roasters_ A reference to other pioneers in the wholesale coffee-roasting trade maynot be amiss here, even though it involves a repetition of some namesthat have been given special mention in the case of New York. In thelist that follows are included the most prominent firms and the bestknown names that helped make roasted coffee history in the United Statesin the nineteenth century, particularly from 1845 to 1900: NEW YORK. The most prominent firms in the business in New York in thesixties were: Thomas Reid & Co. , Globe Mills; Geo. A. Merwin & Co. ; LeviRowley, Star Mills; A. B. Thorn; Fischer & Lehmann, later Fischer &Thurber, and Fischer, Kirby & Brown; Knickerbocker & Cooke; A. D. Thurber; Wm. J. Stitt & Co. ; Samuel Wilde's Sons. In the seventies, in addition to most of the above list, there were:Pupke & Reid; Arbuckle Bros. ; Edward A. Phelps, Jr. ; Bonnett, Schenck &Earle; Fischer & Lansing; J. G. Worth; Jackson & Co. ; Charles Conway;Neidlinger & Schmidt; James L. Arcularius; S. M. Beard, Sons & Co. ; H. K. Thurber & Co. ; Wright Gillies & Bro. ; Bennett & Becker; Great AmericanTea Co. ; Brown & Scott. Between 1876 and 1900 the following well known names appeared in thetrade: Frederick Akers; Eppens-Smith Co. , afterward Eppens, Smith &Wiemann Co. , and later Eppens Smith Co. ; B. Fischer & Co. ; R. P. McBride;Fitzpatrick & Case, afterward A. C. Fitzpatrick & Co. ; Great Atlantic &Pacific Tea Co. ; Loudon & Johnson; Edwin Scott; Peter Haulenbeek, afterward Haulenbeek & Mitchell, and Haulenbeek Roasting & Milling Co. ;Joseph Stiner & Co. ; Austin, Nichols & Co. ; Bennett, Sloan & Co. ;Gillies Coffee Co. ; Benedict & Gaffney, afterward Van Loan, Maguire &Gaffney; Ross W. Weir & Co. ; Union Pacific Tea Co. ; Hillis PlantationCo. ; Edwin J. Gillies & Co. ; Jones Bros. ; Holland Coffee Co. ; SamuelCrooks & Co. ; Benedict & Thomas. [Illustration: PIONEER COFFEE ROASTERS OF THE NORTHERN AND EASTERNUNITED STATES 1--W. F. McLaughlin, Chicago; 2--J. G. Flint, Milwaukee; 3--Frank J. Geiger, Indianapolis; 4--Samuel Mahood, Pittsburgh; 5--Henry A. Stephens, Cleveland; 6--W. H. Harrison, Cincinnati; 7--Albert A. Sprague, Chicago; 8--D. Y. Harrison, Cincinnati; 9--William Grossman, Milwaukee;10--Edward Canby, Dayton; 11--Thomas J. Boardman, Hartford; 12--FrancisWidlar, Cleveland; 13--O. W. Pierce, Sr. , Lafayette. Ind. ; 14--A. M. Thomson Chicago; 15--Samuel Young, Pittsburgh; 16--Alvin M. Woolson, Toledo; 17--Martin Hayward, Boston; 18--George C. Wright, Boston;19--William Boardman, Hartford; 20--James S. Sanborn, Boston; 21--JamesHeekin, Cincinnati; 22--James F. Dwinell, Boston; 23--Caleb Chase, Boston] BOSTON. Among the pioneers in the coffee-roasting business in Bostonwere: N. Berry & Sons; Blanchard & Bro. ; Carter, Mann & Co. ; Noah Davis& Co. ; Dyer & Co. ; E. Emerson; Flint Bros. & Co. ; J. T. & N. Glines;Hayward & Co. ; Geo. W. Higgins & Co. ; Hill, Dwinell & Co. ; H. B. Newhall;Richardson & Lane; N. Robinson & Co. ; Russell & Fessenden; Stickney &Poor; E. H. Swett; the Tremont Coffee & Spice Mills; Swain, Earle & Co. ;and the Martin L. Hall Co. Between 1876 and 1900 these names were among those added: ShapleighCoffee Co. ; Gilman L. Parker; W. S. Quinby & Co. ; Thomas Wood & Co. Dwinell & Co. And Hayward & Co. Both engaged in the coffee roastingbusiness about 1845. In 1876, they, James F. Dwinell, Martin Hayward, and his brother-in-law George C. Wright, joined hands under the name ofDwinell, Hayward & Co. In 1894, Mr. Hayward having previously retired, the name of the firm was changed to Dwinell, Wright & Co. Mr. Dwinelldied in 1898; and in 1899, Mr. Wright formed a Massachusetts corporationunder the present name, Dwinell-Wright Co. George C. Wright died, 1910, and his son, George S. Wright, who had been treasurer, became president. A grandson, Warren M. Wright, and a nephew, G. E. Crampton, togetherwith R. O. Miller and Charles H. Holland, are active in the presentconduct of the business. Caleb Chase with Messrs. Carr and Raymond founded the firm of Carr, Chase & Raymond at 32 Broad Street in 1864. The name was changed toChase, Raymond & Ayer in 1871. James S. Sanborn, who had formerly beenin the coffee and spice trade at Lewiston, Me. , with a branch office inBoston, combined with Caleb Chase to form Chase & Sanborn in 1878. Charles D. Sias was admitted to the firm in 1882. A Montreal office wasopened in 1884. Charles E. Sanborn, son of James S. , was admitted in1888. James S. Sanborn died in 1903, and Charles E. Sanborn died twoyears later. Charles D. Sias died in 1913. Swain, Earle & Co. Were established about 1868. In the same year, ByronT. Thayer entered the employ of the firm as a bookkeeper. He was takeninto partnership in 1884, and upon the death of Mr. Earle, becamemanaging partner. In 1915, he was the sole surviving partner of thecompany. He died in the latter part of 1921; and the business wasabsorbed by Alexander H. Bill & Co. In January, 1922. PHILADELPHIA. The following were the most prominent Philadelphia coffeeroasters in 1861: Grever & Bro. ; Henry Hinkle; William Johnston; GeorgeKelly; Thornley & Ryan; Thornley & Bro. ; Vankorn, Guggenheimer & Co. ;D. J. Chapman; Bohler & Weikel; Charles Kroberger; and James R. Webb &Son. Later came: Robert J. Rule & Bro. ; G. Boyd & Co. ; Nutrio Mfg. Co. ; C. J. Fell & Bro. ; R. R. & A. Deverall; C. Thomas; William H. Cheetham, Jr. ;Hill & Thornley; George Ogden & Co. ; Weikel & Smith; and AlexanderSheppard. Between 1876 and 1900 these names appear; Henry A. Fry & Co. ; RobertSmith & Sons; B. S. Janney, Jr. & Co. ; and Weikel & Smith Spice Co. Robert Smith came as a country lad to Philadelphia, and drove a wagonfor Jesse Thornley, a coffee roaster. In a few years, he had secured aninterest in the firm; and in 1860, the name was changed to Thornley &Smith. Mr. Thornley died in 1872, and Mr. Smith bought out the Thornleyinterests and traded as Robert Smith until 1889. In that year, headmitted his eldest son, Robert A. Smith, into the firm, which becameRobert Smith & Son. William T. , another son, was admitted in 1889, thefirm name being changed again to Robert Smith & Sons. Robert Smith, Sr. , retired in 1902. In the same year his youngest son, George H. Smith, wasadmitted to the firm, and it became Robert Smith's Sons, the activemembers being William T. And George H. Smith. James R. Webb established the coffee roasting business of James R. Webb& Son in 1833. It was taken over by Alexander Sheppard in 1870. Later itbecame Alex. Sheppard & Sons, Inc. Mr. Sheppard died in 1916, and thebusiness has been conducted by a corporation in which his four childrenare the principal stockholders. CHICAGO. Some pioneers in the Chicago trade were: Alfred H. Blackall;Excelsior Mills (Downer & Co. ); Huntoon & Towner; W. F. McLaughlin;Knowles, Cloyes & Co. ; Thomson & Taylor; H. F. Griswold; G. M. Hall; JohnL. Davies & Co. ; Bell, Conrad & Webster; Sprague, Warner & Co. ; Lee &Murbach; A. Stephens & Co. ; and Whiting, Goeble & Co. In the period between 1876 and 1900 the following became well known:Sprague, Warner & Griswold; Reid, Murdoch & Fischer; E. B. Millar SpiceCo. ; Wm. M. Hoyt Co. ; Franklin MacVeagh & Co. ; Sherman Bros. & Co. ; H. C. & C. Durand; A. H. Pratt; McNeil & Higgins Co. ; J. H. Bell & Co. ; J. H. Conrad & Co. ; Steele-Wedeles Co. ; Krag-Reynolds Co. ; Arbuckle Bros. , andPuhl-Webb Co. H. C. Durand organized the wholesale grocery house of Durand & Co. In1851. Calvin Durand entered the firm in 1879, and the name was changedto H. C. & C. Durand. Adam J. Kaspar began to work in a retail grocery. In 1875, he went with the wholesale grocery firm of James Forsythe & Co. And two years later with H. C. & C. Durand. In 1894, the name was changedto Durand & Kasper. H. C. Durand died in 1901, and Calvin Durand died in1911. Durand & Kasper merged, 1921, with Henry Horner & Co. And McNeil &Higgins into the Wholesale Grocers Corporation. Samuel A. Downer founded the Excelsior Mills (Downer & Co. ) in 1853. Sidney O. Blair entered the employ of the company in 1871. E. B. Millar &Co. Took over the business in 1878, incorporating under that name in1882. Mr. Blair retired in 1913, and W. S. Rice was elected president. Hedied in 1918, and Mr. Blair was re-elected president; with W. C. Shope, vice-president; and C. S. Mauran, secretary and treasurer. In the spring of 1862, Albert A. Sprague came to Chicago from Vermont. With Z. B. Stetson he formed the firm of Sprague & Stetson, wholesalegrocers. Mr. Stetson retired the following year, and a new partnershipwas formed with Ezra J. Warner, under the name of Sprague & Warner. In1864, O. S. A. Sprague, a young brother of the senior partner, wasadmitted to the firm, which was reorganized under the style of Sprague, Warner & Co. Under this name it has since continued. About the year1876, machinery was installed, and the roasting of coffee began. OscarRemmer entered the employ of the company in 1878 at the age of 16, andbecame manager of the mill department in 1895. In 1912, he was made amember of the board of directors, and was elected vice-president in1919. O. S. A. Sprague died in 1909, Ezra J. Warner Sr. In 1910, andAlbert A. Sprague in 1915. In 1865, A. M. Thomson, at that time a salesman for A. H. Blackall, ownerof the American Mills, arranged with a Mr. Berg and a Mr. Davis to go inthe coffee-roasting business with him as Berg, Thomson & Davis. After ayear, however, the name became A. M. Thomson. James Thomson, a brother, came into the firm in 1868, and it was then called A. M. & James Thomson. A year later, it became A. M. Thomson again. In 1872, immediately afterthe fire, Mr. Taylor, a member of the firm of Whiting & Taylor, joinedMr. Thomson under the firm name of Thomson & Taylor. They continued thebusiness under this name about ten years, until it was incorporated in1883 under the name of Thomson & Taylor Spice Co. Among the wholesalegrocers who became stockholders at that time was W. S. Warfield, ofQuincy, Ill. , who, in 1901, with his son, John D. Warfield, bought mostof Mr. Thomson's holdings and obtained a controlling interest. The namewas changed in 1920 to the Thomson & Taylor Co. William F. McLaughlin founded the firm of W. F. McLaughlin & Co. In 1865. He died in 1905; and the business was incorporated with his son, GeorgeD. , as president, and another son, Frederick, as secretary andtreasurer. The Puhl-Webb Company, founded, 1882, as a partnership by Thomas J. Webband John Puhl, was incorporated in 1896. ST. LOUIS. The following were among the pioneer coffee firms of St. Louis, dating back to the 1860-70 decade: James H. Forbes; Flint, Evans& Co. ; Wm. Schotten & Co. ; Fred W. Meyer; H. & J. Menown; Cavanaugh, Rearick & Co. ; and Frederick A. Churchill & Co. From 1876 to 1900 there were added: Nash, Smith & Co. ; Fink & Nasse Co. ;Hanley & Kinsella Coffee & Spice Co. ; Flugel & Popp; C. F. Blanke Tea &Coffee Co. ; Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co. ; David G. Evans & Co. ; and theAroma Coffee & Spice Co. David Nicholson established a tea and coffee business under the name ofthe Franklin Tea Warehouse in 1853. A year later, James H. Forbes, bornin Kinross, Scotland, bought out Nicholson. In 1857, A. E. Forbes, hisson, came into the store after school hours, and was admitted topartnership in 1870. The retail end of the business was dropped in 1880. Robert M. , the younger son of James H. , was taken into the firm a fewyears after A. E. Forbes. James H. Forbes died in 1890, and the businesshas since been carried on by his sons as the James H. Forbes Tea &Coffee Co. James H. Forbes installed the first Burns roaster in St. Louis, and always claimed to have been the first man to roast coffee inthe middle west. William Schotten began his roasting business in 1862, although he hadbeen in the grocery business since 1847. A short time later, a brother, Christian Schotten, came to the United States from Germany and wasadmitted to partnership, the firm becoming William Schotten & Bro. Christian died in 1866, and a brother-in-law, Henry Verborg, wasadmitted, the name being changed to William Schotten & Co. William diedin 1874, and the business devolved upon his eldest son, Hubertus. In1878, another son, Julius J. , was taken in at the age of 17. Hubertusdied in 1897, and Julius became manager and sole proprietor. He died in1919. Since that time, his son, Jerome J. , has carried on the business, which continues under the name of the Wm. Schotten Coffee Co. The firm of David G. Evans & Co. Was founded in 1856 by David G. Evansunder the style of Flint, Evans & Co. , changed in 1870 to David G. Evans& Co. David G. Evans died in 1916, and the name of the company waschanged in 1917, to the David G. Evans Coffee Co. , with Gwynne Evans, ason of David G. , as president of the corporation. The George Nash Grocery Co. Bought the Eagle Coffee and Spice Mills fromthe estate of Mathew Hunt in 1870. About this time Michael E. Smith, whohad been with the concern for a number of years, was made a partner. Thefirm was incorporated in 1887 as the Nash-Smith Tea & Coffee Co. GeorgeNash, Sr. , died in 1910. CINCINNATI. Among the pioneer coffee roasters in Cincinnati were: JohnC. Appenzeller; Blook & Varwig; J. Brock; Cincinnati Spice Mills; EagleSpice Mills; Harrison & Wilson; Parker & Dixon; Kilgour & Taylor; J. M. Krout; Succop & Lips; and H. R. Droste. After the centennial year and previous to 1900, the following names wereadded: Potter & Parlin; James Heekin & Co. ; Flugel & Popp; Utter, Adams& Ellen; J. Henry Koenig & Co. ; F. W. Hinz; and the Woolson Spice Co. D. Y. Harrison, then thirty-five years old, came from Newark, N. J. , andsettled in Cincinnati in 1843, opening a coffee roasting business asHarrison & Wilson. He used an old pull-out roaster with first a negro, and then a horse-power tread-mill, for power. A few years later, W. H. Harrison, a son of the founder, was admitted to the firm, the name atthat time being Parker & Harrison. D. Y. Harrison died in 1872. Firetotally destroyed the plant in 1875. W. H. Harrison then formed apartnership with J. W. Utter, and started in again. He sold out to hispartner in 1883 and went in business for himself as W. H. Harrison & Co. D. Y. Harrison is said to have been the first man to roast coffee west ofPittsburg. The Heekin Company was established in 1870 by James Heekin and BarneyCorbett as a partnership under the name of Corbett & Heekin. In a shorttime, Corbett died; and the name of the firm was then changed to JamesHeekin & Co. Alexander Stuart was admitted to the partnership about1883, and retired four years later. James J. Heekin, older son of JamesHeekin, was admitted to partnership in 1892. Charles Lewis, after twentyyears' experience in the coffee trade in Louisville, Cincinnati, and NewYork, was admitted to the firm in 1895. James Heekin died in 1904. Uponhis death, a corporation was formed under the name of the James HeekinCompany, with Charles Lewis as president, continuing until he retired in1919. In this year a new corporation, called the Heekin Company, wasformed, taking over the business of the James Heekin Co. And the HeekinSpice Co. , the latter having been organized in 1899. James J. Heekin waschosen president of the new company, with Albert E. Heekin, vice-president; and Robert E. Heekin, secretary and general manager. [Illustration: PIONEER COFFEE ROASTERS OF THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERNUNITED STATES 1--J. B. Sinnot, New Orleans; 2--Julius J. Schotten, St. Louis;3--Charles Stoffregen, St. Louis; 4--W. T. Jones, New Orleans; 5--J. A. Folger. Jr. , San Francisco; 6--M. E. Smith, St. Louis; 7--A. E. Forbes, St. Louis; 8--David G. Evans, St. Louis; 9--W. J. Kinsella, St. Louis;10--James H. Forbes, St. Louis; 11--J. A. Folger, Sr. , San Francisco;12--Joseph Closset, Portland, Ore. ; 13--J. Zinsmeister, Louisville;14--Wm. Schotten, St. Louis; 15--A. Schilling, San Francisco; 16--M. J. Brandenstein, San Francisco; 17--J. O. Cheek, Nashville; 18--A. H. Devers, Portland, Ore. ] LOUISVILLE. Pioneers in this early center of coffee roasting in thesouth were: Thornton & Hawkins; Charles J. Bouche; H. N. Gage; A. Engelhard; and Jacob Zinsmeister. R. J. Thornton & Co. Were founded in 1837 by Richard J. Thornton andThomas Hawkins, as Thornton & Hawkins. Thornton died in 1860. Hisinterests remained, but the firm changed to Hawkins & Thornton. Hawkinsdied in 1877, and Mrs. Thornton, having purchased the Hawkins interest, ran the business as R. J. Thornton & Co. Until her death in 1885. JohnHayes, her son-in-law, then bought the company; and when he died in1904, his widow ran the business with Thomas A. Crawford as manager. Mrs. Hayes, the last of the Thornton family, died in 1919, and herinterests were sold to Crawford and R. H. Dorn, an old employee. The firmfirst roasted coffee about 1846. It is interesting to note that theplant has occupied the present site since its founding, eighty-fouryears ago. Albert Engelhard, Sr. , founded in 1855 a wholesale grocery house whichlater became A. Engelhard & Sons, Inc. In 1879, George; in 1882, VictorH. ; and in 1883, Albert, Jr. ; all sons of the founder, entered thebusiness. Upon moving into larger quarters in 1890, all of the sons weretaken in as partners. Albert Engelhard, Sr. , retired in 1892, and themanagement was assumed by Victor H. The business increased rapidly, andin 1897 the firm moved to its present location. Incorporated in 1901, the wholesale grocery end was abandoned in 1903, and the concern becamea strictly coffee, tea, and spice house. Victor H. Engelhard died in1918; and his sons, Victor, Jr. , and R. W. Engelhard, who had been in thebusiness for several years, assumed active management. Victor Engelhard, Sr. , was prominent in coffee affairs and in the early work of theNational Coffee Roasters Association. Jacob Zinsmeister, of J. Zinsmeister & Sons, was another old-timeLouisville coffee man. Before he started roasting, he was a big factorin the green coffee trade. The business was established in 1866 at NewAlbany, Ind. , by Frank Zinsmeister, Sr. , but was later moved toLouisville. Jacob Zinsmeister was taken into the business in 1872, andthe name was changed to Frank Zinsmeister & Son. He is still active inbusiness, although he has turned the management over to his three sons. NEW ORLEANS. Men and firms active in early coffee roasting in NewOrleans were: Shaw's Louisiana Coffee and Spice Mills; Ruliff, Clark &Co. ; R. Poursini & Co. ; and Smith & McKenna. Between 1876 and 1900 were added: New Orleans Coffee Co. ; Smith Bros. &Co. ; Southern Coffee Polishing Mills; and Cage & Drew. Smith Bros. & Co. Were organized in 1863 as Smith & McKenna. Mr. McKennadied in 1872, and the firm name was changed to Smith Bros. & Co. The twoSmith brothers died in 1891, and 1892. About 1900, the name became SmithBros. & Co. , Ltd. , and J. B. Sinnot, who had been employed for a numberof years by the firm, gained control. The company failed in 1913. Mr. Sinnot then entered the coffee brokerage business, in which he remaineduntil his death in 1917. Born in New Orleans in 1865, Daniel H. Hoffman started work as a sampleclerk in the office of E. P. Cottraux, who was at that time the onlycoffee broker in New Orleans. In 1887, Mr. Hoffman started in businessfor himself. In 1894, he opened the Southern Coffee Polishing Mills, which have since become the Southern Coffee Mills, Inc. W. T. Jones, for many years in business as a coffee broker in Keokuk, Iowa, founded the New Orleans Coffee Co. In 1890. He died in 1919. R. H. Cage and J. C. Drew organized in 1898 the firm of Cage & Drew. In1900, they established the Louisiana Coffee Mills, under the name andstyle of Cage, Drew & Co. , Ltd. Ben C. Casanas joined the New Orleans Coffee Co. As a city salesman, andlater became a road salesman. He withdrew in 1901 to organize theMerchants Coffee Co. Of New Orleans, Ltd. SAN FRANCISCO. Pioneer coffee roasters in San Francisco were: J. A. Folger & Co. ; Charles Berhard; H. Gates; D. Ghirardelli & Co. ; E. Loeven& Co. ; Marden & Myrick; Maine & Eckerenkotter; G. Venard; and CharlesZwick. Between 1876 and 1900 the following were added: A. Schilling & Co. ; W. H. Miner; Siegfried & Brandenstein; George W. Caswell. J. A. Folger & Co. Were established in 1850 as Wm. H. Bovee & Co. A fewyears later, the name became Marden & Folger, Mr. Folger having beenconnected with the old firm. In the early sixties the name was changedto J. A. Folger & Co. Two employees were taken into the firm in 1878. These were A. Schilling and a Mr. Lamb. The company was now calledFolger, Schilling & Co. This partnership was dissolved in 1881, and thebusiness continued as J. A. Folger & Co. Mr. Folger died in 1890, andthe firm was then incorporated under the same name. Shortly after Folger, Schilling & Co. Was dissolved, A. Schilling andGeorge Volkman formed the firm of A. Schilling & Co. Mr. Schilling beganhis career as an office boy with J. A. Folger in 1871. M. J. Brandenstein and John C. Siegfried formed a co-partnership underthe name of Siegfried & Brandenstein in 1880. Mr. Brandenstein boughtout his partner in 1894, and took in his brothers, Manfred and Edward, the firm name becoming M. J. Brandenstein & Co. George W. Caswell started in the retail tea and coffee business in SanFrancisco under his own name in 1885. In 1898, the business becamewholesale only. It was incorporated in 1901 as the George W. Caswell Co. The company took over the brands and travelling organization of Lievre, Frick & Co. , which went into a dissolution of partnership in 1902. MILWAUKEE. Prominent among early coffee roasters of Milwaukee were: W. &J. G. Flint; James Ryan & Co. ; J. B. Reynolds; Jewett & Sherman; and C. E. Andrews & Co. Later we find added the Wm. Grossman Co. J. G. Flint and Wyman Flint founded the business known as W. & J. G. Flintin 1858. J. G. Flint bought out his brother in 1880 and continued as theJ. G. Flint Co. , owner of the Star Coffee and Spice Mills. He died in1896. The business was incorporated in 1901 as the J. G. Flint Co. , withW. K. Flint, a son of J. G. , as president. The Jewett & Sherman Co. Tookcontrol in 1911. Professor Milo P. Jewett, Professor S. S. Sherman, and his brother, William Sherman, founded the firm of Jewett, Sherman & Co. In 1867, andcontinued under that name until 1875, when it was incorporated as Jewett& Sherman Co. , with Milo P. Jewett as president, and Henry B. Sherman, secretary and treasurer. Professor S. S. Sherman and his sons, Fred andHenry B. , sold out their interests in 1878 and formed a new business inChicago under the name of Sherman Bros. & Co. William M. Sherman thenbecame president of Jewett & Sherman Co. , and Charles A. Murdock, anephew of S. S. And William Sherman, was made secretary and treasurer. Mr. Murdock withdrew in 1881 and established the C. A. Murdock Mfg. Co. In Kansas City. In that same year, William H. Sherman, another nephew, became a stockholder and one of the directors of Jewett & Sherman Co. Dr. Lewis Sherman succeeded his father as president of the company in1891, and served in that capacity until his death in 1915, when he wassucceeded by his son, Lewis Sherman, who is president of the company atthe present time (1922). John Horter, who is now secretary, joined thebusiness in 1877. William Grossman started in the wholesale grocery business in 1886. Johnand Henry Dahlman were admitted to partnership in 1889. About threeyears later, the latter closed out his interests to J. F. W. Imbusch. Thepresent corporation was established in 1892 as Wm. Grossman & Co. Thefirm was incorporated August 1, 1916, as the Wm. Grossman Co. , with Wm. Grossman as president, George A. Grossman as vice-president, and Paul E. Apel as secretary and treasurer. Another old-time coffee man of Milwaukee was Charles A. Clark, who hadbeen in the coffee business for nearly twenty years before he organizedthe present business of Clark & Host Co. TOLEDO. The pioneer roasting firms here seem to have been: Warren &Bedwell; and J. B. Baldy & Co. Later, after 1876, we find added the BourCompany, and the Woolson Spice Co. The latter company was founded in 1882 by A. M. Woolson, who up to thattime had conducted a successful retail grocery business for severalyears. The Woolson Spice Co. Was sold to H. O. Havemeyer of New York in1896, the reputed sale price being $2, 000, 000. A. M. Woolson retired frombusiness at that time. Upon the death of Mr. Havemeyer, the companypassed into the hands of Hermann Sielcken; and when he died, anAmerican company secured control. [Illustration: GROUND COFFEE PRICE LIST OF 1862] The Bour Company was incorporated in 1892, following a partnership whichhad succeeded to a small business concern under the name of the EagleSpice Company. The principal stockholders were: J. M. Bour, F. G. Kendrick, and Albro Blodgett. Mr. Blodgett bought the Bour interests in1909 and with S. W. Beckley, who had been sales manager for a number ofyears, acquired practically all the other outside interests. The namewas changed in 1921 to the Blodgett-Beckley Co. , the officers beingAlbro Blodgett, president, S. W. Beckley, vice-president and manager, andHenry P. Blodgett, secretary and treasurer. CLEVELAND. Pioneers in Cleveland were: Smith & Curtis; A. Stephens &Sons; John H. Ganse; and W. D. Drake & Co. In 1870, we find Edwards, Townsend & Co. ; Knight, Eberman & Co. ; Talbot, Winslow & Co. ; Williams &Tait; and Lemmon & Son, added. Beards & Cummings, coffee roasters of New York City, established abranch in Cleveland under the management of Alvan Stephens in 1855. Later, Stephens took over the business for himself and changed the nameto Frisbie & Stephens. In 1861 Alvan's sons, Henry A. And Samuel R. , were admitted and the firm became A. Stephens & Sons. Alvan Stephensdied in 1873, and Samuel moved to Chicago to open a branch. He died in1878. Henry A. Continued the business until 1881, when Francis Widlarwas admitted to partnership, and the name was changed to Stephens &Widlar. Henry A. Stephens died in 1897, and A. L. Somers, H. H. Hewitt, and D. D. Hudson, all old employees, were admitted, and the firm name waschanged to F. Widlar & Co. Carl W. Brand, a nephew of Francis Widlar, joined the company in 1898. Upon the death of his uncle, the businesswas incorporated as the Widlar Co. , and Mr. Brand became president in1910. PITTSBURGH. Next to New York, Pittsburg was one of the first cities toforge to the front as a coffee-roasting center. These are the firms thatwere among the leaders in the period between 1860 and 1870: Arbuckles &Co. ; W. T. Bown & Bro. ; Dilworth Bros. ; Rinehart & Stevens; T. C. Jenkins& Bro. ; Carter Bros. & Co. ; J. S. Dilworth & Co. ; Jesse H. Lippincott;Shields & Boucher; and Haworth & Dewhurst. Samuel Young, Samuel Mahood, and E. B. Mahood formed a partnership asYoung, Mahood & Co. In 1879. E. B. Mahood withdrew in 1890. Samuel Mahoodretired in 1906, and the company was incorporated as the Young-MahoodCompany, with Samuel Young as president, and W. James Mahood asvice-president and general manager. PORTLAND, OREGON. Early roasters in the trade of this city were: J. F. Jones; H. C. Hudson & Co. ; Marden & Folger; Verdier & Closset; andClosset & Devers. Joseph and Emile Closset formed a partnership as Closset Bros, in 1880. A. H. Devers, who had been a salesman with Folger, Schilling & Co. , SanFrancisco, and later with A. Schilling & Co. , bought out Emile Clossetin 1883, and the firm became Closset & Devers. Joseph Closset died in1915. BALTIMORE. Pioneer roasters in Baltimore were: Joseph Braas; DanielMany; George Pearson; Sylvester Ruth; and John G. Siegman. These werequickly followed by Barclay & Hasson; Zoller & Little; Benjamin Berry;Jesse Lazear; and others. Later, after 1876, came: E. Levering & Co. ; the Enterprise Coffee Co. ;C. D. Kenny; J. W. Laughlin & Co. , now Le Morgan Coffee Co. ; and the SaxonCoffee Company. DETROIT. In Detroit in 1860-70 were: Evans & Walker; Farrington, Campbell & Co. ; A. R. & W. F. Linn; J. H. Riggs; and Palmer, Warner & Co. After 1876 were added Sinclair, Evans & Elliot; Huber & Stendel; andJ. A. Parent & Co. OTHER CITIES. Names of pioneer roasters of other towns in 1860 and 1870were: George Boardman, Albany, N. Y. ; Chubuck & Saunders, Binghamton, N. Y. ; George W. Hayward, and P. J. Ferris, Buffalo, N. Y. ; Lorimore Bros. , and George R. Forrester, Elmira, N. Y. ; Hatch & Jenks, Jamestown, N. Y. ;N. B. Beede, Newburgh, N. Y. ; A. F. Booth, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. ; Ethridge, Tuller & Co. , Rome, N. Y. ; M. N. Van Zandt & Co. , L. B. Eddy & Co. , andC. T. Moore, Rochester, N. Y. ; Ostrander, Loomis & Co. , and Jacob Crouse &Co. , Syracuse, N. Y. ; C. H. Garrison, Troy, N. Y. ; Hinchman & Howard, andJ. Griffiths & Co. , Utica, N. Y. ; B. F. Hoopes, Bloomington, Ill. ; C. P. Farrell, and Charles Richards, Peoria, Ill. ; Slemmons & Conkling, Springfield, Ill. ; Henry Wales, Bridgeport, Conn. ; A. B. Gillett, Wm. Boardman & Sons, Hartford Steam Coffee & Spice Mills, and Park, Fellowes& Co. , Hartford, Conn. ; Benj. Peck & Kellum, and Steele & Emery, NewHaven, Conn. ; W. S. Scull & Co. , Camden, N. J. ; Theo. F. Johnson & Co. , and the Pioneer Mills, Newark, N. J. ; Charles A. Dunham, New Brunswick, N. J. ; James Ronan and Wm. Dolton & Co. , Trenton, N. J. ; Butler, Earhart &Co. , Columbus, Ohio; C. A. Trentman & Bro. , and J. D. Beach & Co. , Dayton, Ohio; W. & S. Stevens, and F. C. Dietz, Zanesville, Ohio; J. E. Tone, DesMoines, Iowa; H. P. Hess, Cornell & Smith, and E. Warne, Easton, Pa. ;E. S. Forster, Erie, Pa. ; Haehnlen Bros. , Harrisburg, Pa. ; D. G. Yuengling, Pottsville, Pa. ; A. G. Zilmore & Co. , Scranton, Pa. ; Granger& Co. , Titusville, Pa. ; Huestis & Hamilton, and B. Trentman & Son, Ft. Wayne, Ind. ; S. Hamill & Co. , Keokuk, Ia. ; H. H. Lee, and Maguire &Gillespie, Indianapolis, Ind. ; Joseph Strong, Terre Haute, Ind. ; Curtis& Burnham, Leavenworth, Kan. ; Yates & Dudley, Lexington, Ky. ; A. Turner, Wheeling, W. Va. ; Granger & Hodge, and Nathaniel Crocker, St. Paul, Minn. ; W. W. Totten & Bro. , Nashville, Tenn. ; Henry Burns, Savannah, Ga. ;A. McFarland, Springfield, Mass. ; Alexander Wills & Co. , Montreal, Canada; and Peter Hendershot, St. Catherine, Canada. Between 1876 and 1900, many other names came into prominence, and amongthem mention should be made of: H. Hulman, Terre Haute, Ind. ; A. B. Gates& Co. , and Schnull & Krag, Indianapolis, Ind. ; O. W. Pierce Co. , andGeiger-Tinney Co. , Lafayette, Ind. ; Twitchell, Champlin & Co. , Portland, Me. ; Nave-McCord Mfg. Co. , Mokaska Mfg. Co. , and the Midland Spice Co. , St. Joseph, Mo. ; Beaham-Moffatt Mfg. Co. , and C. A. Murdock & Co. , KansasCity, Mo. ; Clarke Bros. & Co. , T. S. Grigor & Co. , Consolidated CoffeeCo. , and McCord, Brady Co. , Omaha, Neb. ; Dayton Spice Mills Co. , andCanby, Ach & Canby, Dayton, Ohio; Ohio Coffee & Spice Co. , and Butler, Crawford & Co. , Columbus, Ohio; Bacon, Stickney & Co. , Albany, N. Y. ;Charles R. Groff Co. , St. Paul, Minn. ; John G. Schuler, Covington, Ky. ;J. W. Thomas & Son, Nashville, Tenn. ; Geo. F. Hanley & Co. , Los Angeles, Cal. ; C. S. Morey Mercantile Co. , Denver, Col. ; and W. G. Lown Coffee Co. , Washington, D. C. William Boardman, founder of Wm. Boardman & Sons Co. , Hartford, Conn. , began roasting coffee at Wethersfield in 1841 with a hand-power roaster, using wood for fuel. He moved his plant to Hartford in 1850. In the sameyear, his son Thomas J. , after serving a fifteen-year apprenticeship ina country store, entered his father's employ. Three years later, he andhis brother, William F. J. Boardman, were admitted to the firm, the namebeing changed to Wm. Boardman & Sons. Howard F. Boardman, a son ofThomas J. , began working in the business in 1880, and was admitted topartnership in 1888. The same year, the founder died and William F. J. Retired. The business has since been conducted by Thomas J. And HowardF. Boardman. The company was incorporated in 1898, and John Pepion was admitted. Thepresident of the company, Thomas J. Boardman, is at the time of writingninety years old. He still takes a very active interest in thebusiness, and his "cup sense" is as acute as ever. The O. W. Pierce Company, Lafayette, Ind. Was founded in 1847 by OliverWebster Pierce, Sr. Except for three years in the fifties, when the firmwas known as Reynolds, Hatcher & Pierce, it has been known as the O. W. Pierce Company since it was established. The company was incorporated in1905 with O. W. Pierce, Jr. As its head. The senior Mr. Pierce died in1921. The firm first roasted coffee in 1891. Prior to that time it hadbeen in the wholesale grocery business. The William S. Scull Co. , Camden, N. J. , was established in 1858 byWilliam S. Scull, whose father had been in the retail tea and coffeebusiness. William Scull died in 1916. H. Newmark founded H. Newmark &Co. In Los Angeles in 1865. He retired in 1886, and Maurice H. Newmarkwas made a full partner. The present name is M. A. Newmark & Co. In 1868, Major David B. Hamill entered, as junior partner, the firm ofS. Hamill & Co. , Keokuk, Iowa, of which his father, Smith Hamill, wasthe head. Smith Hamill died in 1890, and David B. Became head of thefirm. He died in 1916. William Tackaberry was a junior partner in the firm of S. Hamill & Co. , Keokuk, Iowa. He began a business of his own in the same city in 1868. Ten years later, he moved the company to Sioux City, and continued thereas the Wm. Tackaberry Co. Joel O. Cheek began traveling for the wholesale grocery house of Webb, Hughes & Co. , Nashville, Tenn. , in 1873. Later, he was admitted topartnership, the firm becoming Webb, Cheek & Co. , and then Cheek, Norton& Neal. He formed the Nashville Coffee & Mfg. Co. , in 1899. It wasmerged in 1901 into the Cheek-Neal Coffee Co. Jekiel and Isaac E. Tone began the business of Tone Bros. At Des Moines, Iowa, in March, 1873, with one roaster and one spice mill. The businesswas incorporated in 1897. Jekiel Tone died in 1900, and Isaac E. Tone in1916. The business is now (1922) carried on by W. E. And Jay E. Tone. Edward Canby began business in Dayton, Ohio, in 1875, succeeding thefirm of J. D. Beach & Co. He retired in 1886, and the business was leftin charge of Frank L. Canby and P. J. Ach. The latter had entered theemploy of Canby in 1877. He secured an interest in the business in 1882, and became a partner in 1890. When the company was incorporated asCanby, Ach & Canby in 1904, he was elected president. Mr. Ach has beenvery prominent in the affairs of the National Coffee RoastersAssociation since its organization. Frank J. Geiger began in the tea, coffee, and spice business inLafayette, Ind. , under the name of Culver & Geiger. Mr. Culver, who hadnever been active, died in 1889, and in 1892 the Geiger-Tinney Companywas formed with F. J. Geiger as president. The plant was moved toIndianapolis in 1901 with William L. Horn as vice-president, and HenryC. Tinney as secretary and treasurer. The name was changed to theGeiger-Fishback Co. In 1912, and Mr. Geiger retired. Frank S. Fishbackacquired all the stock of the company in 1918, and the name was changedto the Fishback Co. With F. S. Fishback, president; John S. Fishback, treasurer; and F. C. Fishback, secretary. S. Holstad joined the Thomson & Taylor Spice Co of Chicago in 1892. Heleft in 1901 and went to Minneapolis, where he became a member of thefirm of Atwood & Hoisted. He withdrew in 1908 to form the firm of S. Holstad & Co. , with Charles Ekelund and Alexander W. Kreiser aspartners. After the withdrawal of Mr. Holstad from Atwood & Holstad, Mr. Atwood continued as Atwood & Co. F. P. Atha began work as a coffee salesman with Holman & Co. , TerreHaute, Ind. He went to San Francisco in 1899 and entered the employ ofJ. A. Folger & Co. , and introduced Folger products east of the Rockies. He opened the Kansas City branch in 1907; and a year later, he wasadmitted to the firm and made vice-president and general manager. _The National Coffee Roasters Association_ The first effort to organize the coffee roasters of the United Statesdates back to 1885, when several St. Louis coffee roasters came togetherin a kind of gentlemen's agreement not to cut the price of roastinggreen coffee, which had declined, owing to ruthless competition, from$1. 00 to 10 cents a bag. The various parties to the agreement posted$500 checks each as forfeits, not to violate the price as fixed. Afterone year, a check was cashed; but the principal claimed his lapse wasclerical and not in violation of the agreement. However, as a result ofthe argument that followed, the organization was disbanded. [Illustration: MEMBERS OF THE ORGANIZATION CONVENTION OF THE NATIONALCOFFEE ROASTERS ASSOCIATION, ST. LOUIS, MAY 26, 1911 Reading from left to right: W. B. Johnson, St. Louis; W. T. Jones, NewOrleans; George Schulte, St. Louis; C. F. Blanke, St. Louis; Ben Casanas, New Orleans; Carl Stoffregen, St. Louis; Edward D. Hanly, Kansas City;H. C. Grote, St. Louis; James Menown, St. Louis; Frank P. Atha, KansasCity; Henry Petring, St. Louis; J. M. McFadden, Dubuque, Iowa; JosephMaury, Memphis; T. F. Halligan, Davenport; F. J. Ach, Dayton; Carl Brand, Cleveland; Wm. Fisher, St. Louis; M. H. Gasser, Toledo; Julius J. Schotten, St. Louis; E. W. Bockman, Paducah, Ky. ; Louis Christopherson, St. Louis; Felix Coste, St. Louis; W. E. Tone, Des Moines; Robert Meyer, St. Louis; Fred Roth, St. Louis; M. E. Smith. St. Louis; J. B. Dubrouilett, St. Louis; Floyd Norwine, St. Louis] As early as 1900, leaders of the trade's best thought began to urge theneed of a national organization among coffee roasters. As a result of informal meetings between men like Robert M. Forbes, Julius J. Schotten, Robert Meyer, and Messrs. Roth and Homeyer, aroundthe luncheon table in St. Louis, to discuss trade abuses and bring aboutbetter trade co-operation, the subject of a St. Louis organization ofcoffee roasters began to be agitated about 1906. It was not until fouryears later, however, that the idea took definite form. On September 14, 1910, the Traffic Association of St. Louis CoffeeImporters was organized, starting out with a membership of ten firms, its chief object being to obtain an adjustment of freight rates to andfrom St. Louis as advantageous as those prevailing for Chicago and NewYork. This association--of which Robert Meyer was the first president, andH. L. Homeyer, vice-president, J. S. Hartman, secretary, and G. H. Petring, treasurer--was the forerunner of the National Coffee Roasters Trafficand Pure Food Association organized in 1911 and now known as theNational Coffee Roasters Association. At the organization meeting of the national association twenty-sixcoffee-roasting establishments in the Mississippi Valley wererepresented at the conference held May 26-27 in the Planters Hotel, St. Louis. The objects of the new body were announced in the constitution, as: _First_: To foster and promote a feeling of fellowship and good will among its members, and on broad and equitable lines to advance the welfare of the coffee trade and the consumer. _Second_: To eliminate or minimize abuses, methods and practises inimical to the proper conduct of business. _Third_: To assist in the enactment and enforcement of uniform pure food laws which in their operations shall deal justly and equitably with the rights of the consumer and the trade. The association started with these officers: Julius J. Schotten, St. Louis, President; M. H. Gasser, Toledo, vice-president; W. E. Tone, DesMoines, treasurer, and W. J. H. Bown, St. Louis, secretary. Meanwhile, as a result of an agitation started by _The Tea and CoffeeTrade Journal_, a meeting of New York and eastern coffee roasters wascalled at the Fulton Club, New York, October 27, 1911, to discuss plansfor a national organization. M. H. Gasser attended this meeting, andtold of the plan of the western roasters to organize such anorganization at a meeting called for Chicago the following month. Thepromoters of the eastern organization subsequently abandoned theirefforts in favor of the western group. [Illustration: ROBERT MEYER, ST. LOUIS First president of the Coffee Roasters' original organization] At the first convention of the National Coffee Roasters Traffic and PureFood Association, held in Chicago, November 16-17, 1911, all theforegoing officers were retained, the office of second vice-presidentwas created, and Frank R. Seelye was selected to fill it. That the organization idea was popular among the roasters was evidentfrom the fact that at the close of the convention it was announced thatthe membership was then seventy-one firms in cities as far east asVirginia and as far west as Kansas City. The convention demonstratedthat the association was really a national organization, which quietedsuspicions prevalent in some quarters of the trade in the east that itwas chiefly a Mississippi Valley unit. The first convention is remembered principally because of HermannSielcken's defense of the Brazil coffee valorization plan, which wasthen the big question of the coffee trade. The titles of some of theother addresses will serve to indicate how the scope of the associationhad enlarged since its organization a few months before: "An Attack onValorization" by Thomas J. Webb, of Chicago; "Uniform Food Laws", byW. T. Jones, of New Orleans; "Penny-Change Systems, " by R. W. McCreery, ofMarshalltown, Ia; "Traffic and Freight Abuses, " by W. E. Tone, of DesMoines; "Transportation Problems, " by Carl H. Stoffregen, St. Louis;"Coffee Publicity, " by F. H. Henrici, of Chicago; "Coffee Roasters' Costsand Accounting, " by F. J. Ach, Chicago. The first convention proved asuccess, and attracted attention. The second annual convention, held in New York, November 13-15, 1912, showed that the association had grown to a membership of 135 firmslocated in all parts of the country, and that its influence had extendedthroughout the whole trade. Valorization continued to be a muchdiscussed subject. Hermann Sielcken and others again defending it inspeeches; but the majority of the association seemed opposed to thescheme. Probably the most important feature of the convention was thereport of the committee of nine men who had visited Brazil toinvestigate conditions there and to interest the Brazilian coffeegrowers in an advertising campaign. An address on this subject was madeby the editor of _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_, in which hesuggested a plan for propaganda and advocated scientific research tofind out the truth about coffee. The election of officers resulted in the selection of F. J. Ach, Dayton, as president; Frank R. Seelye, Chicago, first vice-president; Ross W. Weir, New York, second vice-president; and Robert Meyer, St. Louis, treasurer. The 1912 convention changed the name of the association to the NationalCoffee Roasters Association, dropping the words "Traffic and Pure Food"from the original title. [Illustration: JULIUS J. SCHOTTEN--1911-12] [Illustration: F. J. ACH--1912-14] [Illustration: ROSS W. WEIR--1914-16] [Illustration] [Illustration: FRANK R. SEELYE--1916-17] [Illustration: BEN C. CASANAS--1917-18] [Illustration: CARL W. BRAND--1918-21] [Illustration: FORMER PRESIDENTS, NATIONAL COFFEE ROASTERS ASSOCIATION] The third convention, which was held November 12-14, 1913, inCincinnati, demonstrated that the scope of usefulness of the associationwas still growing, as shown by the resolutions which approved bettercoffee-making publicity; favored a national coffee day; urged theappointment of inspectors at ports of entry to prevent the importationof green coffee under government standard No. 8; condemned the excessivewatering of coffee and all coffee coatings; and provided for theappointment of an agent to visit Brazil to furnish members with"reliable" reports on crop flowering. F. J. Ach was re-elected president; Ross W. Weir succeeded F. R. Seelye asfirst vice-president; W. T. Jones succeeded Mr. Weir as secondvice-president, and Robert Meyer was retained as treasurer. Secretary G. W. Toms, who had been appointed in April, 1913, reportedthat the association had made a net gain of thirteen members, bringingthe total up to 144. The membership of the association had been increased by twenty nameswhen the fourth annual convention was opened in New Orleans, November16-19, 1914, making the total 164. Better coffee making, roasting economies, a national coffee week, andimproved methods of handling green coffee in ports and warehouses, werethe principal topics considered at the 1914 meeting. As a result of thediscussions, the association went on record in its resolutions as beingagainst the misbranding of both green and roasted coffee; favored thecreation of a United States board of coffee experts; and theestablishment of an association trade-mark bureau. For the ensuing year Ross W. Weir, New York, was chosen president; J. O. Cheek, Nashville, first vice-president; T. F. Halligan, Davenport, secondvice-president; and W. T. Morley, Worcester, treasurer. The decision to get together on a comprehensive national publicitycampaign in the interest of coffee was the outstanding feature of thefifth annual convention, which was held in St. Louis, November 8-11, 1915, in the same room in the Planters Hotel in which the associationwas organized in 1911. From a body of twenty-six roasters, theassociation had grown in five years to a membership of 201 firms andindividuals. Among the more important things done at this convention was the decisionto undertake a practical publicity plan to advertise coffee; theadoption of a uniform cost-and-freight contract; the proposal to prepareeducational matter on coffee for the schools; and the recommendation toemploy a chemist to carry on research work. There were spiriteddiscussions also on gas, coal, and coke as roasting fuels; on the bestway to get retailer co-operation, and whether it was advisable tocontinue the national coffee week idea. President Weir, Vice-PresidentsCheek and Halligan, and Treasurer Morley were re-elected. The sixth annual convention, held in Atlantic City, November 14-17, 1916, placed emphasis on research into grinding and brewing; on plansfor doing something practical to help grocers regain their lost coffeetrade; and on an investigation into the scientific costs of roasting. The admittance of green coffee and allied interests into the associationwas also discussed, and it was resolved to make the subject an order ofbusiness for special consideration at the next convention. At this meeting Frank R. Seelye, Chicago, was elected president; Ben C. Casanas, New Orleans, first vice-president; J. M. McFadden, Dubuque, second vice-president; and M. H. Gasser, Toledo, treasurer. Themembership was reported as being 204, showing a net increase of threeduring the year. The seventh convention, held in Chicago, November 14-15, 1917, came whenthe first movement of American soldiers to European battlefields wasbegun, and patriotism was the keynote of the meeting. Because of thestress of the times, the program was cut to two days, instead of thethree days of former meetings. The outstanding features of the convention were: the decision not toadmit green coffee men to the association; the decision to establish apermanent headquarters; the announcement that Brazil was then collectingfunds for its part in the national advertising campaign; and theproposal by John E. King, Detroit, that the term "lead number" be usedinstead of "caffetannic acid", which he asserted was a misnomer. Theexecutive committee was authorized to employ a secretary-manager. Theshorter terms and credits idea was endorsed by the association. These officers were elected for the next year; Ben C. Casanas, NewOrleans, president; S. H. Holstad, Minneapolis, first vice-president;Edward Aborn, New York, second vice-president; M. H. Gasser, Toledo, treasurer. The influenza epidemic, which swept the country the latter part of 1918, caused the postponement of many business and public gatherings, and theeighth annual roasters convention did not assemble until December 5-6, in Cleveland--at only ten days' notice. Unlike previous occasions, thiswas in reality a combined convention of all roasted and green coffee menin the trade, both association members and non-members. No regularprogram was followed, the meeting being somewhat in the character of atrade conference. The salient features of the convention were the decisions: to double theannual dues, in order to provide for a paid secretary-manager and toestablish permanent headquarters; to organize a spice grinders' section;and to ask the government to remove all restrictions on coffee trading. The Food Administration's coffee regulations came in for severecriticism. The election of officers resulted in Carl W. Brand, Cleveland, becomingpresident; Robert M. Forbes, St. Louis, first vice-president; J. A. Folger, San Francisco, second vice-president; and Lewis Sherman, Milwaukee, treasurer. The ninth convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association was ofgreater import to all branches of the coffee trade than any that hadpreceded it. The results of the meeting showed the association had gonefar since the organization meeting in St. Louis in 1911. As in 1916, theconvention was held in Atlantic City, November 12-14, 1919, and drewdelegates from as far west as San Francisco and Seattle. The most important subjects before the meeting were the reports of theJoint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, read by Ross W. Weir, chairman, and Felix Coste, secretary-manager. The committee had been organizedduring the year to carry on the national coffee-advertising campaign, and announced at the convention its publicity plans for the next year, which included a national coffee week, a national showing of thecommittee's coffee film, and the issuance of several educationalbooklets. Other outstanding features included the description of how theassociation planned to conduct a research into the cost of doing awholesale coffee-roasting business, the investigation to be made byColumbia University; addresses attacking the meat packers' invasion ofthe coffee roasting and distributing field; a paper, and discussions, onshorter terms and uniform discounts; the recommendation to employ atraveling field secretary who would hold periodical meetings with localbranches; and the condemnation of guaranteeing prices against declineand giving advance notices of changes of prices. The convention unanimously agreed to the re-election of President Brand, Vice-Presidents Forbes and Folger, and Treasurer Sherman. The tenth annual meeting was held in St. Louis, November 10-12, 1920. Scientific cost finding, short terms and discounts, the nationaladvertising campaign, the activities of the N. C. R. A. Freight-forwardingbureau, and laboratory-research were the main topics of this years'gathering. The membership was reported to be 310. A feature of themeeting was the first industrial exhibit by twenty-five supply houses. Among the things accomplished were: The recommendation that members co-operate in determining the invisiblesupply of coffee in the United States at stated periods; increasingannual dues from $50 to $60 for members having $50, 000 or lesscapitalization, and from $100 to $120 for firms having more than $50, 000capital; restricting membership to purely wholesale coffee roasters anddistributers; and offering co-operation to hotel-men andrestaurant-keepers in standardizing and improving their coffeebeverages. The St. Louis meeting was notable in violating association precedent byunanimously electing Carl W. Brand president for the third consecutiveterm. Other officers were: J. A. Folger, San Francisco, firstvice-president, R. O. Miller, Chicago, second vice-president; Charles A. Clark, Milwaukee, treasurer. The eleventh annual meeting, held in New York, November 1-3, 1921, setthe high-water mark of the organization's record of achievement. Thisconvention took the first definite steps toward the amalgamation of thegreen and roasted coffee interests in one association. Brazil sent adelegation of coffee men to invite a similar delegation to pay a returnvisit to Brazil. It was announced also that São Paulo was about todouble its tax contribution to the national advertising campaign. Amongother things done, were: the appropriation of $1500 to work out auniform cost-accounting system for roasters; the recommendation thatcoffee importers insist upon the use of American ships by Brazilianexporters; the formulation of a cost-and-freight arbitration contractfor use with São Paulo exporters; the formation of a new membershipclass roasting up to 6000 bags a year; and the decision to make anational campaign to put the selling of coffee on a uniform thirty-dayscredit, two percent cash in ten days basis. Professor S. C. Prescott, reporting on the research work being done at the Massachusetts Instituteof Technology, said a better brew of coffee could be obtained at atemperature of 185 degrees than at the boiling point; that glass, china, or enameled-ware pots were to be preferred, and that the filtrationmethod is superior to that employed in the pumping percolator. [Illustration: JOEL O. CHEEK, NASHVILLE President of the National Coffee Roasters Association, 1922] The Industrial Exposition included displays by twenty-eightmanufacturers of machinery and supplies, and was voted a success. Manyof the exhibits were of a distinctly educational character. The following officers were elected for 1921-22: President, Joel O. Cheek, Nashville, Tenn. ; first vice-president, Webster Jones, SanFrancisco; second vice-president, Joseph E. Maury, Memphis, Tenn. ;treasurer, Frank Ennis, Kansas City. _Coffee Roaster Statistics_ As might be expected, considering the leading place that New York holdsas a port of entry for coffee, the roasting and grinding of coffee ismore important in the eastern section of the country than in any other. But there are many establishments for preparing coffee scatteredthroughout the south and the middle west, and the business has grown toconsiderable proportions on the Pacific coast. New York state leads innumber of establishments and is followed by Pennsylvania, California, Missouri, Ohio, and Illinois. The chief southern state is Texas, followed by Louisiana and Kentucky, although Maryland and Louisiana leadin value of product. Missouri has more plants than any other state inthe middle west, and is followed by Illinois, though the capitalinvested and the value of the output are much greater in the latter thanin the former. COFFEE AND SPICE ROASTING AND GRINDINGESTABLISHMENTS--CENSUS OF 1914 _Value of__States_ _Number_ _Capital_ _product_ Alabama 8 $155, 000 $331, 000California 43 3, 619, 000 9, 584, 000Colorado 9 445, 000 1, 168, 000Connecticut 7 136, 000 435, 000Dist. Of Col. 5 294, 000 428, 000Florida 19 219, 000 697, 000Georgia 6 80, 000 169, 000Illinois 34 8, 159, 000 22, 045, 000Indiana 12 941, 000 1, 790, 000Iowa 14 1, 752, 000 3, 804, 000Kansas 6 144, 000 396, 000Kentucky 17 541, 000 1, 561, 000Louisiana 17 1, 657, 000 4, 241, 000Maryland 14 1, 643, 000 4, 393, 000Massachusetts 21 3, 678, 000 8, 675, 000Michigan 16 502, 000 1, 618, 000Minnesota 11 1, 531, 000 4, 729, 000Mississippi 5 27, 000 94, 000Missouri 37 6, 152, 000 14, 299, 000Nebraska 6 405, 000 1, 262, 000New Jersey 17 828, 000 3, 451, 000New York 136 9, 910, 000 31, 675, 000Ohio 35 6, 578, 000 13, 312, 000Oklahoma 6 191, 000 757, 000Oregon 9 757, 000 2, 050, 000Pennsylvania 77 2, 454, 000 6, 967, 000Tennessee 7 465, 000 1, 648, 000Texas 36 970, 000 3, 326, 000Virginia 9 413, 000 1, 137, 000Washington 25 1, 023, 000 2, 237, 000West Virginia 3 73, 000 71, 000Wisconsin 8 362, 000 809, 000Other states 21 492, 000 1, 590, 000 ____ ___________ ____________Total 696 $56, 596, 000 $150, 749, 000 The distribution of the business of preparing coffee is shown by thefigures of the Census Bureau, which reports for 1914 a total of 696establishments under the designation "Coffee and spice, roasting andgrinding. " It was found to be necessary to adopt this classificationinasmuch as most establishments handle both coffee and spices. Of the696, however, 658 had coffee as their principal product, and the figuresmay thus be taken as indicating fairly well the general distribution ofthe coffee-manufacturing industry. These figures, for the variousstates, are shown on page 515. Preliminary figures for the 1919 census show that the value of theproduct almost doubled in the five years 1914-19, amounting to$304, 740, 000 in 1919, while the number of establishments increased from696 to 794, of which 769 specialize in coffee. [Illustration] CHAPTER XXXI SOME BIG MEN AND NOTABLE ACHIEVEMENTS _B. G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken, the last of the American "coffee kings"--John Arbuckle, the original package-coffee man--Jabez Burns, the man who revolutionized the roasted coffee business by his contributions as inventor, manufacturer, and writer--Coffee-trade booms and panics--Brazil's first valorization enterprise--War-time government control of coffee--The story of soluble coffee_ In the history of the coffee trade of the United States, several namesstand out because of sensational accomplishments, and because of notablecontributions made to the development of the industry. In green coffee, we have B. G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken the last, of the"coffee kings"; in the roasting business, there was John Arbuckle, theoriginal national-package-coffee man; and in the coffee-roastingmachinery business, Jabez Burns, inventor, manufacturer, and writer. _The First "Coffee King"_ Benjamin Green Arnold came to New York from Rhode Island in 1836 andtook a job as accountant with an east-side grocer. He was thrifty, industrious, and kept his own counsel. He was a born financial leader. Fifteen years later he was made a junior partner in the firm. By 1868, the bookkeeper of 1836 was the head of the business, with a line ofcredit amounting to half a million dollars--a notable achievement inthose days. Mr. Arnold embarked upon his big speculation in coffee in 1869. For tenyears he maintained his mastery of the market, and in that time amasseda fortune. It is related that one year's operations of this daringtrader yielded his firm a profit of a million and a quarter of dollars. [Illustration: BENJAMIN GREEN ARNOLD] B. G. Arnold was the first president of the New York Coffee Exchange. Hewas one of the founders of the Down Town Association in 1878. Thepresident of the United States was his friend, and a guest at hisluxurious home. But the high-price levels to which Arnold had forced thecoffee market started a coffee-planting fever in the countries ofproduction. Almost before he knew it, there was an overproduction thatswamped the market and forced down prices with so amazing rapidity thatpanic seized upon the traders. Few that were caught in that memorablecoffee maelstrom survived financially. Arnold himself was a victim, but such was the man's character that hisfailure was regarded by many as a public misfortune. Some men differedwith him as to the wisdom of promoting a coffee corner, and protestedthat it was against public policy; but Arnold's personal integrity wasnever questioned, and his mercantile ability and honorable businessdealings won for him an affectionate regard that continued after hisfortune had been swept away. After the collapse of the coffee corner, Mr. Arnold resumed businesswith his son, F. B. Arnold. He died in New York, December 10, 1894, inhis eighty-second year. The son died in Rome in 1906. The business whichthe father founded, however, continues today as Arnold, Dorr & Co. , oneof the most honored and respected names in Front Street. _Hermann Sielcken, the Last Coffee King_ If B. G. Arnold was first coffee king, Hermann Sielcken was last, for itis unlikely that ever again, in the United States, will it be possiblefor one man to achieve so absolute a dictatorship of the green coffeebusiness. There never was a coffee romance like that of Hermann Sielcken's. Comingto America a poor boy in 1869, forty-five years later, he left it manytimes a millionaire. For a time, he ruled the coffee markets of theworld with a kind of autocracy such as the trade had never seen beforeand probably will not see again. And when, just before the outbreak ofthe World War, he returned to Germany for the annual visit to hisBaden-Baden estate, from which he was destined never again to sallyforth to deeds of financial prowess, his subsequent involuntaryretirement found him a huge commercial success, where B. G. Arnold was acolossal failure. It was the World War and a lingering illness that, atthe end, stopped Hermann Sielcken. But, though he had to admit himselfbested by the fortunes of war, he was still undefeated in the world ofcommerce. He died in his native Germany in 1917, the most commanding, and the most cordially disliked, figure ever produced by the coffeetrade. Hermann Sielcken was born in Hamburg in 1847, and so was seventy yearsold when he died at Baden-Baden, October 8, 1917. He was the son of asmall baker in Hamburg; and before he was twenty-one, he went to CostaRica to work for a German firm there. He did not like Costa Rica, andwithin a year he went to San Francisco, where, with a knowledge ofEnglish already acquired, he got a job as a shipping clerk. This was in1869. A wool concern engaged him as buyer, and for about six years hecovered the territory between the Rockies and the Pacific, buying wool. On one of these trips he was in a stage-coach wreck in Oregon and nearlylost his life. He received injuries affecting his back from which henever fully recovered, and which caused the stooped posture which markedhis carriage through life thereafter. When he recovered, he came to NewYork seeking employment, and obtained a clerical position with L. Strauss & Sons, importers of crockery and glassware. In 1880, marriedJosephine Chabert, whose father kept a restaurant in Park Place. Sielcken had learned Spanish in Costa Rica, and this knowledge aided himto a place with W. H. Crossman & Bro. (W. H. And George W. Crossman)merchandise commission merchants in Broad Street. He was sent to SouthAmerica to solicit consignments for the Crossmans, and was surprisinglysuccessful. For six or eight months every South American mail broughtorders to the house. Then, as the story goes, his reports suddenlyceased. Weeks and months passed, and the firm heard nothing from him. The Crossmans speculated concerning his fate. It was thought he mighthave caught a fever and died. It was almost impossible to trace him; atthe same time it distressed them to lose so promising a representative. Giving up all hope of hearing from him again, they began to look aroundfor some one to take his place. Then, one morning, he walked into theoffice and said, "How do you do?" just as if he had left them only theevening before. The members of the firm questioned him eagerly. Heanswered some of their questions; but most of them he did not. Then helaid a package on the table. [Illustration: HERMANN SIELCKEN] "Gentlemen", he said, "I have given a large amount of business to you, far more than you expected, as the result of my trip. I have a lot morebusiness which I can give to you. It's all in black and white in thepapers in this package. I think any person who has worked as hard as Ihave, and so well, deserves a partnership in this firm. If you wantthese orders, you may have them. They represent a big profit to you. Good work deserves proper reward. Look these papers over, and then tellme if you want me to continue with you as a member of this firm. " After the Crossmans had looked those papers over they had no doubt ofthe advisability of taking Sielcken into partnership. He was admitted asa junior in 1881-82 and became a full partner in 1885. For more thantwenty years Hermann Sielcken was the human dynamo that pushed the firmforward into a place of world prominence. He was the best informed manon coffee in two continents; and when, in 1904, the firm name waschanged to Crossman & Sielcken--W. H. Crossman having died ten yearsbefore--he was well prepared to assert his rights as king of the trade. He proved his kingship by his masterful handling of valorization threeyears later. Sielcken was many times credited with working "corners" in coffee; buthe would never admit that a corner was possible in anything that cameout of the ground; and to the end, he was insistent in his denials ofever having cornered coffee. As a daring trader, he won his spurs in asensational tilt with the Arbuckles in the bull campaign of 1887. Because of this, he became one of the most feared and hated men in theCoffee Exchange. For a while, coffee did not offer enough play for histremendous energy and ambition. He embarked in variousenterprises--among them, the steel industry and railroads. No one wastoo big for Sielcken to cross lances with. He bested John W. Gates in atitanic fight, in American Steel and Wire. He quarreled with E. H. Harriman and George J. Gould over the possession of the Kansas City, Pittsburgh, and Gulf Railroad, now known as the Kansas City Southern, and, backed by a syndicate of Hollanders, obtained control. While still busy with the Kansas City Southern enterprise Sielcken beganwork on the coffee valorization scheme that he carried to a successfulconclusion in spite of the law of supply and demand and the interferenceof the Congress of the United States. Valorization by the São Paulogovernment, and by coffee merchants, having proved a failure; Sielckenshowed how it could be done with all the American coffee merchantseliminated--except himself. In this way, he secured for himself theopportunity he had long been seeking--the chance to bestride the coffeetrade like a colossus. The story is told farther along in this chapter. When his partner, George W. Crossman, died in 1913, it was discoveredthat the two men had a remarkable contract. Each had made a will givingone million dollars to the other. Then Sielcken bought his latepartner's interest in the firm for $5, 166, 991. His first wife having died at Mariahalden, his home in Baden-Baden, seven years before, Sielcken married at Tessin, Germany, in 1913, Mrs. Clara Wendroth, a widow with two children, and the daughter of the latePaul Isenberg, a wealthy sugar planter of the Hawaiian Islands. At thattime the coffee king was dividing his time between the Waldorf-Astoria, New York, which he called his American home, and his wonderful estate inthe fatherland. This latter was a two-hundred-acre private parkcontaining four villas and a marvelous bath-house for guests besides themain villa; a rose-garden in which were cultivated one hundredsixty-eight varieties on some twenty thousand bushes; a specialgreenhouse for orchids; and landscaped grounds calling for the serviceof six professional gardeners and forty assistants. Here he delighted toentertain his friends. Frequently, there were fifteen to twenty of themfor dinner on the garden terrace; and, as the moon came up through thetall hemlocks and shone through the majestic pines brought from Oregon, a full military band from Heidelberg, adown the hillside among the rosetrees, mingled its music with the dinner discussions. There was nothingat that dinner table but peace and harmony, although every language inEurope was spoken; for Sielcken knew them all from his youth. Sometimeshe entertained his guests with stories of his California life, andsometimes with those of shipwrecks in South America. All the post-telegraph boys in Baden knew every foot of the sharplywinding road up the Yburg Strasse to Villa Mariahalden; and the gueststherein have counted more than eighty cables received, and more thanthirty sent in a single day. And those daily cable messages were to andfrom all quarters of the globe, and to and from the master, who handledthem all, without even a secretary or typewriter. Nowhere in the entireestablishment was there even an appearance of business, except as themessages came and went on the highway. Sielcken manifested his greatestdelight in showing his friends his orchids, his roses, his pigeons, histrout, and his trees. Like Napoleon, this merchant prince required only five hours sleep. Itwas his custom to go to bed at one and to be up at six. Did he wish toknow anything that the cables did not bring him, he jumped into hiseighty-horse-power Mercedes with a party of guests and was off with thesunrise, down the Rhine Valley, on his way to Paris or Hamburg; andbefore one realized that he was gone, he was back again. In 1913, Sielcken admitted to partnership in his firm two employees oflong service, John S. Sorenson and Thorlief S. B. Nielsen. He went toGermany in 1914, shortly before the beginning of the World War, andremained at Mariahalden until he died in 1917. Sielcken never wouldbelieve that war was possible until it had actually started. Up to thelast moment in July, 1914, he was cabling his New York partner thatthere would probably be no hostilities. He lost a bet of a thousandpounds made with a visiting Brazilian friend a few days before war wasdeclared. The guest believed war inevitable and won. A few days beforeSielcken's death the old firm was dissolved under the Trading with theEnemy Act, being succeeded by the firm of Sorenson & Nielsen. The formerhad been with the business thirty-four years, and the latter thirty-twoyears. The alien property custodian took over Sielcken's interest forthe duration of the war. Rumors in 1915 that the German government was extorting large sums ofmoney from Sielcken brought denials from his associates here. After thewar, it was confirmed that no such extortions took place. Sielcken always claimed American citizenship. There was a widelycirculated story, never proved, that he tore up his citizenship papersin 1912 when the United States government began its suit to force thesale of coffee stocks held here under the valorization agreement. TheSupreme Court of California in 1921 decided that he _was_ a citizen, andhis interests and those of his widow, amounting to $4, 000, 000, held bythe alien property custodian, were thereupon released to his heirs. Itappeared in evidence that he took out his citizenship papers in SanFrancisco in 1873-74, but lost them in a shipwreck off the coast ofBrazil in 1876. The San Francisco fire destroyed the other records; butunder act of legislature re-establishing them, the citizenship claim wasdeclared valid. Hermann Sielcken never liked the title of "coffee king. " He was onceasked about this appellation, and turned smartly upon the interviewer. "Nonsense, " he said. "I am no king. I don't like the term, because Inever heard of a 'king' who did not fail. " Sielcken had no use for titles. T. S. B. Nielsen says that at a dinnerparty in Germany in 1915 he heard Sielcken explain to a large number ofguests that the United States was the best country because there a manwas appraised at his real value. What he did, and how he lived, counted--not birth or titles. While his greatest achievement was, of course, the valorizationenterprise, he played a not unimportant rôle in the Havemeyer-Arbucklesugar-trust fight. He aided the late Henry O. Havemeyer to securecontrol of the Woolson Spice Co. Of Toledo in 1896, so as to enable theHavemeyer's to retaliate with Lion brand coffee for the Arbuckles'entrance into the sugar business. The Woolson Spice Co. Sold the Lionbrand in the middle west, and the American Coffee Co. Sold it in theeast. That was the beginning of a losing price-war that lasted tenyears. At the end, Sielcken took over the Woolson property at a priceconsiderably lower than originally paid for it. In 1919, the WoolsonSpice Co. Brought suit against the Sielcken estate, alleging a loss of$932, 000 on valorization coffee sold to it by Sielcken just after thefederal government began its suit in 1912 to break up the valorizationpool in the United States. The Woolson Spice Co. Paid the "marketprice", as did the rest of the buyers of valorization coffee; but it wascharged that Sielcken, as managing partner of Crossman & Sielcken, soldthe coffee to the Woolson Spice Co. , of which he was president, "atartificially enhanced prices and in quantities far in excess of itslegitimate needs, concealing his knowledge that before the plaintiffcould use the coffee, the price would decline. " Sielcken collected forthe coffee sold $3, 218, 666. When the United States government crossed lances with Sielcken in 1912over the valorization scheme, it looked for a time as if he would beunhorsed. But men and governments were all the same to Sielcken; and atthe end of the fight it was discovered that not only was heundefeated--for the government never pressed its suit to conclusion--butthat his prestige as king and master mind of the coffee trade had gainedimmeasurably by the adventure. Hermann Sielcken typified German efficiency raised to the nth power. Hewas a colossus of commerce with the military alertness of a Bismarck. His mental processes were profound, and his vision was far-reaching. Hewas a resourceful trader, an austere friend, a shrewd and uncompromisingfoe. Physically, he was a big man with a bull neck and black, piercingeyes. His policy in coffee was one of blood and iron. He brooked nointerference with his plans, and he was ruthless in his methods ofdealing with men and governments. Usually silent and uncommunicative, occasionally he exploded under stress; and when he did so, there was nomincing of words. He knew no fear. Newspaper criticism annoyed him butlittle; and he had a kind of contempt for the fourth estate as a whole, although he knew how to use it when it suited his purpose. He avoidedthe limelight, and never courted publicity for himself. Socially he wasa princely host; but few knew him intimately, except perhaps in hisnative Germany. Sielcken's widow was married in New York, February 11, 1922, to JosephM. Schwartz, the Russian baritone of the Chicago Opera Company. _The Story of John Arbuckle_ John Arbuckle, for nearly fifty years the honored dean of the Americancoffee trade, pioneer package-coffee man, some time coffee king, sugarmerchant, philanthropist, and typical American, came from fine, ruggedScotch stock. He was the son of a well-to-do Scottish woolen-mill ownerin Allegheny, Pa. , where he was born, July 11, 1839. He often said hewas raised on skim milk. He received a common school education inPittsburgh and Allegheny. He and Henry Phipps, the coke and steel head, are said to have occupied adjoining desks in one of the public schools, Andrew Carnegie being at that time in another grade of the same school. He had a strong bent for science and machinery; and, although he chosethe coffee instead of the steel business for his career, the basis ofhis success was invention. He also attended Washington and JeffersonCollege at Washington, Pennsylvania. [348] The Arbuckle business was founded at Pittsburg, in 1859, when CharlesArbuckle, his uncle Duncan McDonald, and their friend William Roseburg, organized the wholesale grocery firm of McDonald & Arbuckle. One yearlater John Arbuckle, the younger brother of Charles Arbuckle, wasadmitted to the firm, and the firm name was changed to McDonald &Arbuckles. McDonald and Roseburg retired from the firm a few yearslater, leaving the business in the hands of the two youthful, hopeful, and energetic brothers, who under the firm name of Arbuckles & Co. , soonmade their firm one of the important wholesale grocery houses inPennsylvania. Although little thinking at the time that their greatestsuccess was to be achieved in coffee, and that a new idea of one of thepartners--that of marketing roasted coffee in original packages--wouldmake their name familiar in every hamlet in the country, yet the firsttwo entries in the original day-book of McDonald & Arbuckles recordpurchases of coffee. Prior to the sixties, coffee was not generally sold roasted or ground, ready for the coffee pot. Except in the big cities, most housewivesbought their coffee green, and roasted it in their kitchen stoves asneeded. John Arbuckle, having become impressed with the wasteful methodsand unsatisfactory results of this kitchen roasting, had already begunhis studies of roasting and packaging problems, studies that he nevergave up. How, first to roast coffee scientifically, and then to preserveits freshness in the interval between the roaster and the coffee pot, continued to be an absorbing study until his death. The range of hiswork may be illustrated by reference to his first and his last patents. In 1868, he patented a process of glazing coffee, which had for itsobject the preservation of the flavor and aroma of coffee by sealing thepores of the coffee bean. Thirty-five years later, he patented a hugecoffee roaster in which, more closely than in any other roaster, he felthe could approach his ideal of roasting coffee--that ideal being to holdthe coffee beans in suspension in superheated air during the entireroasting process, and not to allow them to come in contact with a heatediron surface. By 1865, John Arbuckle had satisfied himself that a carefully roastedcoffee, packed while still warm in small individual containers, wouldmeasurably overcome the objections to selling loose coffee in a roastedstate. So in that year (1865), although not without the misgivings ofhis elder brother, and even in the face of the ridicule of competitors, who derided the plan of selling roasted coffee "in little paper bagslike peanuts", Arbuckles & Co. Introduced the new idea, namely, roastedcoffee in original packages. The story of the development of that simpleidea, which soon spread from coast to coast, and of how it laid thefoundations of a great fortune, is one of the romances of Americanbusiness. Although Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java Coffee, a ground-coffeepackage, first put on the New York market by Lewis A. Osborn, and laterexploited by Thomas Reid in the early sixties, appears to have been theoriginal package coffee, much of the fame attached to the name ofArbuckle comes from its association with the Ariosa coffee package, which was the first successful national brand of package coffee. It waslaunched in 1873. The Ariosa premium list (premiums have been a featureof the Arbuckle business since 1895) includes a hundred articles. Almostanything from a pair of suspenders or a toothbrush, to clocks, wringers, and corsets may be obtained in exchange for Ariosa coupons. The common belief that the name Ariosa was made up from the words Rioand Santos (said to be the component parts of the original blend) iserroneous. It was arbitrarily coined, though it is not known whatconsiderations prompted it. One story has it that the "A" stands forArbuckle, the "rio" for Rio, and the "sa" for South America. Early in the seventies, the great business opportunities of New YorkCity had attracted the two brothers, and a branch was established in NewYork in charge of John Arbuckle, the main business in Pittsburg beingleft in the care of his brother Charles. The growth of the New Yorkbranch soon made it necessary for Charles Arbuckle to leave thePittsburg business in charge of trusted employees, and to come to NewYork. In time, the coffee business of the New York house overshadowedthe grocery lines; and the latter were abandoned there, so that theentire energy of the firm in New York might be devoted to the coffeebusiness, which thenceforth was operated under the firm name of ArbuckleBros. The Arbuckle coffee business, which began with a single roaster in1865, had eighty-five machines running in Pittsburg and New York in1881. Charles Arbuckle died in 1891, and John Arbuckle admitted as partnershis nephew, William Arbuckle Jamison, and two employees, William V. R. Smith and James N. Jarvie, the business continuing under the former nameof Arbuckle Bros. The most important step taken by the firm while thusconstituted was its entrance into the sugar refining business in 1896. That entrance had to be forced against the bitterest opposition of aso-called sugar trust, and brought on a "war" signalized by the mostruthless cutting of prices of both coffee and sugar. This war was costlyto both sides; but when it had ended, Arbuckle Bros. Remained unshakenin the preeminence of their package-coffee business and had acquiredalso great publicity and a fine trade in refined sugar. [Illustration: JOHN ARBUCKLE] Arbuckles were always large consumers of sugar in connection with theircoffee glaze, and having introduced the package sugar idea with theircustomers some years before, they at last made up their minds to refinefor their own needs and thus to save the profits paid to "theHavemeyers". It is generally conceded that John Arbuckle's shrewdnessand business sagacity in having previously acquired the Smyser patentson a weighing and packing machine, and his control of it, really led tothe coffee-sugar war. "This packing machine", said the _Spice Mill_, when Henry E. Smyser died in 1899, "puts him [Smyser] with the greatestinventors of our day. " The sugar trust met the Arbuckle challenge by invading thecoffee-roasting field. This they accomplished by securing a controllinginterest for $2, 000, 000 in one of the largest competing roasting plantsin the country, that of the Woolson Spice Co. , of Toledo, Ohio, that hadin the Lion brand, a ready-made package coffee wherewith to fightAriosa. The re-organization of the Woolson Spice Co. In 1897, when A. M. Woolson was relieved of the office of president, disclosed, amongothers, the names of Hermann Sielcken in close juxtaposition to that ofH. O. Havemeyer on the board of directors. Both men helped to makecoffee-trade history. The trade found the coffee-sugar war the all-absorbing topic for severalyears. Hot debates were held on the question as to whether, on one hand, the Arbuckles had the right to enter the sugar-refining business and, onthe other, as to whether the sugar-trust had a right to retaliate. Theanswer seemed to be "yes" in both instances. In two years, John Arbuckle's model sugar refinery in Brooklyn wasturning out package sugar at the rate of five thousand barrels a day. The Woolson Spice Co. Was credited with spending unheard-of sums ofmoney in advertising Lion brand coffee. The eastern newspaper displaysalone exceeded anything ever before attempted in this line. However, many people are of the opinion that it was a tactical error on the partof the sugar interests to spend so much money advertising a Rio coffeein the central and New England states, while John Arbuckle was confininghis activities to the south and the west, where there already existed aRio taste among consumers. The legal fight which the Arbuckles carried on with the Havemeyers forthe control of the sugar business in this celebrated coffee-sugar war issaid to have cost millions on both sides. Eventually, the Havemeyers were glad to be relieved of their coffeeinterests, but John Arbuckle continued to sell both coffee and sugar. Mr. Arbuckle married Miss Mary Alice Kerr in Pittsburg, in 1868. Shedied in 1907. His many charities included boat trips for children, luxurious farm vacations for tired wage-earners, boat-raising andlife-saving schemes, a low-priced home for working girls and men on anold full-rigged ship lying off a New York dock, which he called his"Deep Sea Hotel, " and a vacation enterprise for young men and youngwomen at New Paltz, N. Y. , which was known as the "Mary and John ArbuckleFarm. " A magazine for children, called _Sunshine_, was anotherbenevolent enterprise of his. When John Arbuckle died at his Brooklyn home, March 27, 1912, he hadbeen ill only four days. The New York Coffee Exchange closed at twoo'clock the day following, after adopting appropriate resolutions andappointing a committee to attend the funeral. His estate in New York wasvalued at $33, 000, 000. W. V. R. Smith and James N. Jarvie retired from the firm in 1906; and JohnArbuckle and his nephew W. A. Jamison continued it as sole owners andpartners until Mr. Arbuckle's death in 1912. Mr. Arbuckle died childlessand a widower, leaving as his only heirs his two sisters, Mrs. CatherineArbuckle Jamison and Miss Christina Arbuckle. Mrs. Jamison is the widowof the late Robert Jamison, who had been a prominent drygoods merchantin Pittsburg. William A. Jamison is her eldest and only living son. Following the death of John Arbuckle, a new partnership was formed inwhich Mrs. Jamison, Miss Arbuckle, and Mr. Jamison became the partnersand owners, and that partnership, without change of name, continues. Probably there is no other mercantile establishment of similar size inthe country that is carried on as a partnership, and none which aftermore than sixty years is so exclusively owned by members of theimmediate family of its founders. The Arbuckle business, as it is today, is John Arbuckle's best monument. All that it is he foresaw; for behind those keen, penetrating eyes, there was wonderful vision. Simple in his tastes; democratic in hisdress, in his habits and his speech; he was one of the most approachableof our first captains of industry. Many of the younger generation in thecoffee business have found inspiration in contemplating John Arbuckle'sachievements. As represented in what has been called "the world'sgreatest coffee business", these include other package coffees, such asYuban, Arbuckle's Breakfast, Arbuckle's Drinksum, and Arbuckle'sCertified Java and Mocha. The pioneer Ariosa brand is still being sold;although it is interesting to note that the demand for ground Ariosa isincreasing, marking the swing of the pendulum of public taste away fromthe original bean package to the so-called "steel-cut, " or ground, coffee package. Will it swing back again, some day? Many coffee menbelieve it will. If it does, good old Ariosa, with its coating of sugarand eggs, will no doubt be on the job to meet it. Yuban was launched in the fall of 1913. It is a high-grade packagecoffee, whereas Ariosa is popular-priced. In addition to the packagecoffee business, Arbuckle Bros. Have many other activities. They deal ingreen coffee as well as roasted coffee in bulk. The wholesale grocerybusiness in Pittsburg continues under the old name of Arbuckles & Co. ;while in Chicago, Arbuckle Bros. Have a branch equipped with acoffee-roasting-and-packaging plant, also spice-grinding andextract-manufacturing plants, and do a large business in teas. A branchin Kansas City distributes the products manufactured in New York andChicago. In Brazil, offices are maintained at Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and Victoria, as Arbuckle & Co. In Mexico, Arbuckle Bros. Areestablished at Jalapa, with branches at Cordoba and Coatepec. In season, the warehouses and hulling plants at those points employ as many as 650hands preparing Mexican coffee for shipment to New York. Arbuckle Bros. Are direct importers of green coffee on a large scale, and are known also as heavy buyers "on the street. " The roastingcapacity of their Brooklyn plant is from 8, 000 to 9, 000 bags per day. The cylinder equipment of twenty-four Burns roasters is supplemented byfour "Jumbo" roasters of Arbuckle build, each capable of roastingthirty-five bags at one time. The Ariosa package business grew from thesmallest beginnings to more than 800, 000 packages per day. Individualbrands have not held their lead of late years; but the volume ofpackage-coffee business is greater than ever. Many jobbers now packbrands of their own, besides handling the Arbuckle brands. Distribution of roasted coffees outside Chicago and Kansas City isaccomplished through the medium of more than one hundred stock depotsin as many different cities of the United States. To operate the world's greatest coffee business is no small undertaking;and when this is coupled with an important sugar-refining business and awaterfront warehouse-and-terminal business, plenty of room is needed. Sowe find the plant along the Brooklyn waterfront occupying an area of adozen city blocks. An idea of the extent and diversity of the activitiesof the plant may be gained from a brief reference to the utilities, andthe trades, and even the professions, that are required to make thewheels go round. To ship more than one hundred cars of coffee and sugar in a single daycalls for shipping facilities that could be had only by organizing arailroad and waterfront terminal, known as Jay Street Terminal, equippedwith freight station, locomotives, tugboats, steam lighters, car floats, and barges. City deliveries of coffee and sugar call for a fleet ofthirty-five large motor trucks that are housed in the firm's own garageand kept in repair in their own shops. Although motor trucks are fastreplacing the faithful horse; and the time will never come again whenArbuckle Bros. Will boast of their stable of nearly two hundred horsesthat were generally acknowledged to be the finest string of draft horsesin the city, some fifty or sixty of their faithful animals still are inharness; and so the stable, with blacksmith shop, harness shop, andwagon-repair shops, are serving their respective purposes, though on areduced scale. A printing shop vibrates with the whirr of mammothprinting presses turning out thousands upon thousands of coffee-wrappersand circulars; and doubtless it will be news to many that the firstthree-color printing press ever built was expressly designed and builtfor Arbuckle Bros. Then there is a sunny first-aid hospital on top ofthe Pearl Street warehouse where a physician is ever ready to relievesudden illness and accidental injuries. On the eleventh floor there is ahuge dining room where the Brooklyn clerical forces get their noondaylunches. This feeding of the inner man (and woman) is matched by thepower-house where twenty-six large steam boilers must be fed their quotaof coal. In the winter months, when Warmth must come for the workers aswell as power for the wheels, the coal consumption runs up as high asfour hundred tons per day. The barrel factory, with a daily capacity of 6, 800 sugar barrels, islocated about a mile away, where barrel staves and heads are receivedfrom the firm's own stave mill in Virginia, made from logs cut on theirown timber lands in Virginia and North Carolina. A more self-containedplant would be hard to imagine, and so we find that even the lastactivity in its operations--that of washing and drying the emptied sugarbags--is also provided for. That this is "some laundry" goes withoutsaying, when it is recalled that in the busy sugar season the firm dumpsfrom eight to ten thousand bags of raw sugar per day, and that thesebags are washed and dried daily as emptied. A huge rotary drier of thefirm's own design does the work of about three miles of clothes lines. Even after the coffees have been sold and paid for, there still remainsan important task, and that is to redeem the signature coupons which theconsumers cut from the packages and return for premiums. Lest someregard this as an insignificant phase of the business, it may be statedthat in a single year the premium department has received over onehundred and eight million coupons calling for more than four millionpremiums. These premiums included 818, 928 handkerchiefs; 261, 000 pairsof lace curtains; 238, 738 shears; and 185, 920 Torrey razors. Fingerrings are perennial favorites, and so insistent is the demand for therings offered as premiums, that Arbuckle Bros. Are regarded as thelargest distributors of finger rings in the world. One of their premiumrings is a wedding ring; and if all the rings of this pattern servetheir intended purpose, it is estimated that the firm has assisted ateighty thousand weddings in a year. Turning from the utilities at the plant to the trades and professionsrepresented, other than the trained sugar and coffee workers, thefollowing are constantly employed: physicians, chemists, mechanicalengineers, civil engineers, electrical engineers, railroad engineers andbrakemen, steamboat captains and engineers, chauffeurs, teamsters, wagon-makers, harness-makers, machinists, draughtsmen, blacksmiths, tinsmiths, coppersmiths, coopers, carpenters, masons, painters, plumbers, riggers, typesetters and pressmen, and last but not least, the chef and table waiters. One of the most remarkable things about the growth of this businessenterprise is that it is not the result of buying out, or consolidatingwith, competitors; but has resulted from a steady wholesome growth alongconservative business lines. Consolidations are often desirable andeffective; but when a great business has been built without any suchconsolidations, the conclusion is inevitable that somewhere in theestablishment there must have been a corresponding amount of wisdom, foresight, energy, and honorable business dealing. Those were the thingsfor which John Arbuckle stood firm, and for which he will always beremembered. _Jabez Burns, Inventor, Manufacturer, Writer_ Jabez Burns was a person of real importance to the American coffee tradefrom 1864, when he began to manufacture his improved roaster, until hisdeath, at the age of sixty-two, in 1888. His success depended more onunusual character than unusual ability, although he was really gifted asregards mechanical invention. He loved to acquire practical information, and arrived confidently at common-sense conclusions; and he exercised awide and helpful influence, because he liked to give expression toopinions that he considered sound and useful. Mr. Burns was born in London in 1826. The family moved soon after toDundee, Scotland, and came to New York in 1844. They were people ofsmall means and independent thinking. The father, William G. Burns, hadbeen more interested in the Chartist social movement than in any settledbusiness activity. An uncle, also named Jabez Burns, became a popularBaptist preacher in London. The first winter in America found youthful Jabez teaching a countryschool at Summit, N. J. Then he began in New York (1844-45) as teamsterfor Henry Blair, a prosperous coffee merchant who attended a little"Disciples" church in lower Sixth Avenue where many Scottish familiescongregated. There also Burns met Agnes Brown, daughter of a Paisleyweaver, and married her in 1847. A brave young pair they were, who foundall sorts of odd riches--just as if a fast-growing family could somehowmake up for a slow-growing income. There were hopes, too, that thecontrivances Burns kept inventing might bring wealth; and some extramoney did come from the sale of early patents, including one in 1858 forthe Burns Addometer, a primitive adding machine. But Mr. Burns had continued regularly in the employ of coffee and spicefirms, and at one time he was bookkeeper for Thomas Reid's Globe Mills. He advanced slowly, because he lacked real trading talent; but he waslearning all about the handling of goods, from purchase to finaldelivery; and when he quit bookkeeping for the old Globe Mills, andbegan to build his patent roaster, he could advise clients reliablyabout every factory detail. He was soon looked on as an authority. He wrote some articles for the_American Grocer_, a series on "Food Adulteration" being reprinted; andin 1878, he began the quarterly publication of his thirty-two-page_Spice Mill_, which soon became a monthly, and gained the interestedattention of practically the entire coffee and spice trade. Through the columns of this paper, in circulars, by letters, and in apocket volume called the _Spice Mill Companion_, he distributedinformation on coffee, spices, and baking powder, and gave valuableadvice to beginners in the coffee-roasting business. Not a few coffeeroasters were started on the way to fortune by the counsel of JabezBurns. He died in New York, September 16, 1888. Jabez Burns founded the business of Jabez Burns & Sons in 1864, beginning the manufacture of his patent coffee roaster at 107 WarrenStreet, New York. Since then, there have been four removals. InDecember, 1908, the business moved to its present uptown location, atthe northwest corner of Eleventh Avenue and Forty-third Street, occupying a six-story building which was doubled in size in 1917. ThisBurns factory has been referred to as "the unique coffee-machineryworkshop", the greatest establishment of its kind in the United States. Upon the death of its founder the business was continued; first, as thefirm of Jabez Burns & Sons, composed of his sons, Jabez, Robert, and A. Lincoln Burns; and later, in 1906, incorporated as Jabez Burns & Sons, Inc. , with Robert Burns as president, Jabez Burns as vice-president, and A. Lincoln Burns as secretary and treasurer. Jabez Burns died August6, 1908. The present officers are: Robert Burns, president; A. LincolnBurns, vice-president; William G. Burns, general manager; and C. H. Maclachlan, secretary and treasurer. [Illustration: JABEZ BURNS] A. Lincoln Burns succeeded his father as editor of the _Spice Mill_. William H. Ukers was made editor in 1902, and he continued until 1904, when he left to assume editorial direction of _The Tea and Coffee TradeJournal_. _Coffee-Trade Booms and Panics_ In the last fifty years there have been many spectacular attempts tocorner the coffee market in Europe and the United States. The firstnotable occurrence of this kind did not originate in the trade itself. It took place in 1873, and was known as the "Jay Cooke panic", beingbrought about by the famous panic of that name in the stock market. As a result of the Jay Cooke failure, it was impossible to obtain moneyfrom the banks. Hence buyers were forced to keep out of the coffeemarket; and as a consequence, the price for Rios dropped fromtwenty-four cents to fifteen cents in the course of the trading periodof one day[349]. Another interesting development during that year was of foreign origin. A coffee syndicate was organized in Europe, financed by the powerfulGerman Trading Company of Frankfort, with agencies in London, Rotterdam, Antwerp, and Brazil. For more than eight years this proved to be ahighly successful undertaking, largely controlling the principalproducing and consuming markets. As far as the American coffee trade is concerned, the first sensationalupheaval took place in 1880-81. This period witnessed the collapse ofthe first great coffee trade combination in this country--the so-called"syndicate", comprising O. G. Kimball, B. G. Arnold, and Bowie Dash, sometimes known as the "trinity". The period of high coffee prices, commencing in 1870, had greatlystimulated production in many Mild-coffee producing countries, as wellas in Brazil, and as a consequence the syndicate found its burdenbecoming extremely heavy early in 1880. In January of that year ourvisible supply amounted roughly to 767, 000 bags. While this was reducedto about 740, 000 bags in July, the latter likewise proved to bedecidedly burdensome, especially as another liberal crop was beginningto move in producing countries. The excessive volume of supplies wasespecially marked, because distributing trade during the summer wasstrikingly dull, as the majority of buyers were holding off, in view ofthe prospective liberal new crops. At that time Java coffee was a bigitem in American markets, whereas Santos was just about beginning to bea factor. The syndicate found that it had its hands full supporting the Brazilgrades, and hence had to let the Javas go. As a result, the latter, which had sold at twenty-four and three-quarters cents in January, 1880, fell to nineteen and one-half cents in July, to eighteen cents inNovember and to sixteen cents in December. As a matter of fact, thesyndicate was practically the only buyer of Brazil coffee during thefall of 1880; and as a consequence, Rios, which had started the year atfourteen and one-half to sixteen and one-quarter cents, were down totwelve and three-quarters cents in December, 1880, and had dropped nineand one-half cents when the break in the market culminated in June, 1881. The first whispers of financial troubles growing out of these adverseconditions were heard in October, 1880; and on the 27th of that monththe first failure was announced--that of C. Risley & Co. , withliabilities placed at $800, 000 and assets at $400, 000. This firm hadbeen doing business in the local market for about thirty years. Theefforts of the receivers to dispose of this company's large stocknaturally served to accelerate the decline; and the final impetus cameon December 6, when the New York trade heard of the death, two dayspreviously, of O. G. Kimball, of Boston, one of the most prominentmerchants there. This precipitated the big crash of December 7, whenB. G. Arnold & Co. , the largest New York firm, suspended with estimatedliabilities of $750, 000 to $1, 000, 000. The official statement laterplaced the liabilities at $2, 157, 914, and assets at $1, 400, 000, of which$884, 198 were secured. Within three days this failure was followed bythe suspension of Bowie Dash & Co. , with liabilities estimated at$1, 400, 000. For weeks thereafter there was virtually no market. With all of thesedistress holdings pressing for liquidation, buyers, as was natural, wereextremely timid. In the meantime, the import arrivals showed furtherenlargement at various southern ports, as well as at New York. Totalarrivals at this port during 1881 were almost 12, 400, 000 pounds heavierthan for the preceding year. The growing importance of Santos as amarket factor was demonstrated by the fact that shipments from there in1881 were 1, 198, 625 bags, compared with about 628, 900 bags in 1876-77. According to the best informed members of the trade at that time, thelosses sustained by the various firms that were forced to the wallaggregated between $5, 000, 000 and $7, 000, 000. The utterly demoralized conditions prevailing while this collapse was inprogress, and the practical elimination of a market in the true sense ofthe word, furnished the principal impetus for the organization of theNew York Coffee Exchange. At that time, the Havre market was the onlyone with an exchange. The local body was organized in December, 1881, and started business in March, 1882. _The Cable Break of 1884_ The second noteworthy movement, embracing an advance of four to four andone-half cents and a recession of slightly more than three cents, covered a period of about eight months shortly after the Exchange wasorganized. Various local and out-of-town firms were interested in thebulge which carried Rio coffee in this market from about seven cents inJuly, 1883, up to eleven and one-half cents late in November. By themiddle of December, the price had fallen to nine and one-quarter cents, the final break to eight and one-quarter cents occurring late in Marchof the following year. At that time, there was no direct cablecommunication with Brazil; and as a result of a temporary break in theroundabout service by way of Portugal, the New York and Baltimore agentsof the Brazilian syndicate were unable to put up additional margins inthis market, and their accounts were closed out. This happened on aSaturday; and by the following Monday, partial cable remittances arrivedand all accounts were settled in full with interest from Saturday toMonday. _The Great Boom_ What is generally described as "the great boom" of the coffee tradeoccurred in 1886-87, and had its inception in unsatisfactory crop newsfrom Brazil. The crop of 1887-1888, it was estimated, would be extremelysmall; and it turned out to be only 3, 033, 000 bags. These advices andlow estimates led to the formation of a "bull" clique, comprisingoperators in New York, Chicago, New Orleans, Brazil, and Europe, who seta price of twenty-five cents for December contracts as their goal. Toward the end of June, 1886, when this campaign started, No. 7 Rio inNew York was worth about seven and one-half cents, with June contractson the Exchange quoted at seven and sixty-five hundredths cents. WithBrazilian crop news still more discouraging, the advance thereafter wasalmost continuous, and on June 1, 1887, December contracts sold attwenty-two and one-quarter cents--a new high price record, that was notexceeded for thirty-two years, when twenty-four and sixty-fivehundredths cents were paid for July contracts in June, 1919. Afterreaching twenty-two and one-quarter cents, prices suffered an abruptreversal. Ten days later the closing price for December was twenty-oneand four-tenth cents. Then the real crash began. On Saturday, June 11, the panic started with another claim of cable trouble; and in the shortsession, December coffee broke from twenty and fifteen-hundredths toeighteen and sixty-five hundredths cents, closing at a loss for the dayof 275 points. The first sale of December on Monday was at seventeen andfour-tenths cents, or 125 points lower; and after numerous erraticvariations, the price broke to sixteen cents, a drop of six andone-quarter cents in less than two weeks. Business on that day was ofenormous volume, in round numbers 412, 000 bags; and approximately$1, 500, 000 was put up in margins. For the next three days the declinewas temporarily halted, and December, at one time, was up three andone-quarter cents from the bottom (nineteen and one-quarter cents). OnJune 17, another battle commenced, December dropping back to seventeencents. Then came a rally to eighteen and one-tenth cents, a drop tosixteen and one-half cents; another rally to eighteen and one-tenth, and, on June 24, another break to the previous low level of sixteencents for December. This sharp reversal in less than a month wastraceable largely to more favorable news from Brazil, the 1888-89 cropbeing estimated at 6, 827, 000 bags. Following a rally to nineteen and six-tenths cents during the next month(July, 1887), the pendulum again swung downward. The climax came withthe culmination of the "European fiasco" of the spring of 1888. Reportswere received that various European coffee firms had failed; and futurecontracts in the American market sold as low as nine cents in March. _A Famous European Bull Campaign_ The next campaign of interest lasted more than two and a half years. InSeptember, 1891, there was a corner in the local market which forced theSeptember price up to seventeen and one-quarter cents. GeorgeKaltenbach, a wealthy speculator living in Paris, combining with threeoperators in Havre, Hamburg, and Antwerp, succeeded in breaking thecorner, forcing the price down to ten and eight-tenths cents. They thenchanged to the bull side, buying heavily in all markets of the world. This was continued until early in 1893, bringing the price back tofifteen cents. Although his associates then returned to the bear side, Kaltenbach kept on buying; and aided by bad crop reports from Brazil, heworked the price up as high as seventeen and seven-tenths cents. At onetime it was said that his profits were more than one million dollars. The collapse of this deal occurred in May, 1893, involving thirty firmsin Hamburg, Havre, and Rotterdam. As Kaltenbach could not keep his largeNew York holdings margined, they were thrown on the market, bringingabout a sharp break, and causing the failure of his New York agents, T. M. Barr & Co. The present era of large crops began in 1894, Brazil's production for1894-95 being placed at 6, 695, 000 bags. Nevertheless, Guzman Blanco, aformer president of Venezuela, then living in Paris, and said to beworth about $20, 000, 000, attempted to run a corner in April, 1895. Hebought 200, 000 bags of spot coffee in Havre warehouses and accumulated abig line of futures in various markets. Assisted by reports of cholerain Rio and some reduction in Brazilian crops, he enjoyed temporarysuccess, the price of Rio 7s in New York rising to fifteen and one-halfcents in October, 1895. Thereafter, there was an almost continuousdecline. In the spring of 1898, a vigorous bear campaign was conducted, largely in the form of market letters; and by November, Rio 7s here haddropped to four and one-half cents. _The Bubonic Plague Boom_ The so-called "bubonic plague boom" halted this prolonged downwardmovement for a time in 1899-1900. The boom derived its name from theoutbreak of bubonic plague in Brazil, as a result of which the ports ofthat country were quarantined. In addition, Brazilian steamers arrivingat New York were placed in quarantine; and the impossibility ofunloading their cargoes caused a temporary shortage. As a result, pricesrose from four and one-quarter cents in September, 1899, to eight andone-quarter cents in July, 1900. The quarantine being lifted, the bearsagain became aggressive; and by April, 1901, they had forced the priceback to five cents. There was another short-lived attempt to establish a corner inSeptember, 1901. Receipts at Rio and Santos had been running light, encouraging a local clique embracing Skiddy, Minford & Company; W. H. Crossman & Bro. ; and Gruner & Company, to endeavor to gain control. Thearrivals at Brazilian ports suddenly increased to the largest volumeever known up to that time; and, with vigorous opposition from operatorsin Havre, the corner here was speedily broken. The opening of the new century witnessed the beginning of another newcoffee era, Santos permanently displacing Rio as the world's largestsource of supply. The figures for 1900-01 were: Santos, 2, 945, 000 bags;Rio, 2, 413, 000 bags. Huge crops then became a regular thing in Brazil. That of 1901-02 wasfar in excess of estimates, being 15, 000, 000 bags; while 20, 000, 000 bagswere produced in 1902-03. As a result, the world's coffee trade becamecompletely demoralized for the time being. In August, 1902, contractsfor July, 1903, delivery sold at six and one-tenths cents. By June, 1903, they had fallen to three and fifty-five hundredths cents, thelowest price ever recorded for coffee. _The Southern Boom_ As is invariably the case when prices reach extreme levels, either highor low, the pendulum swung back rapidly in the other direction. Based onthe unprecedentedly low prices, the so-called "cotton crowd" startedwhat was generally known as "the southern boom". Various cotton tradersin New York and the South, under the leadership of D. J. Sully, theone-time "cotton king", and ably assisted by prominent local coffeefirms, became extremely active on the buying side; and by February, 1904, they had forced the price up to eleven and eighty-five hundredthscents. This figure, the highest since 1896, was reached on February 2, which proved to be another day of enormous speculative dealings, involving roundly 462, 000 bags. This marked another turning point; thethree succeeding days of record-breaking operations on the Exchangewitnessing a break of roughly two cents. Mr. Sully went on a vacation onFebruary 3, and the Sielcken interests sold on a large scale. Businessfor that day was placed at 555, 000 bags, closing prices being aboutone-half cent lower. This brought on enormous liquidation by westernbulls on the following day, approximately 500, 000 bags. As a result, prices lost twenty-five to sixty-five points on a turn-over of about642, 000 bags. All records for business were smashed on the followingday, February 5. The official record was 689, 000 bags, but tradeestimates made it more than 1, 000, 000 bags. On that day, southerninterests liquidated heavily, causing net losses of eighty to ninetypoints. Doubtless the break would have been more severe had it not beenfor buying by the Sielcken people and several other strong interests atand below seven and one-quarter cents for September contracts. _The Story of Valorization_ The valorization, or equalization, of coffee originated in Brazil. Whenthe original plan was threatened with disaster, Hermann Sielcken steppedin and saved the Brazil planters from ruin; the Brazil government frompossible revolution; and, incidentally, won for himself and those whowere his partners in the enterprise much unenviable notoriety. The principle of valorization is generally conceded to be economicallyunsound, because it encourages overproduction. And valorization inBrazil would have been a failure, had it not been for a fortuitouscombination of short crops, Hermann Sielcken's genius, and the WorldWar. Because of the lessons learned in this experience, Brazil'ssubsequent valorization enterprises have run more smoothly. A rapidly increasing world demand, a wonderfully fertile soil, and cheaplabor kept the Brazil coffee industry in a flourishing condition nearlyto the close of 1889. Coffee consumption was increasing, especially inthe United States. By April 1890, the average import price per pound ofRio No. 7 in this country was nineteen cents; and Brazil was supplyingonly about half our needs. Virgin soil was still available in Brazil, and immigration furnished all the needful labor. Easy profits led toincreased investment and careless methods. Her planters were drunk withprosperity. For six years, nearly all the three million inhabitants ofSão Paulo, Brazil's largest coffee producing state, "entirely gave upplanting corn, rice, beans, everything they needed. They bought thembecause coffee was so immensely profitable that they put all their laborin coffee. " Brazil had been going through a period of low exchange. Paper money fellbelow par. The exaggerated issues of it, which provoked the collapse ofexchange, suddenly endowed Brazil with an abundant circulation of money. Production was enormously stimulated. New undertakings sprang up onevery hand. Armies of agricultural laborers were recruited in Europe andshipped into the coffee districts. And then, to make the story short, supply passed demand, surplus stocks began to appear, prices began tofall, and fell until they dropped below the cost of production. It was in 1896-97, when the new trees came into bearing by the tens andhundreds of thousands, that São Paulo's folly began to tell. By Octoberof that year the price of Rio No. 7 in New York had fallen to aboutseven cents. The decline continued, until, in 1903, it hung around fivecents. Then began the winter of São Paulo's discontent. Too late, thestate government tried by taxing new coffee estates, to force theplanters to raise crops to supply their own necessities. The times grewharder. Mortgages held by large coffee houses and bankers were being foreclosed. The industry was passing into European hands. The smaller planters werebecoming desperate; and desperation is only a step from revolution. Thegovernment of the state of São Paulo knew this; and to save the state, it finally promised it would buy the next coffee crop, and would hold itfor the planters at such a price as would be necessary to continue theindustry. The protagonists of this plan to valorize coffee were Dr. Jorge Tibiriçá, Dr. Augusto Ramos, and Dr. Albuquerque Lins. During all the period covering São Paulo's rise and fall in coffee, thefinancial genius who was to lead her again into the land of plenty hadbeen quietly acquiring a knowledge of her problems--also, the ability tomake money out of their solution. Valorization was undertaken to save the coffee industry. Its intent wasgood, even if the theory was bad. The scheme was not new, and there wereno encouraging precedents to augur its success. The situation wasdesperate and seemed to justify the trial of a desperate remedy. SãoPaulo attempted to carry the load; but her resources were insufficient. The bumper world crop of 19, 090, 000 bags in 1901-02 was followed, in1906-07, with another extraordinary yield of 24, 307, 000 bags, of whichBrazil alone produced 20, 192, 000 bags. To make good its promise to theplanters, ready cash was needed; and so the São Paulo government sent aspecial commissioner to Europe to get it. For sixty years theRothschilds had acted as Brazil's bankers. The commissioner went to theRothschilds first. He was flatly refused. After that, he was turned downby practically every bank on the continent. It looked as if the bankershad entered into a gentlemen's agreement to make it unanimous. Then thecommissioner bethought himself of the coffee merchants; and that thoughtnaturally suggested Hermann Sielcken, who, singularly enough, happenedto be conveniently resting at nearby Baden-Baden. In August, 1906, thecommissioner waited upon Mr. Sielcken and begged his aid. It was Sielcken's hour of triumph. For years he had been solicitingBrazil. Now the tables were turned, and Brazil was asking favors ofSielcken. The rest of the story is best told by Robert Sloss, who wrote it for_World's Work_ from information furnished by trade authorities--and evenby Mr. Sielcken, himself, in various speeches, newspaper articles, andon the witness stand. It is presented here with certain minorcorrections by the author: "Well, what do you want me to do?" asked Hermann Sielcken of the commissioner from the state of São Paulo. "We want you to finance for us five to eight million bags of coffee, " said the commissioner blandly. Here was an adventure. Here was a proposition to lift bodily out of the market half as much coffee as the world's total production had averaged for the ten preceding years when prices had been so low. Presumably, if this were done, prices would be doubled. But Hermann Sielcken shook his head. "No, " he said, "there is not the slightest chance for it, not the slightest. " And then he pointed out that there would be "no financial assistance coming from anywhere" if the São Paulo planters kept on raising such ridiculously large crops of coffee. The commissioner assured him that the prospect was for smaller crops in future. Hermann Sielcken was not so sure about it "At a price low enough, " he mused, "I might be able to raise funds to pay eighty percent on a value of seven cents a pound for Rio No. 5. " The commissioner was dismayed. His government had already promised to take coffee from the planters at about a cent a pound above the market, and the market then stood at nearly eight cents. The government would have to dig to make up the difference. Hermann Sielcken's terms were the best that could be got, however, and the commissioner accepted them. From that time forth Hermann Sielcken was the head of the movement. He approached a few large coffee merchants, including his former rivals, Arbuckle Brothers, and drew up a contract. The merchants agreed to advance eighty percent of the sum required to buy two million bags of coffee at seven cents a pound. If the market went above seven cents, the government was to make no purchases. If it fell below seven cents, the government was to make good the difference to the merchants by cable. Before the season was well advanced the unexpected happened. Brazil was reaping the largest coffee harvest in the history of the world. The two million bags of coffee purchased by the government were as a drop in a bucket. Financed by Hermann Sielcken, Schroeder, the great London banker, and a few prominent European merchants, the government was forced to buy almost nine million bags. Toward the end of 1907, the government had lifted half of the world's visible supply of coffee, but the market stood only a trifle above six cents a pound. The government was practically bankrupt. Hermann Sielcken now enlisted the Rothschilds on his side, and shifted the financial burden from the shoulders of the coffee merchants to those of the Paris bankers and their American associates. Then the Rothschilds imposed their conditions on the government of Brazil. A national law was passed determining a heavy penalty for any one who planted a new coffee tree in Brazil. The government guaranteed that not more than mine million bags of the next coffee crop and not more than ten million bags of any succeeding crop should be exported. By the end of 1911, the coffee market stood well above thirteen cents. Here was a rise of more than one hundred percent in two years, more than sixty percent in six months. Evidently, valorization coffee in the hands of the bankers' committee had become a gilt-edged security. But how? During the five crop years since the "plan" was launched on the heights above Baden, nearly 90, 000, 000 bags of coffee had been raised in the world. The bankers' committee still held 5, 108, 000 bags of this. At the highest estimate, consumption had exceeded production by only 4, 000, 000 bags. Here was a shortage of only a little more than ten percent in supply as against demand, so far as crops go. Yet there had been a rise of more than one hundred percent in two years in the price of coffee on the New York Coffee Exchange.... Upon the merchant's ability to deliver coffee on the New York Coffee Exchange depends the price of coffee in the world. That explains why the bankers' committee from the beginning refused absolutely to sell valorization coffee on the public exchanges of the world. In Europe, they put it up at auction; and when it didn't go, it was bought in for them. In America, they announced in a printed circular that valorization coffee would be sold only on condition that the purchaser would not deliver it on the New York Coffee Exchange. Hermann Sielcken absolutely refused to sell coffee to the merchants on the Exchange. Arbuckle Brothers kept on buying coffee heavily, as if they would corner the market. They resold the coffee, however, at private sales, exacting a written contract from the buyer that he would not deliver the coffee on the New York Coffee Exchange, or resell it to any one that would so deliver it. The Coffee Exchange began an investigation, but nothing ever came of it. Shortly after the valorization committee had apparently cleared up $25, 000, 000 in one year, the restriction as to the delivery of valorization coffee on the New York Coffee Exchange was officially removed. Yet neither from Hermann Sielcken nor from Arbuckle Brothers, it is charged, could one buy any coffee to deliver for that purpose. In 1911, coffee rose to sixteen cents per pound. At the end, it was found that the committee's holdings had been marketedat the various sales on a basis, for Santos 4s, from eight andfive-eighths cents minimum, to the final sale here forced by the UnitedStates government, at which time the price realized was sixteen andthree-quarter cents for Santos 4s, and fourteen cents for Rio 7s. The one fly in the valorization ointment was Senator G. W. Norris, ofNebraska, who early in 1911 called for a congressional investigation ofthe operations of the valorization syndicate, which he said was costingthe American people $35, 000, 000 a year. The attorney-general wasinstructed to report as to whether or not there was a coffee trust. Itwas a leisurely investigation, which encountered many snags placed inits way by those who believed it would be against international policyto question too closely the participation of the Brazil government inthe enterprise. Politics played no inconsiderable part in theinvestigation, which dragged along until May 18, 1912, when an actionwas begun in the Federal District Court for the southern district of NewYork, alleging conspiracy in restraint of trade on the part of HermannSielcken; Bruno Schroeder, of J. Henry Schroeder & Co. ; Edouard Bunge;the Vicomte des Touches; Dr. Paulo da Silva Prado; Theodor Wille; theSociété Generale; and the New York Dock Co. ; also praying for injunctionand receivership of the valorization coffee then stored in the UnitedStates, and amounting to 746, 539 bags. The injunction was denied. Immediately thereafter, rumors began to circulate that the government'scoffee suit would never be tried. The Brazilian ambassador threateneddiplomatic interference, and Attorney-General Wickersham let it be knownthat a friendly settlement might be effected. Sielcken boldly challengedthe authorities to prosecute the case, and even seemed to invitecriminal proceedings against himself. Saving the government's face, andBrazil's face, at one and the same time, proved to be a long and tediousprocess. Meanwhile, Senator Norris introduced in Congress a bill designed to givethe government power to seize importations of coffee when restraint oftrade was proved. It was vigorously opposed by many prominentgreen-coffee men and roasters; but in February, 1913, it became enactedinto a law. It effectively killed all future valorization schemes in sofar as direct participation by this country is concerned. About December 1, 1912, Attorney-General Wickersham accepted good-faithassurances from Mr. Sielcken's attorney--who represented also the Brazilgovernment--and agreed that if the valorization coffee stored here wassold to bona-fide purchasers before April 1, 1913, the government's suitwould be dismissed. In May, 1913, the attorney-general of the new Wilsonadministration, which came into office in March of that year, issued astatement saying that, good-faith assurances having been received fromthe Brazil government that the understanding was fulfilled in letter andspirit before the date set by the previous attorney-general, and theentire amount of coffee disposed of to eighty dealers in thirty-threecities, the suit would be dismissed. In the United States Senate about the same time, Senator Norris renewedhis attack on "the international coffee trust". He charged that thecoffee sale was not as represented, but merely a transfer, and calledupon the Department of Justice for the facts, with names of the allegedpurchasers. Attorney-General McReynolds, on May 7, 1913, declined to send to theSenate the official correspondence in regard to the Brazilcoffee-valorization matter, because it was "incompatible with the publicinterests. " He did, however, send other papers on the subject. Thesecretary of state sent copies of some correspondence; but the documentswere not made public. This ended the matter, although Senator Norriscalled for a congressional investigation, charging that theattorney-general had been handed a "gold brick". Sielcken contented himself with remarking that the suit was a mistake inthe first place, and that it was a foregone conclusion the governmentwould be defeated. Also, he offered $5, 000 to any one who could explainthe Norris bill. Valorization, then, was started by the state of São Paulo in 1905, whena law was passed authorizing the state to enter into an agreement withthe other Brazil states and the federal government for the adoption ofmeasures which would assure the valorization of coffee and facilitate apropaganda abroad for increased consumption. The states of São Paulo, Minãs Geraes, and Rio de Janeiro proposed, early in 1906, to withdraw from the markets such quantities of coffee aswould keep down exports and maintain profitable prices. The plancomprehended the interested states borrowing about $75, 000, 000 fromEuropean and United States bankers with which to buy up the surpluscoffee. To take care of interest and amortization, a tax of three francsper bag of 132 pounds (about 57 cents) was to be levied on all coffeeexports, collectable at Santos and Rio de Janeiro. Furthercoffee-planting was to be checked by enforcing the law which carried atax sufficiently high to operate toward restriction. When it was understood that Brazil's federal government would notendorse the plan _in toto_, it was abandoned by Rio de Janeiro and MinãsGeraes. However, the state of São Paulo in the course of the next twoyears borrowed some $30, 000, 00 on its own account for valorizationpurposes, obtaining half the amount direct from foreign bankinginterests, and the remainder, through the Brazilian federal government, from London sources. This first valorization was abandoned in favor of the Sielcken plan, which the federal government ratified in July, 1908. By this new planSão Paulo borrowed $75, 000, 000 from the syndicate composed of American, English, German, French, and Belgian bankers. Out of this it repaid the$30, 000, 000 loan. The 1908 loan was to expire in ten years, in 1919. Under the plan of the new loan, it was agreed that certain amounts ofthe valorized coffee should be stored as collateral in warehouses inNew York and Europe in charge of a committee of seven, who wereauthorized to sell the coffee in the market in specified quantities andat prices that would not disturb the price of other coffees. Thecomposition of the committee was as follows: Dr. Francisco FerreiraRamos, of São Paulo and Antwerp; who was succeeded by Dr. Paulo da SilvaPrado; the Vicomte des Touches, of Havre; the Société Generale, ofParis; the firm of Theodor Wille, of Hamburg; Hermann Sielcken, of NewYork; Edouard Bunge, of Antwerp; and Baron Bruno Schroeder, of J. HenrySchroeder & Co. , of London. Brazil agreed to purchase 10, 000, 000 bags and to hold them off themarket until conditions warranted their sale. It was also agreed thatthe total exports of unvalorized stocks from Brazil would be restrictedto 10, 000, 000 bags for 1907-08, and to 10, 500, 000 bags for 1909-10. Inaddition, a surtax of five francs gold per bag (96-1/4 cents) was placedon every bag exported to pay carrying charges. The management of thegovernment's holdings was placed in the hands of the internationalcommittee. This committee issued bonds which were quickly subscribedfor; and because of its efficient handling of its huge holdings, pricesheld steady in spite of the record-breaking Brazilian crop of nearly20, 192, 000 bags in 1906-07, and a later one in 1909-10 of about15, 000, 000 bags. Indeed, there was an advance of about ten dollars a bagbetween 1904 and 1911. Valorization had the effect of stabilizing the Brazil market, and givingthe planters and allied interests the assistance they needed to ward offthe disaster that threatened them through overproduction. The UnitedStates government action in 1912 forced the sale of the valorized stocksheld in this country, and the Congress passed the law making itimpossible again to offer for sale in America stocks of coffee heldunder similar valorization agreements. The coffee situation became so serious in 1913, that São Paulo againentered the money market for another loan, borrowing $37, 500, 000 throughthe good offices of the Brazilian federal government, following this uptwo years later with another loan of $21, 000, 000. According to asemi-official statement issued in Brazil early in 1919, the status ofvalorization at that time was that the first loan of $75, 000, 000 of1908, had been entirely liquidated, and the two later loans were greatlyreduced. At the same time, it was announced by the president of thestate of São Paulo that the surtax of five frances would be withdrawn assoon as the liquidation of the loans had been completed. This surtax, however, is still in effect. In 1919, the São Paulo government proposedadvancing the _pauta_, or export duty, very materially. A strong protestwas made by all the exporters; and a compromise was at last effected bywhich the proposed increase in the _pauta_ was canceled, and theexisting surtax of five francs per bag continued as an offset. The valorization project just described was the second of its kind, aformer attempt having proved a failure. At that time (1870), theBrazilian government had been a large purchaser of Rio coffee, buying itin lieu of exchange, as it had large remittances to make. The coffee wassold through G. Amsinck & Co. , and it is believed that heavy losses weresustained. Since the Sielcken valorization enterprise, the Brazilian government haspromoted two more valorizations, one in 1918, another early in 1922. _War-Time Government Control of Coffee_ The board of managers of the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, Inc. , had realized, late in 1917, that war-time government control of coffeetrading was likely in view of the government's activities in othercommodities. To guard against the danger of a sudden announcement ofsuch action, the president of the Exchange was empowered from month tomonth, at each meeting of the board, to suspend trading at any time thatconditions warranted; so that, when President Wilson announced, onJanuary 31, 1918, that all dealers in green coffees were to be licensed, the Exchange was fully prepared. Trading was suspended pending furtherinformation, and owing to the farsightedness of the board of managers, all danger of a panic in the market was averted. By 1917, the allies had stopped shipments of coffee to Germany throughneighbors who had been her sole source of supply. Stocks in all theproducing countries were accumulating, and São Paulo had embarked onanother valorization scheme to protect her planters. The markets ofEurope were entirely controlled by the governments; and the UnitedStates was practically the only free and open market. The market herewas steady and without particular animation, and showed none until theend of November, 1917. At that time, speculation activities, steamerscarcity, and the steady advance in freights, became decided influencesin the market; and prices began to advance. Freights on shipments from Brazil had advanced from one dollar andtwenty cents per bag early in the year to unheard-of prices; and, beforethe bubble burst, had reached as high as four dollars per bag. With thissteadily advancing freight, speculation in coffee became more active;and prices naturally began to rise. The relative cheapness of coffeecompared with all other commodities; the fact that coffee here had shownvery little advance; the prospect of an early peace; the large Europeandemand to follow; were favorite bull arguments. The market becameexcited; speculative buying was general, every one, apparently, wantedto buy coffee; and twenty cents per pound for Santos 4s in the nearfuture was a common prediction. The United States food administrator had shown his antipathy touncontrolled exchange operations by his action on sugar, wheat, corn, and other commodities, dealt in on the exchanges; consequently, theproclamation of President Wilson regarding coffee was not a surprise tothose who had been watching the situation closely, especially as onJanuary 30, 1918 (the day before the proclamation) the president of theCoffee Exchange was summoned by telegraph to appear in Washington todiscuss ways for a proper control of the article, and the best means tobring about such control. As a result of this summons, a committee ofthe entire trade, representing the Exchange, the green-coffee dealersand importers, the roasters, and the brokers, was appointed by theExchange to confer with the food administrator at once, in order to workout a plan whereby the business could be kept going. After a longconference, rules agreed upon were approved that became the basis onwhich business was conducted until the withdrawal of all regulationsregarding coffee in January, 1919. Much trade criticism followed thepublication of some of these rules. George W. Lawrence, president of the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, was called to Washington on February 28, 1918, to take charge of a newlycreated coffee division under Theodore F. Whitmarsh, chief of thedistribution division of the food administration. In this position herendered a signal service to the trade and to his country. Althoughsubjected to a cross-fire of criticism from many green and roastedcoffee interests, he never wavered in the performance of his full duty;and his good judgment, tact, and loyalty to American ideals, won for hima high place in the regard of all those who had the best interests ofthe country at heart. He was ably assisted in his work by Walter F. Blake, of Williams, Russell & Company, New York; and by F. T. Nutt, Jr. , treasurer of the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange. A coffee advisory board was appointed in June 1918, to serve as ago-between for the trade and the food administration. Those who servedon this committee were: Henry Schaefer, of S. Gruner & Co. , New York, chairman; Carl H. Stoffregen, of Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co. , NewYork, secretary; and William Bayne, Jr. , of William Bayne & Co. , NewYork; S. H. Dorr, of Arnold, Dorr & Co. , New York; A. Schierenberg, ofCorn, Schwarz & Co. , New York; Leon Israel, of Leon Israel & Bro. , NewYork; Joseph Purcell, of Hard & Rand, New York; B. F. Peabody, of T. Barbour Brown & Co. , New York; J. D. Pickslay, of Williams, Russell &Co. , New York; Charles L. Meehan, of P. C. Meehan & Co. , New York; B. C. Casanas, of Merchants Coffee Co. , New Orleans; John R. Moir, of Chase &Sanborn, Boston; and B. Meyer, of Stewart, Carnal & Co. , New Orleans. Others in the trade who served the food administration during the periodof the World War were George E. Lichty, president of the Black HawkCoffee & Spice Co. , Waterloo, Iowa; and Theodore F. Whitmarsh, vice-president and treasurer of Francis H. Leggett & Co. , New York. The visible supply of coffee for the United States on January 1, 1918, was 2, 887, 308 bags. The world's visible supply was given as 10, 012, 000bags; but to be added to this were more than 3, 000, 000 bags held by theSão Paulo government. Thus there was little reason to fear a coffeeshortage. That coffee should be permitted, with this large amount inview, to run wild as to price, was certainly not the intention of thefood administrator, whose purpose was to keep foods moving to the UnitedStates forces and allies, and as far as possible, to keep reasonableprices for the United States consumers. Steadily advancing prices offoods meant increasing cost of labor, general unrest, and a difficultsituation to meet at a period when the situation as a whole was mostcritical. Trouble for the coffee trade was imminent early in 1918, when theshipping board, backed by experts, decided, or attempted to decide, thatcoffee was not a food product; that no vessels could be had for itstransportation; and that it must be put on the list of prohibited orrestricted commodities. Mr. Hoover, however, insisted that coffee was avery necessary essential, and that tonnage must be provided for anamount sufficient at all times to keep the visible supply for the UnitedStates up to at least 1, 500, 000 bags of Brazil coffee; and this figurewas ultimately accepted and carried out by the shipping board. These figures, based on the deliveries of the two preceding years, andwith dealers limited to ninety days stock in the country, were deemedample to care for all requirements. It was figured that by November 1, 1918, the freight situation would be relieved to such an extent by thenew vessels building, that the amount could be increased should it befound necessary. The food administration, through the war trade board, offered steamer room to importers of record of the years 1916-17 at$1. 70 per bag. The first few vessels were promptly filled on a basis ofnine and one-quarter to nine and five-eighths cents, c. & f. , for Santos4s, well described. About the same time, our army and navy were able tobuy at eight to eight and three-eighths cents f. O. B. Santos, forshipment by their own vessels. After the first few vessels offered bythe War Trade Board were filled, the trade became indifferent. Thewarehouses in Brazil were loaded with stocks; vessels to carry coffeewere assured buyers at a fixed rate (profits limited); and, as there wasno apparent reason for an advance, buyers were willing to let theproducing countries carry the stock. The last week in June brought very cold weather in São Paulo, and cablesreported heavy frost. The news was not taken seriously by the trade atlarge. "Frost news" from Brazil was no novelty, and in the past hadalways been looked upon as a regular and seasonable method of bullingthe market. This year, however, the frost was a fact, and the marketbegan to move upward with surprising speed. Reports of the damage to thetrees varied from forty to eighty percent. Quotations from Santosadvanced two cents per pound in as many days. United States buyers werenot disposed to follow the advance; offerings of steamer room weredeclined; and boats booked for coffee, owing to the lack of cargoes, were transferred elsewhere. Meanwhile the market continued to advancerapidly. The allies were holding the enemy, and peace prospects werebrighter. From September 1 to November 15, the records of the foodadministration showed very small purchases. The buyers did not believein the frost. With the news of the armistice, Brazil markets went wild;and Santos 4s, which had sold at eight and one-quarter cents in May, were quoted at twenty and one-half cents by December 10. The food administration had decided, on February 6, 1918, afterconsulting the committee appointed by the Exchange, and on their adviceand recommendation, to permit trading in futures on the following plan:a fixed maximum price of eight and one-half cents per pound for the spotmonth, with a carrying charge not to exceed fifteen points per pound fordelivery for each succeeding month. Thus the price for March deliverywas fixed at eight and one-half cents, while July delivery could be soldat nine and one-tenths cents; but when July arrived, it became the spotmonth, and eight and one-half cents was the maximum at which it could besold. This rule effectively stopped speculation, but failed to work outsatisfactorily to the trade. Experience proved that a maximum fixedprice at which coffee could be traded in would have produced much betterresults. Business on the Exchange followed its usual course, and thecustomary hedging of purchases was done by dealers. The indifference ofbuyers, already referred to, had resulted in a heavy decrease of theUnited States visible supply; and it had shrunk to 2, 445, 000 bags onSeptember 1; to 2, 173, 098 bags on October 1; to 1, 857, 260 bags onNovember 1. Included in these amounts were at least 500, 000 bags, heldin New York by foreign owners, which could not be sold; and of thebalance left, there was undoubtedly a liberal amount sold against on theExchange for future delivery. By October, the situation had becomeacute. Dealers who had classified themselves as jobbers or importers hadgone into the retail classification in order to evade the limitations ofprofit allowed jobbers, and were limiting their sales to lots oftwenty-five bags or fewer. Dealers who had legitimately hedged theirholdings were unable to buy in. The Exchange officials showed no disposition to relieve the situation;and as all prices had reached the maximum price for every monthpermitted, the food administration, on November 1, 1918, ordered theliquidation of all contracts outstanding, bought or sold, by not laterthan November 9. This was done; and the coffee covered by such contractswas released to the trade. The regulations governing transactions on the Exchange were withdrawn onDecember 5, 1918; and, after a long argument, the Exchange decided tore-open for trading on December 26, 1918. Opening transactions amountedto 25, 000 bags on a basis of seventeen and one-half cents per pound ornine cents over the prices at which contracts had been liquidated. OnDecember 28 the price had declined to fifteen and one-half cents. In theopinion of many of our best merchants, the Exchange should have beenclosed during the war, as it failed to be of any real service. That itwas operating at a fixed price for the spot month only, made it of novalue to the trade during this period. Of its loyalty to the government, and its evident desire to assist there can be no question; but itscheerful acceptance of the burdens laid upon it proved largely futile. The action of the food administration in confining the coffee businesssolely to licensed dealers and to a fixed profit on actual cost; inlimiting dealers to ninety days stock; and in prohibiting resales, wasthe cause of much unjust criticism. The regulations were based on thegeneral rules of the food administration, and applied to coffee quite asequitably as did the regulations governing other food commodities undercontrol and license. As a matter of fact, they were much less rigorousin some ways than the regulations applying to many other articles. Forexample, ninety days stock based on sales for 1916-17 was allowed oncoffee. There was no other article on the food list to which thisliberality was permitted. A forty to sixty days stock would probably befound to be the maximum permitted to be carried of other food products. The general proclamation of the food administration of November 1, 1917, declared: These general and special rules and regulations are promulgated by the President to accomplish three principal objects, viz: 1st, to limit the prices charged by every licensee "to a reasonable amount over expenses and forbid the acquisition of speculative profits from a rising market"; 2d, to keep all food commodities moving in as direct a line as possible and with as little delay as practicable to the consumer; 3d, to limit as far as practicable contracts for future delivery and dealing in future contracts. From the foregoing it will be apparent that a profit to be allowed basedon "market value" for coffees was an impossibility, unless this law hadbeen altered to allow all licensees of other commodities to share. Coffee profits were fixed by the food administration on the advice of, and with acceptance by, the coffee committee. They started too low; andwere made more liberal, when the first figures were shown to beimpossible. George W. Lawrence reports a conversation that he had withthe food administrator on this particular subject, and that wascharacteristic of his broadness. Mr. Hoover said, "The coffee dealersare complaining of the profits permitted them. I want them satisfied;and if the profits are not reasonable, I shall put them where they willbe. This war is not going to last always; and at its conclusion I wantevery American merchant in a position to be able to continue hisbusiness and be no worse off than when the war started. " Resales were prohibited, or limited to one transaction, in order toprevent an accumulation of profits, that, added to each transfer, wouldresult ultimately in higher prices to the consumer. The fixing of profit based on cost, and not on market or replacementvalue, is a thing that is impossible in normal times. Carried to thelast degree, it would mean ruination; for no provision is made fordeclines in the market, and resulting losses. As a war measure it wasinevitable, and so endured. In normal times it is like trying to makewater run uphill. With a united people, it worked; but one can not havea World War always to unite the people. It has been said that governmentregulation of coffees caused a large increase in price to the consumer. This would be hard to prove. The trade, generally, that refused to buyat ten to twelve cents per pound because it did not, or would notbelieve the reports of frost damage, and thought prices too high, wasfrantically bidding up to twenty and twenty-two cents for 4s in Marchand April, 1919. According to the ideas of some enthusiasts, fifty centswas not an impossibility. Naturally such a bubble must burst eventually. Government control had nothing to do with such natural conditions asfrost, or as the buyers' indifference. Expansion and inflation were inthe air, and had to run their course. The year 1920 brought theaftermath; and in the deflation, coffee, with all other commodities, went down to prices far below its intrinsic value. The expected Europeandemand did not materialize; the interior buyer was overloaded withstock; and the losses of the coffee trade in 1920 will, it is to behoped, never be repeated. _The Story of Soluble Coffee_ For nearly two decades, many coffee men and chemists have been seeking asoluble coffee, or dried coffee extract, that would simplify thepreparation of the beverage. Thus far, all the products that haveappeared on the market are somewhat deficient in aroma and in the moredelicate flavors of coffee. A satisfying average cup of coffee can beprepared from the better brands; the chief advantages of which arerapidity of preparation, absence of any grounds, and uniformity ofdrink. Considerable progress has been made in certain directions; enough towarrant telling here, though briefly, the story of soluble coffee todate. Some there are among trade experts and coffee connoisseurs who maintainsoluble coffee is an _ignis fatuus_; that it can never be manufacturedwithout destroying the aromatic principle; that at best it is a delusionand a snare. Certainly, many absurd claims have been made for some ofthe soluble coffees on the market. However, there are others that arenot without their merits; and the story of their introduction to thetrade and the consuming public is entertaining and instructive. Dr. Sartori Kato, a Japanese chemist, of Tokio, brought a soluble tea toChicago about 1899. It was not a commercial success; but it served tobring him in touch with some coffee men and chemists, for whom heproduced a soluble coffee in the same year. A company was organized topromote the product. It was called the Kato Coffee Co. , and included, inaddition to Dr. Kato; Fillip Kreissel, a chemist; W. R. Ruffner, agreen-coffee broker; and I. D. Richheimer, a coffee roaster. Kato'ssoluble coffee was first sold to the public at the Pan-AmericanExposition in 1901. The first quantity order was received from CaptainBaldwin and by him used with satisfaction on the Ziegler Arcticexpedition. United States patents on a coffee concentrate, and processfor making the same (soluble coffee), were granted to Sartori Kato ofChicago, assignor to the Kato Coffee Co. , of the same place, on August11, 1903. G. Washington, who was born in Belgium of English parents, and who wasliving temporarily in Guatemala City, invented about 1906, a solublecoffee that was made ready for the market in 1909. The George Washington Coffee Refining Co. Was organized in 1910 to putthe Washington product on the market, which it did first under the name, Red E coffee. This was later changed to G. Washington's Prepared Coffee, as an alternative to Washington's Coffee Extract, a name which wasfavorably regarded by all except certain authorities at the nationalcapital. Associated with Mr. Washington at the start of the enterprisewere: E. Van Etten, former vice-president of the New York CentralRailroad; W. J. Arkell; Bartlett Arkell, of the Beechnut Packing Co. ;C. M. Warner, of the Warner Sugar Refining Co. ; and Charles E. Proctor, of the Singer Sewing Machine Co. The G. Washington Coffee Refining Company has its coffee-roasting andpreparing plant in Brooklyn; but its process is a secret one, and hasnever been patented. F. Lehnhoff Wyld, who was the Washingtons' family physician when theylived in Guatemala City, and with whom Mr. Washington had discussed hiswork in soluble coffee, duplicated the Washington product in 1913; and, with E. T. Cabarrus, he organized the _Société du Café Soluble Belna_, Brussels, Belgium, to put on the European market a refined solublecoffee under the brand name Belna. Eight or ten United States patents have been granted on soluble coffeesthat have never been applied commercially. Nowhere has soluble coffee met with such success as in the UnitedStates, where a number of brands followed the Kato and G. Washingtonproducts. Among them, mention should be made of the C. F. Blanke Tea &Coffee Company's Magic Cup, afterward Fairy Cup, and later, Faust brand, brought out in 1912; the Baker Importing Co. 's Barrington Hall SolubleCoffee, brought out in 1917; and the Charles G. Hires Co. 's brand, introduced to the trade in 1918. It was the World War that brought soluble coffee to the front. E. F. Holbrook, formerly in charge of the coffee section, subsistencedivision, United States War Department, said, "The use of mustard gas bythe Germans made it one of the most important articles of subsistenceused by the army. " Early in the war, soluble coffee was added to thereserve ration, three-quarters of an ounce being considered at first theproper amount per ration. After trying to put it up in sticks, tablets, capsules, and other forms, it was determined that the best method was topack it in envelopes. A month before the signing of the armistice, theNew York depot was notified that after January 1, 1919, the requirementsof soluble coffee were to be 25, 000 pounds per day in addition toquantities packed in reserve rations, bringing the total daily output to42, 500 pounds per day. Arrangements were made to have the total outputof the New York zone, 40, 000 pounds per day, packed in quarter-ounceenvelopes, twenty-four to a sealed can. I. D. Richheimer, promoter of the original soluble coffee of Kato and theKato patent, organized the Soluble Coffee Co. Of America in 1918, tosupply soluble coffee to the American army overseas. After thearmistice, the company began licensing other merchants under the Katopatent or offering to process the merchants' own coffee for them ifdesired. William A. Hamor and Charles W. Trigg, Pittsburgh, assignors to John E. King, Detroit, were granted a United States patent in 1919 on a processfor making a new soluble coffee. Their process consists in bringing thevolatilized caffeol in contact with a petrolatum, or absorbing medium, where it is held until needed for combination with the evaporated coffeeextract. The King Coffee Products Corp. Of Detroit was organized in 1920to manufacture this product, known as Minute coffee, and a coffee basefor soft drinks, the latter being marketed under the name of Coffee Pep. Mr. King had believed for many years that soluble coffee was destined tosolve many of the vexations of the coffee business, and had beenexperimenting with the idea since 1906. To facilitate hisinvestigations, he established a fellowship at the Mellon Institute ofIndustrial Research, Pittsburgh, in 1914, in charge of Charles W. Trigg. This chemically controlled research evolved a product which, afterpassing through the laboratory stage, was placed upon a small unit planbasis, and then patented. Five additional patents on the product weregranted Messrs. Trigg and David S. Pratt in 1921; and all were assignedto John E. King. [Illustration] [Illustration: THE EARLIEST COFFEE MANUSCRIPT, 1587 Pages from the Arabian writing by Abd-al-Kâdir, photographed for thiswork in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. ] CHAPTER XXXII A HISTORY OF COFFEE IN LITERATURE _The romance of coffee, and its influence on the discourse, poetry, history, drama, philosophic writing, and fiction of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and on the writers of today--Coffee quips and anecdotes_ Any study of the literature of coffee comprehends a survey of selectionsfrom the best thought of civilized nations, from the time of Rhazes(850-922) to Francis Saltus. We have seen in chapter III how Rhazes, thephysician-philosopher, appears to have been the first writer to mentioncoffee; and was followed by other great physicians, like Bengiazlah, acontemporary, and Avicenna (980-1037). Then arose many legends about coffee, that served as inspiration forArabian, French, Italian, and English poets. Sheik Gemaleddin, mufti of Mocha, is said to have discovered the virtuesof coffee about 1454, and to have promoted the use of the drink inArabia. Knowledge of the new beverage was given to Europeans by thebotanists Rauwolf and Alpini toward the close of the sixteenth century. The first authentic account of the origin of coffee was written byAbd-al-Kâdir in 1587. It is the famous Arabian manuscript commending theuse of coffee, preserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris, andcatalogued as "Arabe, 4590. " Its title written in Arabic is as follows: [Arabic]___ ___ ___ ___ 4 3 2 1 which is pronounced (reading right to left): omdat as safwa fi hall al kahwa___ ___ ___ _____ 1 2 3 4 or; in the literary style: omdatu s safwati fi hallu 'l kahwati whichmeans--literally, (the corresponding words being underlined andnumbered) "The maintenance of purity as ___________ ______ 1 2regards the legitimacy of coffee. " _________ ______ 3 4 or, more freely, "Argument in favor of the legitimate use of coffee. " [Arabic] kahwa, is the Arabic word for coffee. The author is Abd-al-Kâdir ibn Mohammad al Ansâri al Jazari al Hanbali. That is, he was named Abd-al-Kâdir, son of Mohammed. _Abd-al-Kâdir_ means "slave of the strong one" (i. E. , of God); while _alAnsâri_ means that he was a descendant of the _Ansâri_ (i. E. , "helpers"), the people of Medina who received and protected the Prophet Mohammedafter his flight from Mecca; _al Jazari_ means that he was a man ofMesopotamia; and _al Hanbali_ that in law and theology he belonged tothe well known sect, or school, of the Hanbalites, so called after thegreat jurist and writer, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who died at Bagdad A. H. 241(A. D. 855). The Hanbalites are one of the four great sects of the SunniMohammedans. Abd-al-Kâdir ibn Mohammed lived in the tenth century of the Hegira--thesixteenth of our era--and wrote his book in 996 A. H. , or 1587 A. D. Coffee had then been in common use since about 1450 A. D. In Arabia. Itwas not in use in the time of the Prophet, who died in 632 A. D. ; but hehad forbidden the drink of strong liquors which affect the brain, andhence it was argued that coffee, as a stimulant, was unlawful. Eventoday, the community of the Wahabis, very powerful in Arabia a hundredyears ago, and still dominant in part of it, do not permit the use ofcoffee. Abd-al-Kâdir's book is thought to have been based on an earlier writingby Shihâb-ad-Dîn Ahmad ibn Abd-al-Ghafâr al Maliki, as he refers to thelatter on the third page of his manuscript; but if so, this previouswork does not appear to have been preserved. La Roque says Shihâb-ad-Dînwas an Arabian historian who supplied the main part of Abd-al-Kâdir'sstory. La Roque refers also to a Turkish historian. Research by the author has failed to disclose anything aboutShihâb-ad-Dîn save his name (_al Maliki_ means that he belonged to theMalikites, another of the four great Sunni sects), and that he wroteabout a hundred years before Abd-al-Kâdir. No copy of his writings isknown to exist. The illustrations show the title page of Abd-al-Kâdir's manuscript, thefirst page, the third page, and the fly leaf of the cover, the lattercontaining an inscription in Latin made at the time the manuscript wasfirst received or classified. It reads: Omdat al safouat fl hall al cahuat. De usu legitimo et licito potionis quae vulgo Café nuncupatur. Authore Abdalcader Ben Mohammed al Ansâri. Constat hic liber capitibus septem, et ab authore editus est anno hegirae 996 quo anno centum et viginti anni effluxerant ex quo huius potionis usus in Arabia felice invaluerat The translation of the Latin is: Concerning the legitimate and lawful use of the drink commonly known as café by Abdalcader Ben Mohammed al Ansâri. The book is composed in seven chapters and was brought out by the author in the year of the Hegira 996 at which time a hundred and twenty years had passed since the use of this drink had become firmly established in Arabia Felix. _Coffee in Poetry_ The Abd-al-Kâdir work immortalized coffee. It is in seven chapters. Thefirst treats of the etymology and significance of the word cahouah(kahwa), the nature and properties of the bean, where the drink wasfirst used, and describes its virtues. The other chapters have to dolargely with the church dispute in Mecca in 1511, answer the religiousobjectors to coffee, and conclude with a collection of Arabic versescomposed during the Mecca controversy by the best poets of the time. De Nointel, ambassador from the court of Louis XIV to the Ottoman Porte, brought back with him to Paris from Constantinople the Abd-al-Kâdirmanuscript, and another by Bichivili, one of the three generaltreasurers of the Ottoman Empire. The latter work is of a later datethan the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript, and is concerned chiefly with thehistory of the introduction of coffee into Egypt, Syria, Damascus, Aleppo, and Constantinople. The following are two of the earliest Arabic poems in praise of coffee. They are about the period of the first coffee persecution in Mecca(1511), and are typical of the best thought of the day: IN PRAISE OF COFFEE _Translation from the Arabic_ O Coffee! Thou dost dispel all cares, thou art the object of desire to the scholar. This is the beverage of the friends of God; it gives health to those in its service who strive after wisdom. Prepared from the simple shell of the berry, it has the odor of musk and the color of ink. The intelligent man who empties these cups of foaming coffee, he alone knows truth. May God deprive of this drink the foolish man who condemns it with incurable obstinacy. Coffee is our gold. Wherever it is served, one enjoys the society of the noblest and most generous men. O drink! As harmless as pure milk, which differs from it only in its blackness. Here is another, rhymed version of the same poem: IN PRAISE OF COFFEE _Translation from the Arabic_ O coffee! Doved and fragrant drink, thou drivest care away, The object thou of that man's wish who studies night and day. Thou soothest him, thou giv'st him health, and God doth favor thoseWho walk straight on in wisdom's way, nor seek their own repose. Fragrant as musk thy berry is, yet black as ink in sooth!And he who sips thy fragrant cup can only know the truth. Insensate they who, tasting not, yet vilify its use;For when they thirst and seek its help, God will the gift refuse. Oh, coffee is our wealth! for see, where'er on earth it grows, Men live whose aims are noble, true virtues who disclose. COFFEE COMPANIONSHIP _Translation from the Arabic_ Come and enjoy the company of coffee in the places of its habitation; for the Divine Goodness envelops those who partake of its feast. There the elegance of the rugs, the sweetness of life, the society of the guests, all give a picture of the abode of the blest. It is a wine which no sorrow could resist when the cup-bearer presents thee with the cup which contains it. It is not long since Aden saw thy birth. If thou doubtest this, see the freshness of youth shining on the faces of thy children. Grief is not found within its habitations. Trouble yields humbly to its power. It is the beverage of the children of God, it is the source of health. It is the stream in which we wash away our sorrows. It is the fire which consumes our griefs. Whoever has once known the chafing-dish which prepares this beverage, will feel only aversion for wine and liquor from casks. Delicious beverage, its color is the seal of its purity. Reason pronounces favorably on the lawfulness of it. Drink of it confidently, and give not ear to the speech of the foolish, who condemn it without reason. During the period of the second religious persecution of coffee in thelatter part of the sixteenth century, other Arabian poets sang thepraises of coffee. The learned Fakr-Eddin-Aboubeckr ben Abid Iesi wrotea book entitled _The Triumph of Coffee_, and the poet-sheikhSherif-Eddin-Omar-ben-Faredh sang of it in harmonious verse, wherein, discoursing of his mistress, he could find no more flattering comparisonthan coffee. He exclaims, "She has made me drink, in long draughts, thefever, or, rather, the coffee of love!" The numerous contributions by early travelers to the literature ofcoffee have been mentioned in chronological order in the historychapters. After Rauwolf and Alpini, there were Sir Antony Sherley, Parry, Biddulph, Captain John Smith, Sir George Sandys, Sir ThomasHerbert, and Sir Henry Blount in England; Tavernier, Thévenot, Bernier, P. De la Roque, and Galland in France; Delia Valle in Italy; Oleariusand Niebhur in Germany; Nieuhoff in Holland, and others. Francis Bacon wrote about coffee in his _Hist. Vitae et Mortis_ and_Sylva Sylvarum_, 1623-27. Burton referred to it in his "_Anatomy ofMelancholy_" in 1632. Parkinson described it in his _Theatrum Botanicum_in 1640. In 1652, Pasqua Rosée published his famous handbill in London, a literary effort as well as a splendid first advertisement. Faustus Nairon (Banesius) produced in Rome, in 1671, the first printedtreatise devoted solely to coffee. The same year Dufour brought out thefirst treatise in French. This he followed in 1684 with his work, _Themanner of making coffee, tea, and chocolate_. John Ray extolled thevirtues of coffee in his _Universal Botany of Plants_, published inLondon in 1686. Galland translated the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript intoFrench in 1699, and Jean La Roque published his _Voyage de l'ArabieHeureuse_ in Paris in 1715. Excerpts from nearly all these works appearin various chapters of this work. Leonardus Ferdinandus Meisner published a Latin treatise on coffee, tea, and chocolate in 1721. Dr. James Douglas published in London (1727) his_Arbor yemensis fructum cofè ferens, or a description and history of theCoffee Tree_. This work laid under contribution many of the Italian, German, French, and English scholars mentioned above; and the authormentioned as other sources of information: Dr. Quincy, Pechey, Gaudron, de Fontenelle, Professor Boerhaave, Figueroa, Chabraeus, Sir HansSloane, Langius, and Du Mont. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the poets and dramatists ofFrance, Italy, and England found a plentiful supply in what had alreadybeen written on coffee; to say nothing of the inspiration offered by thedrink itself, and by the society of the cafés of the period. French poets, familiar with Latin, first took coffee as the subject oftheir verse. Vaniére sang its praises in the eighth book of his_Praedium rusticum_; and Fellon, a Jesuit professor of Trinity College, Lyons, wrote a didactic poem called, _Faba Arabica, Carmen_, which isincluded in the _Poemata didascalica_ of d'Olivet. Abbé Guillaume Massieu's _Carmen Caffaeum_, composed in 1718, has beenreferred to in chapter III. It was read at the Academy of Inscriptions. One of the panegyrists of this author, de Boze, in his _Elogé deMassieu_, says that if Horace and Virgil had known of coffee, the poemmight easily have been attributed to them; and Thery, who translated itinto French, says "it is a pearl of elegance in a rare jewel case. " The following translation of the poem from the Latin original was madefor this work: COFFEE _A Poem by Guillaume Massieu of the French Academy_ (A literal prose translation from the original Latin in the BritishMuseum. ) How coffee first came to our shores, What the nature of the divine drink is, what its use, How it brings ready aid to man against every kind of evils, I shall here begin to tell in simple verse. You soft-spoken men, who have often tried the sweetness of this drink, If it has never deceived your wishes or mocked your hopesWith its empty results, be propitious and lend a willing ear to our song. And may you, O Phoebus, kindly be present, to acknowledgeAs your gift the power of herbs and healthful plants, and toDispel sad diseases from our bodies; for they say you areThe author of this blessing, and may you spread yourGifts among peoples, and everywhere far and wide throughout the entireworld. Across Libya afar, and the seven mouths of the swollen Nile, Where Asia most joyfully spreads in immense fieldsRich in various resources and filled with fragrant woods, A region extends. The Sabeans of old inhabited it. I believe indeed Nature, that best parent of all things, Loved this place more than all others with a tender love. Here the air of Heaven always breathes more mildly. The sun has a gentler power; here are flowers of a different clime;And the earth with fertile bosom brings forth various fruits, Cinnamon, casia, myrrh, and fragrant thyme. Amid the resources and gifts of this blessed land, Turned to the sun and the warm south winds, A tree spontaneously lifts itself into the upper air. Growing nowhere else, and unknown in earlier centuries, By no means great in size, it stretches not far itsSpreading branches, nor lifts a lofty top to heaven;But lowly, after the manner of myrtle or pliant broom, It rises from the ground. Many a nut bends its rich branches. Small, like a bean, dark and dull in color, Marked by a slight groove in the centre of its hull. To transplant this growth to our own fieldsMany have tried, and to cultivate it with great care. In vain; for the plant has not responded to the zealAnd desires of the planters, and has rendered vain their long labor;Before day the root of the tender herb has withered away. Either this has happened through fault of climate, or grudgingEarth refuses to furnish fit nourishment to the foreign plant. Therefore come thou, whoever shall be possesed by a love for coffee, Do not regret having brought the healthful bean from the farRemote world of Arabia; for this is its bountiful mother country. The soothing draught first flowed from those regions through otherPeoples; thence through all Europe and Asia, and next made its way through the entire world. Therefore, what you shall know to be sufficient for your needs, Do you prepare long beforehand; let it be your care to have collectedYearly a copious store, and providently fill small granaries, As of yore the farmer, early mindful and provident of the future, Collected crops from his fields and garnered them in his barns, And turned his attention to the coming year. None the less, meanwhile, must the utensils for coffee be cared for. Letnot vessels suited for drinking the beverage be lacking, And a pot, whose narrow neck should be topped by a small cover And whose bodyshould swell gradually into an oblong shape. When these things shallhave been provided by you, let your Next care be to roast well the beanswith flames, and to grind them when roasted. Nor should the hammer ceaseto crush them with many a blow, Until they lay aside their hardness, andwhen thoroughly ground, Become fine powder; which forthwith pack eitherin a bag or a box made for such uses. And wrap it in leather, and smearit over with soft wax, lest Narrow chinks be open, or hidden channels. Unless you prevent these, by a secret path gradually small Particles andwhatever of value exists, and the entire strength, Would leave, wastinginto empty air. [Illustration: CAMEL TRANSPORT BETWEEN HARAR AND DIRE-DAOUA, ABYSSINIA] [Illustration: SUN-DRYING IN LA LAGUNA, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS] [Illustration: COFFEE SCENES IN THE NEAR AND THE FAR EAST] There is also a hollow machine, like a small tower, which theyCall a mill, in which you can bruise the useful fruit of theRoasted bean and crush it with frequent rubbing;A revolving pivot in the middle, on an easy wheel turning, Twists its metal joints on a creaking stem. The top of the wheel, you know, is pierced with an ivory handleWhich will have to be turned by hand, through a thousand revolutions, And through a thousand circles it moves the pivot. When you put a kernel in, you will turn the handle with quick hand--No delay--and you will wonder how the crackling kernel isWith much grinding quickly reduced to a powder. Once only the lower compartment receives on its kindly bosomThe crushed grains, which are placed in the very depths of the box. But why do we linger over these less important matters? Greater thingscall us. Then is it time to drain the sweet Draught, either under thenew light of the early sun In the morning, when an empty stomach demandsfood; Or, when, after the splendid feasts of a magnificent table Theoverburdened stomach suffers from too heavy load, and Unequal to thedemands made upon it, seeks the aid of external heat. Then come, whennow the pot grows ruddy in the fire Crackling beneath, and you shallbehold the liquid, swelling With mingled powdered coffee, now bubblearound the brim, Draw it from the fire. Unless you should do this, theforce of The water would break forth suddenly, overflowing, and wouldSprinkle the beverage on the fire beneath. Therefore, let no suchaccident disturb your joys. You should keep watch carefully when thewater no longer Restrains itself and bubbles with the heat; then returnThe pot to the fire thrice and four times, until the powdered Coffeesteams in the midst of the fire and blends thoroughly with thesurrounding water. This soothing drink ought to be boiled with skill, to be drunk Withart--not in the way men are wont to drink other beverages--And withreason; for when you shall have taken it steaming from A quick fire, andgradually all the dregs have settled to the Very bottom, you shall notdrink it impatiently at one gulp. But rather, sip it little by little, and between draughts Contrive pleasant delays; and sipping, drain it inlong draughts, So long as it is still hot and burns the palate. For thenit is better, then it permeates our inmost bones, and Penetrating withinto the center of our vitals and our marrow, It pervades all our bodywith its vivifying strength. Often even merely inhaling the odor withtheir nostrils, men Have welcomed it, when it has bubbled up from thebottom, More refreshing than the breeze. So much pleasure is there in adelicious odor. And now there remains awaiting us the other part of our task, To makeknown the secret strength of the divine draught. But who could hope tounderstand this wonderful blessing Or to be able to pursue so great amiracle in verse? For really, when coffee has quietly glided into yourbody, Taking itself within, it sheds a vital warmth through your Limbs, and inspires joyous strength in your heart. Then if There is anythingundigested, with fire's help, it heats the Hidden channels, and loosensthe thin pores, through which the Useless moisture exudes, and seeds ofdiseases flee from all your veins. Wherefore come, O you who have a care for your health! You, whose triplechin hangs on your breast, Who drag your heavy stomach of great bulk, Itis fitting for you, first of all, to indulge in the warm Beverage; forindeed it will dry the hideous flow of moisture Which oppresses yourlimbs, and sends forth streams of perspiration from your whole body. Andin a short time, the swelling of your fat belly will Gradually begin todecrease, and it will lighten your members, now oppressed by their heavyweight. O happy peoples, on whom Titan, rising, looks with his first light!Here, a rather free use of wine has never done harm. Law and religionforbid us to quaff the flowing wine. Here one lives on coffee. Here, then, flourishing with joyous strength One pursues life and knows notwhat diseases are, Nor that child of Bacchus and companion of highliving--Gout; Nor what innumerable diseases through this union are readyto attack our world. Yet, indeed, the soothing power of this invigorating drink Drives sadcares from the heart, and exhilarates the spirits. I have seen a man, when he had not yet drained a mighty Draught of this sweet nectar, walksilently with slow gait, His brow sad, and forehead rough withforbidding wrinkles. This same man who had hardly bathed his throat withthe sweet Drink--no delay--clouds fled from his wrinkled brow; and Hetook pleasure in teasing all with his witty sayings. Nor yet did hepursue any one with bitter laughter. For this Harmless drink inspires nodesire of offending, the venom Is lacking, and pleasant laughter withoutbitterness pleases. And in the entire East this custom of coffee drinking Has been accepted. And, now, France; you adopt the foreign custom, So that public shops, one after the other, are opened for Drinking Coffee. A hanging sign ofeither ivy or laurel invites the passers-by. Hither in crowds from theentire city they assemble, and While away the time in pleasant drinking. And when once the feelings have grown warm, acted upon by The gentleheat, then good-humored laughter, and pleasant Arguments increase. General gaiety ensues, the places about resound with joyous applause. But never does the liquid imbibed overpower weary minds, but Rather, ifever slumber presses their heavy eyes and dulls The brain; and theirstrength, blunted, grows torpid in the Body, coffee puts sleep to flightfrom the eyes, and slothful inactivity from the whole frame. Thereforeto absorb the sweet draught would be an advantage For those whom a greatdeal of long-continued labor awaits And those who need to extend theirstudy far into the night. And here I shall make known who taught the use of this pleasant Drink;for its virtue, unknown, has lain hidden through many Years; andreviewing, I shall relate the matter from the very beginning. An Arab shepherd was driving his young goats to the well-known Pastures. They were wandering through lonely wastes and cropping The grasses, whena tree heavy with many berries--never seen before--met their eyes. Atonce, as they were able to reach the low branches, they began To pulloff the leaves with many a nibble, and to pluck the tender Growth. Itsbitterness attracts. The shepherd, not knowing this, Was meanwhilesinging on the soft grass and telling the story of his loves to thewoods. But when the evening star, rising, warned him to leave the field, And he led back his well-fed flock to their stalls, he perceived Thatthe beasts did not close their eyes in sweet sleep, but Joyous beyondtheir wont, with wonderful delight throughout the Whole night jumpedabout with wanton leaps. Trembling with sudden Fear, the shepherd stoodamazed; and crazed by the sound, he Thought these things were being donethrough some wicked trick of a neighbor, or by magic art. Not far from here a holy band of brethren had built their Humble home ina remote valley; their lot it was to chant Praises of God, and to loadhis altars with fitting gifts. Although throughout the night thedeep-toned bell resounded With great din, and summoned them to thesacred temple, often The coming of dawn found them lingering on theircouches, Having forgotten to rise in the middle of the night. So greatwas their love of sleep! In charge of the sacred temple, revered and obeyed by his Willingbrethren, was the master, an aged man, a heavy mass of white hair onhead and chin. The shepherd, hastening, came to him and told him thestory, Imploring his aid. The old man smiled to himself; but He agreedto go, and investigate the hidden cause of the miracle. When he has come to the hills, he observes the lambs, together Withtheir mothers, gnawing the berries of an unknown plant, And cries, "Thisis the cause of the trouble!" And saying no More, he at once picks thesmooth fruit from the heavily-laden Tree, and carries it home, placesit, when washed, in pure Water, cooking it over the fire, and fearlesslydrinks a large Cup of it. Forthwith a warmth pervades his veins, aliving Force is diffused through his limbs, and weariness is dispelledfrom his aged body. Then, at length, the old man exulting in theblessing thus found, Rejoices, and kindly shares with all his brothers. They eagerly At early night-fall, indulge in pleasant banquets and draingreat bowls. No longer is it hard for them to break off sweet sleep andto leave their soft beds as formerly. O fortunate ones! whose hearts thesweet draught has often Bathed. No sluggish torpor holds their minds, they briskly Rise for their prescribed duties and rejoice to outstripthe rays of the first light. You also, whose care it is to feed minds with divine eloquence And toterrify with your words the souls of the guilty, you also Should indulgein the pleasant drink; for, as you know, it Strengthens weakness. Keenvigor is gained for the limbs from This source, and spreads through thewhole body. From this source, Too, shall come new strength and new powerto your voice. You also, whom oft harmful vapors harass, whose sickbrain the dangerous vertigo shakes, Ah, come! In this sweet liquid is aready medicine And none other better to calm undue agitation. Apolloplanted this power for himself, they say, The story is worthy to besung. Once a disease most deadly to life assailed the disciples of Apollo'sMount. It spread far and wide, and attacked the brain itself. Alreadyall the people of genius were suffering with this Disease; and the arts, deserted, were languishing along with The workers. Some even pretendedto have the disease, and Assuming feigned suffering, gave themselvesover to an idle life. Unpleasing work grew distasteful, and deadlyinertia increased Everywhere. It pleased all, now released from work andlabors, To indulge in care-free quiet. Apollo, full of indignation, didnot endure longer that the deadly Contagion of such easy ruin shouldcreep over them thus. And, That he might take away from seers all meansof deception, he Enticed from the rich bosom of the earth this friendlyplant, Than which no other is more ready either to refresh for work theMind wearied by long studies, or to sooth troublesome sorrows of thehead. O plant, given to the human race by the gift of the Gods! No other outof the entire list of plants has ever vied with you. On your accountsailors sail from our shores And fearlessly conquer the threateningwinds, sandbanks and Dreadful rocks. With your nourishing growth yousurpass dittany, Ambrosia, and fragrant panacea. Grim diseases flee fromyou. To You trusting health clings as a companion, and also the merryCrowd, conversation, amusing jokes, and sweet whisperings. The poet Belighi toward the close of the sixteenth century composed apoem, which, freely translated, runs: In Damascus, in Aleppo, in great Cairo, At every turn is to be foundThat mild fruit which gives so beloved a drink, Before coming to court to triumph. There this seditious disturber of the world, Has, by its unparalleled virtue, Supplanted all wines from this blessed day. Jacques Delille (1738-1813) the didactic poet of nature, in _chant vi_of his "_Three Reigns of Nature_, " thus apostrophizes the "divinenectar" and describes its preparation: DIVINE COFFEE _Translation from the French_ A liquid there is to the poet most dear, 'T was lacking to Virgil, adored by Voltaire, 'T is thou, divine coffee, for thine is the art, Without turning the head yet to gladden the heart. And thus though my palate be dulled by age, With joy I partake of thy dear beverage. How glad I prepare me thy nectar most precious, No soul shall usurp me a rite so delicious;On the ambient flame when the black charcoal burns, The gold of thy bean to rare ebony turns, I alone, 'gainst the cone, wrought with fierce iron teeth. Make thy fruitage cry out with its bitter-sweet breath;Till charmed with such perfume, with care I entrustTo the pot on my hearth the rare spice-laden dust:First to calm, then excite, till it seethingly whirls, With an eye all attention I gaze till it boils. At last now the liquid comes slow to repose;In the hot, smoking vessel its wealth I depose, My cup and thy nectar; from wild reeds expressed, America's honey my table has blest;All is ready; Japan's gay enamel invites--And the tribute of two worlds thy prestige unites:Come, Nectar divine, inspire thou me, I wish but Antigone, dessert and thee;For scarce have I tasted thy odorous steam, When quick from thy clime, soothing warmths round me stream, Attentive my thoughts rise and flow light as air, Awaking my senses and soothing my care. Ideas that but late moved so dull and depressed, Behold, they come smiling in rich garments dressed!Some genius awakes me, my course is begun;For I drink with each drop a bright ray of the sun. Maumenet addressed to Galland the following verses: If slumber, friend, too near, with some late glass should creep-- Dull, poppy-perfumed sleep--If a too fumous wine confounds at length thy brain-- Take coffee then--this juice divineShall banish sleep and steam of vap'rous wine, And with its timely aid fresh vigor thou shalt find. Castel, in his poem, _Les Plantes_ (The Plants) could not omit thecoffee trees of the tropics. He thus addressed them in 1811: Bright plants, the favorites of Phoebus, In these climes the rarest virtues offer, Delicious Mocha, thy sap, enchantress, Awakens genius, outvalues Parnasse! In a collection of the _Songs of Brittany_ in the Brest library thereare many stanzas in praise of coffee. A Breton poet has composed alittle piece of ninety-six verses in which he describes the powerfulattraction that coffee has for women and the possible effects ondomestic happiness. The first time that coffee was used in Brittany, says an old song of that country, only the nobility drank it, and nowall the common people are using it, yet the greater part of them havenot even bread. A French poet of the eighteenth century produced the following: LINES ON COFFEE _Translation from the French_ Good coffee is more than a savory cup, Its aroma has power to dry liquor up. By coffee you get upon leaving the tableA mind full of wisdom, thoughts lucid, nerves stable;And odd tho' it be, 't is none the less true, Coffee's aid to digestion permits dining anew. And what 's very true, tho' few people know it, Fine coffee 's the basis of every fine poet;For many a writer as windy as BoreasHas been vastly improved by the drink ever glorious. Coffee brightens the dullness of heavy philosophy, And opens the science of mighty geometry. Our law-makers, too, when the nectar imbibing, Plan wondrous reforms, quite beyond the describing;The odor of coffee they delight in inhaling, And promise the country to alter laws ailing. From the brow of the scholar coffee chases the wrinkles, And mirth in his eyes like a firefly twinkles;And he, who before was but a hack of old Homer, Becomes an original, and that 's no misnomer. Observe the astronomer who 's straining his eyesIn watching the planets which soar thro' the skies;Alas, all those bright bodies seem hopelessly farTill coffee discloses his own guiding star. But greatest of wonders that coffee effectsIs to aid the news-editor as he little expects;Coffee whispers the secrets of hidden diplomacy, Hints rumors of wars and of scandals so racy. Inspiration by coffee must be nigh unto magic, For it conjures up facts that are certainly tragic;And for a few pennies, coffee's small price per cup, "Ye editor's" able to swallow the Universe up. Esménard celebrated Captain de Clieu's romantic voyage to Martiniquewith the coffee plants from the Jardin des Plantes, in some admirableverses quoted in chapter II. Among other notable poetic flights in praise of coffee produced inFrance mention should be made of: "_L'Elogé du Café_" (Eulogy of Coffee)a song in twenty-four couplets, Paris, Jacques Estienne, 1711; _Le Café_(Coffee), a fragment from the fourth _chant_ (song) of _La Grandeur deDieu dans les merveilles de la Nature_ (The Grandeur of God in theWonders of Nature) Marseilles; _Le Café_, extract from the fourthgastronomic song, by Berchoux; "_A Mon Café_" (To My Coffee), stanzaswritten by Ducis; _Le Café_, anonymous stanzas inserted in the_Macedoine Poetique_, 1824; a poem in Latin in the Abbé Olivier'scollection; _Le Bouquet Blanc et le Bouquet Noir, poesie en quatrechants; Le Café_, C. D. Mery, 1837; _Elogé du Café_, S. Melaye, 1852. Many Italian poets have sung the praises of coffee. L. Barotti wrote hispoem, _Il Caffè_ in 1681. Giuseppe Parini (1729-1799), Italy's greatsatirical and lyric poet and critic of the eighteenth century, in _IlGiorno_ (_The Day_), gives a delightful pen picture of the manners andcustoms of Milan's polite society of the period. William Dean Howellsquotes as follows from these poems (his own translation) in his _ModernItalian Poets_. The feast is over, and the lady signals to the cavalierthat it is time to leave the table: Spring to thy feetThe first of all, and, drawing near thy lady, Remove her chair and offer her thy hand, And lead her to the other room, nor suffer longerThat the stale reek of viands shall offendHer delicate sense. Thee with the rest invitesThe grateful odor of the coffee, whereIt smokes upon a smaller table hidAnd graced with Indian webs. The redolent gumsThat meanwhile burn, sweeten and purifyThe heavy atmosphere, and banish thenceAll lingering traces of the feast. Ye sickAnd poor, whom misery or whom hope, perchance!Has guided in the noonday to these doors. Tumultuous, naked, and unsightly throng, With mutilated limbs and squalid faces, In litters and on crutches from afarComfort yourselves, and with expanded nostrilsDrink in the nectar of the feast divineThat favourable zephyrs waft to you;But do not dare besiege these noble precincts, Importunately offering her that reignsWithin your loathsome spectacle of woe!And now, sir, 't is your office to prepareThe tiny cup that then shall minister, Slow sipped, its liquor to thy lady's lips;And now bethink thee whether she preferThe boiling beverage much or little temperedWith sweet; or if, perchance, she likes it best, As doth the barbarous spouse, then when she sitsUpon brocades of Persia, with light fingers, The bearded visage of her lord caressing. This is from _Il Mezzogiorno_ (_Noon_). The other three poems, roundingout _The Day_, are _Il Mattino_ (_Morning_), _Il Vespre_ (_Evening_), and _La Notte_ (_Night_). In _Il Mattino_, Parini sings: Should dreary hypochondria's woes oppress thee, Should round thy charming limbs in too great measureThy flesh increase, then with thy lips do honorTo that clear beverage, made from the well-bronzed, The smoking, ardent beans Aleppo sends thee, And distant Mocha too, a thousand ship-loads;When slowly sipped it knows no rival. Belli's _Il Caffè_ supplies a partial bibliography of the Italianliterature on coffee. There are many poems, some of them put to music. As late as 1921, there were published in Bologna some advertising verseson coffee by G. B. Zecchini with music by Cesare Cantino. Pope Leo XIII, in his Horatian poem on _Frugality_ composed in hiseighty-eighth year, thus verses his appreciation of coffee: Last comes the beverage of the Orient shore, Mocha, far off, the fragrant berries bore. Taste the dark fluid with a dainty lip, Digestion waits on pleasure as you sip. Peter Altenberg, a Vienna poet, thus celebrated the cafés of his nativecity: TO THE COFFEE HOUSE! When you are worried, have trouble of one sort or another--to the coffee house!When she did not keep her appointment, for one reason or other--to the coffee house!When your shoes are torn and dilapidated--coffee house!When your income is four hundred crowns and you spend five hundred--coffee house!You are a chair warmer in some office, while your ambition led you to seek professional honors--coffee house!You could not find a mate to suit you--coffee house!You feel like committing suicide--coffee house!You hate and despise human beings, and at the same time you can not be happy without them--coffee house!You compose a poem which you can not inflict upon friends you meet in the street--coffee house!When your coal scuttle is empty, and your gas ration exhausted--coffee house!When you need money for cigarettes, you touch the head waiter in the--coffee house!When you are locked out and haven't the money to pay for unlocking the house door--coffee house!When you acquire a new flame, and intend provoking the old one, you take the new one to the old one's--coffee house!When you feel like hiding you dive into a--coffee house!When you want to be seen in a new suit--coffee house!When you can not get anything on trust anywhere else--coffee house! English poets from Milton to Keats celebrated coffee. Milton (1608-1674)in his _Comus_ thus acclaimed the beverage: One sip of thisWill bathe the drooping spirits in delightBeyond the bliss of dreams. Alexander Pope, poet and satirist (1688-1744), has the oft-quoted lines: Coffee which makes the politician wise, And see through all things with his half-shut eyes. In Carruthers' _Life of Pope_, we read that this poet inhaled the steamof coffee in order to obtain relief from the headaches to which he wassubject. We can well understand the inspiration which called forth fromhim the following lines when he was not yet twenty: As long as Mocha's happy tree shall grow, While berries crackle, or while mills shall go;While smoking streams from silver spouts shall glide, Or China's earth receive the sable tide, While coffee shall to British nymphs be dear, While fragrant steams the bended head shall cheer, Or grateful bitters shall delight the taste, So long her honors, name and praise shall last. Pope's famous _Rape of the Lock_ grew out of coffee-house gossip. Thepoem contains the passage on coffee already quoted: For lo! the board with cups and spoons is crowned;The berries crackle and the mill turns round;On shining altars of Japan they raiseThe silver lamp: the fiery spirits blaze:From silver spouts the grateful liquors glide, While China's earth receives the smoking tide. At once they gratify their scent and taste. And frequent cups prolong the rich repastStraight hover round the fair her airy band;Some, as she sipped, the fuming liquor fanned:Some o'er her lap their careful plumes displayed, Trembling, and conscious of the rich brocade. Coffee (which makes the politician wise, And see through all things with his half-shut eyes. )Sent up in vapors to the baron's brainNew stratagems, the radiant lock to gain. Pope often broke the slumbers of his servant at night by calling him toprepare a cup of coffee; but for regular serving, it was his custom togrind and to prepare it upon the table. William Cowper's fine tribute to "the cups that cheer but notinebriate", a phrase which he is said to have borrowed from BishopBerkeley, was addressed to tea and not to coffee, to which it has notinfrequently been wrongfully attributed. It is one of the most pleasingpictures in _The Task_. Cowper refers to coffee but once in his writings. In his _Pity for PoorAfricans_ he expresses himself as "shocked at the ignorance of slaves": I pity them greatly, but I must be mumFor how could we do without sugar and rum?Especially sugar, so needful we see;What! Give up our desserts, our coffee and tea? thus contenting himself, like many others, with words of pity where moreactive protest might sacrifice his personal ease and comfort. Leigh Hunt (1784-1859), and John Keats (1795-1834), were worshippers atthe shrine of coffee; while Charles Lamb, famous poet, essayist, humorist, and critic, has celebrated in verse the exploit of Captain deClieu in the following delightful verses: THE COFFEE SLIPS Whene'er I fragrant coffee drink, I on the generous Frenchman think, Whose noble perseverance boreThe tree to Martinico's shore. While yet her colony was new, Her island products but a few;Two shoots from off a coffee treeHe carried with him o'er the sea. Each little tender coffee slipHe waters daily in the ship. And as he tends his embryo trees. Feels he is raising 'midst the seasCoffee groves, whose ample shadeShall screen the dark Creolian maid. But soon, alas! His darling pleasureIn watching this his precious treasureIs like to fade--for water failsOn board the ship in which he sails. Now all the reservoirs are shut. The crew on short allowance put;So small a drop is each man's share. Few leavings you may think there areTo water these poor coffee plants--But he supplies their grasping wants, Even from his own dry parched lipsHe spares it for his coffee slips. Water he gives his nurslings first, Ere he allays his own deep thirst, Lest, if he first the water sip, He bear too far his eager lip. He sees them droop for want of more;Yet when they reach the destined shore, With pride the heroic gardener seesA living sap still in his trees. The islanders his praise resound;Coffee plantations rise around;And Martinico loads her shipsWith produce from those dear-saved slips. In John Keats' amusing fantasy, _Cap and Bells_, the Emperor Elfinangreets Hum, the great soothsayer, and offers him refreshment: "You may have sherry in silver, hock in gold, or glass'd champagne ... What cup will you drain?" "Commander of the Faithful!" answered Hum, "In preference to these, I'll merely tasteA thimble-full of old Jamaica rum. ""A simple boon, " said Elfinan; "thou maystHave Nantz, with which my morning coffee's laced. " But Hum accepts the glass of Nantz, without the coffee, "made racy withthe third part of the least drop of _crème de citron_, crystal clear. " Numerous broadsides printed in London, 1660 to 1675, have been referredto in chapter X. Few of them possess real literary merit. "Coffee and Crumpets" has been much quoted. It was published in_Fraser's Magazine_, in 1837. Its author calls himself "LauncelotLittledo". The poem is quite long, and only those portions are printedhere that refer particularly to "Yemen's fragrant berry": COFFEE AND CRUMPETS _By Launcelot Littledo of Pump Court, Temple, Barrister-at-law. _ There's ten o'clock! From Hampstead to the TowerThe bells are chanting forth a lusty carol;Wrangling, with iron tongues, about the hour, Like fifty drunken fishwives at a quarrel;Cautious policemen shun the coming shower;Thompson and Fearon tap another barrel;"_Dissolve frigus, lignum super foco. Large reponens. _" Now, come Orinoco! To puff away an hour, and drink a cup, A brimming _breakfast_-cup of ruddy Mocha--Clear, luscious, dark, like eyes that lighten upThe raven hair, fair cheek, and _bella boca_Of Florence maidens. I can never supOf perigourd, but (_guai a chi la tocca!_)I'm doomed to indigestion. So to settleThis strife eternal, --Betty, bring the kettle! Coffee! oh, Coffee! Faith, it is surprising. 'Mid all the poets, good, and bad, and worse. Who've scribbled (Hock or Chian eulogizing)Post and papyrus with "Immortal verse"--Melodiously similitudinisingIn Sapphics languid or Alcaics terseNo one, my little brown Arabian berry, . Hath sung thy praises--'tis surprising! very! Were I a poet now, whose ready rhymes. Like Tommy Moore's, came tripping to their places--Reeling along a merry troll of chimes, With careless truth, --a dance of fuddled Graces;Hear it--_Gazette_, _Post_, _Herald_, _Standard_, _Times_, I'd write an epic! Coffee for its basis;Sweet as e'er warbled forth from cockney throttlesSince Bob Montgomery's or Amos Cottle's. Thou sleepy-eyed Chinese--enticing siren, Pekoe! the Muse hath said in praise of thee, "That cheers but not inebriates"; and ByronHath called thy sister "Queen of Tears", Bohea!And he, Anacreon of Rome's age of iron, Says, how untruly "_Quis non potius te_. "While coffee, thou--bill-plastered gables say, Art like old Cupid, "roasted every day. " I love, upon a rainy night, as this is, When rarely and more rare the coaches rattleFrom street to street, to sip thy fragrant kisses;While from the Strand remote some drunken battleFar-faintly echoes, and the kettle hissesUpon the glowing hob. No tittle-tattleTo make a single thought of mine an alienFrom thee, my coffee-pot, my fount Castalian. The many intervening verses cover an unhappy termination to an otherwisedelightful ball. He is sitting with his charming "Mary", about to askher to be his bride, when the unfortunate overturning of a glass of redwine into her white satin gown, at the same time overthrows all hisdreams of bliss, "for the shrew displaces the angel he adored", and heresigns himself to the life of "a man in chambers. " 'Tis thus I sit and sip, and sip and think. And think and sip again, and dip in _Fraser_, A health, King Oliver! to thee I drink:Long may the public have thee to amaze her. Like _Figaro_, thou makest one's eyelids wink, Twirling on practised palm thy polished razor--True Horace temper, smoothed on attic strop;Ah! thou couldst "_faire la barbe a tout l'Europe_. " * * * * * Come, Oliver, and tell us what the news is;An easy chair awaits thee--come and fill 't. Come, I invoke thee, as they do the muses, And thou shalt choose thy tipple as thou wilt. And if thy lips my sober cup refuses, For ruddier drops the purple grape has spilt, We can sing, sipping in alternate verses, Thy drink and mine, like Corydon and Thyrsis. * * * * * Fill the bowl, but not with wine. Potent port, or fiery sherry;For this milder cup of mineCrush me Yemen's fragrant berry. * * * * * Gentle is the grape's deep cluster, But the wine's a wayward child;Nectar _this_! of meeker lustre--_This_ the cup that "draws it mild. "Deeply drink its streams divine--Fill the cup, but not with wine. Prior and Montague inserted the following poetic vignette in their _CityMouse and Country Mouse_, written in burlesque of Dryden's _Hind andPanther_: Then on they jogg'd; and since an hour of talkMight cut a banter on the tedious walk, As I remember, said the sober mouse, I've heard much talk of the Wits' Coffee-house;Thither, says Brindle, thou shalt go and seePriests supping coffee, sparks and poets tea;Here rugged frieze, there quality well drest, These baffling the grand Senior, those the Test, And there shrewd guesses made, and reasons given, That human laws were never made in heaven;But, above all, what shall oblige thy sight, And fill thy eyeballs with a vast delight, Is the poetic judge of sacred wit, Who does i' th' darkness of his glory sit;And as the moon who first receives the light, With which she makes these nether regions bright, So does he shine, reflecting from afarThe rays he borrowed from a better star;For rules, which from Corneille and Rapin flow, Admired by all the scribbling herd below, From French tradition while he does dispenseUnerring truths, 't is schism, a damned offense, To question his, or trust your private sense. Geoffrey Sephton, an English poet and novelist, many years resident inVienna, whose fantastic stories and fairy tales are well known inEurope, has written the following sonnets on coffee: TO THE MIGHTY MONARCH, KING KAUHEE[350] _By Geoffrey Sephton_ I Away with opiates! Tantalising snaresTo dull the brain with phantoms that are not. Let no such drugs the subtle senses rotWith visions stealing softly unawaresInto the chambers of the soul. NightmaresRide in their wake, the spirits to besot. Seek surer means, to banish haunting cares:Place on the board the steaming Coffee-pot!O'er luscious fruit, dessert and sparkling flask, Let proudly rule as King the Great Kauhee, For he gives joy divine to all that ask, Together with his spouse, sweet _Eau de Vie_Oh, let us 'neath his sovran pleasure bask. Come, raise the fragrant cup and bend the knee! II O great Kauhee, thou democratic Lord, Born 'neath the tropic sun and bronzed to splendourIn lands of Wealth and Wisdom, who can renderSuch service to the wandering Human HordeAs thou at every proud or humble board?Beside the honest workman's homely fender, 'Mid dainty dames and damsels sweetly tender, In china, gold and silver, have we pouredThy praise and sweetness, Oriental King. Oh, how we love to hear the kettle singIn joy at thy approach, embodyingThe bitter, sweet and creamy sides of life;Friend of the People, Enemy of Strife, Sons of the Earth have born thee labouring. In America, too, poets have sung in praise of coffee. The somewhatdoubtful "kind that mother used to make" is celebrated in James WhitcombRiley's classic poem: LIKE HIS MOTHER USED TO MAKE[351] _"Uncle Jake's Place, " St. Jo. , Mo. , 1874. _ "I was born in Indiany, " says a stranger, lank and slim, As us fellers in the restaurant was kindo' guyin' him, And Uncle Jake was slidin' him another punkin pieAnd a' extry cup o' coffee, with a twinkle in his eye--"I was born in Indiany--more'n forty years ago--And I hain't ben back in twenty--and I'm work-in' back'ards slow;But I've et in ever' restarunt twixt here and Santy Fee, And I want to state this coffee tastes like gittin' home, to me!""Pour us out another. Daddy, " says the feller, warmin' up, A-speakin' crost a saucerful, as Uncle tuk his cup--"When I see yer sign out yander, " he went on, to Uncle Jake--"'Come in and git some coffee like yer mother used to make'--I thought of _my_ old mother, and the Posey county farm, And me a little kid again, a-hangin' in her arm, As she set the pot a-bilin', broke the eggs and poured 'em in"--And the feller kindo' halted, with a trimble in his chin;And Uncle Jake he fetched the feller's coffee back, and stoodAs solemn, fer a minute, as a' undertaker would;Then he sorto' turned and tiptoed to'rds the kitchen door--and next, Here comes his old wife out with him, a-rubbin' of her specs--And she rushes fer the stranger, and she hollers out, "It's him!--Thank God we've met him comin'!--Don't you know yer mother, Jim?"And the feller, as he grabbed her, says, --"You bet I hain't forgot--But, " wipin' of his eyes, says he, "yer coffee's mighty hot!" One of the most delightful coffee poems in English is Francis Saltus'(d. 1889) sonnet on "the voluptuous berry", as found in _Flasks andFlagons_: COFFEE Voluptuous berry! Where may mortals findNectars divine that can with thee compare, When, having dined, we sip thy essence rare, And feel towards wit and repartee inclined? Thou wert of sneering, cynical Voltaire, The only friend; thy power urged Balzac's mindTo glorious effort; surely Heaven designedThy devotees superior joys to share. Whene'er I breathe thy fumes, 'mid Summer stars, The Orient's splendent pomps my vision greet. Damascus, with its myriad minarets, gleams!I see thee, smoking, in immense bazaars, Or yet, in dim seraglios, at the feetOf blond Sultanas, pale with amorous dreams! Arthur Gray, in _Over the Black Coffee_ (1902) has made the followingcontribution to the poetry of coffee, with an unfortunate reflection ontea, which might well have been omitted: COFFEE O, boiling, bubbling, berry, bean!Thou consort of the kitchen queen--Browned and ground of every feature, The only aromatic creature, For which we long, for which we feel, The breath of morn, the perfumed meal. For what is tea? It can but mean, Merely the mildest go-between. Insipid sobriety of thought and mindIt "cuts no figure"--we can find--Save peaceful essays, gentle walks, Purring cats, old ladies' talks-- * * * * * But coffee! can other tales unfold. Its history's written round and bold--Brave buccaneers upon the "Spanish Main", The army's march across the lenght'ning plain, The lone prospector wandering o'er the hill, The hunter's camp, thy fragrance all distill. So here's a health to coffee! Coffee hot!A morning toast! Bring on another pot. _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_ published in 1909 the followingexcellent stanzas by William A. Price: AN ODE TO COFFEE Oh, thou most fragrant, aromatic joy, impugned, abused, and often stormed against, And yet containing all the blissfulness that in a tiny cup could be condensed!Give thy contemners calm, imperial scorn--For thou wilt reign through ages yet unborn! Some ancient Arab, so the legend tells, first found thee--may his memory be blest!The world-wide sign of brotherhood today, the binding tie between the East and West!Good coffee pleases in a Persian dell, And Blackfeet Indians make it more than well. The lonely traveler in the desert range, if thou art with him, smiles at eventide--The sailor, as thy perfume bubbles forth, laughs at the ocean as it rages wide--And where the camps of fighting men are foundThy fragrance hovers o'er each battleground. "Use, not abuse, the good things of this life"--that is a motto from the Prophet's days, And, dealing with thee thus, we ne'er shall come to troublous times or parting of the ways. Comfort and solace both endure with thee, Rich, royal berry of the coffee tree! The _New York Tribune_ published in 1915 the following lines by LouisUntermeyer, which were subsequently included in his "---- _and OtherPoets_. "[352] GILBERT K. CHESTERTON RISES TO THE TOAST OF COFFEE Strong wine it is a mocker; strong wine it is a beast. It grips you when it starts to rise; it is the Fabled Yeast. You should not offer ale or beer from hops that are freshly picked, Nor even Benedictine to tempt a benedict. For wine has a spell like the lure of hell, and the devil has mixed the brew;And the friends of ale are a sort of pale and weary, witless crew--And the taste of beer is a sort of a queer and undecided brown--But, comrades, I give you coffee--drink it up, drink it down. With a fol-de-rol-dol and a fol-de-rol-dee, etc. Oh, cocoa's the drink for an elderly don who lives with an elderly niece;And tea is the drink for studios and loud and violent peace--And brandy's the drink that spoils the clothes when the bottle breaks in the trunk;But coffee's the drink that is drunken by men who will never be drunk. So, gentlemen, up with the festive cup, where Mocha and Java unite;It clears the head when things are said too brilliant to be bright!It keeps the stars from the golden bars and the lips of the tipsy town;So, here's to strong, black coffee--drink it up, drink it down!With a fol-de-rol-dol and a fol-de-rol-dee, etc. The American breakfast cup is celebrated in up-to-date American style inthe following by Helen Rowland in the _New York Evening World_: WHAT EVERY WIFE KNOWS Give me a man who drinks good, hot, dark, strong coffee for breakfast!A man who smokes a good, dark, fat cigar after dinner!You may marry your milk-faddist, or your anti-coffee crank, as you will!But I know the magic of the coffee pot!Let me make my Husband's coffee--and I care not who makes eyes at him!Give me two matches a day--One to start the coffee with, at breakfast, and one for his cigar, after dinner!And I defy all the houris in Christendom to light a new flame in his heart! Oh, sweet supernal coffee-pot!Gentle panacea of domestic troubles, Faithful author of that sweet nepenthe which deadens all the ills that married folks are heir to. Cheery, glittering, soul-soothing, warmed hearted, inanimate friend!What wife can fail to admit the peace and serenity she owes to _you_?To you, who stand between her and all her early morning troubles--Between her and the before-breakfast grouch--Between her and the morning-after headache--Between her and the cold-gray-dawn scrutiny?To you, who supply the golden nectar that stimulates the jaded masculine soul, Soothes the shaky masculine nerves, stirs the fagged masculine mind, inspires the slow masculine sentiment, And starts the sluggish blood a-flowing and the whole day right! What is it, I ask you, when he comes down to breakfast dry of mouth, and touchy of temper--That gives him pause, and silences that scintillating barb of sarcasm on the tip of his tongue, With which he meant to impale you?It is the sweet aroma of the coffee-pot--the thrilling thought of that first delicious sip! What is it, on the morning after the club dance, That hides your weary, little, washed-out face and straggling, uncurled coiffure from his critical eyes?It is the generous coffee-pot, standing like a guardian angel between you and him!And in those many vital psychological moments, during the honeymoon, which decide for or against the romance and happiness of all the rest of married life--Those critical before-breakfast moments when temperament meets temperament, and will meets "won't"--What is it that halts you on the brink of tragedy, And distracts you from the temptation to answer back?It is the absorbing anxiety of watching the coffee boil!What is it that warms his veins and soothes your nerves, And turns all the world suddenly from a dismal gray vale of disappointment to a bright rosy garden of hope--And starts _another_ day gliding smoothly along like a new motor car?What is it that will do more to transform a man from a fiend into an angel than baptism in the River Jordan?_It is the first cup of coffee in the morning!_ _Coffee in Dramatic Literature_ Coffee was first "dramatized", so to speak, in England, where we readthat Charles II and the Duke of Yorke attended the first performance of_Tarugo's Wiles, or the Coffee House_, a comedy, in 1667, which SamuelPepys described as "the most ridiculous and insipid play I ever saw inmy life. " The author was Thomas St. Serf. The piece opens in a livelymanner, with a request on the part of its fashionable hero for a changeof clothes. Accordingly, Tarugo puts off his "vest, hat, perriwig, andsword, " and serves the guests to coffee, while the apprentice acts hispart as a gentleman customer. Presently other "customers of all tradesand professions" come dropping into the coffee house. These are notalways polite to the supposed coffee-man; one complains of his coffeebeing "nothing but warm water boyl'd with burnt beans, " while anotherdesires him to bring "chocolette that's prepar'd with water, for I hatethat which is encouraged with eggs. " The pedantry and nonsense utteredby a "schollar" character is, perhaps, an unfair specimen ofcoffee-house talk; it is especially to be noticed that none of theguests ventures upon the dangerous ground of politics. In the end, the coffee-master grows tired of his clownish visitors, saying plainly, "This rudeness becomes a suburb tavern rather than mycoffee house"; and with the assistance of his servants he "thrusts 'emall out of doors, after the schollars and customers pay. " In 1694, there was published Jean Baptiste Rosseau's comedy, _Le Caffè_, which appears to have been acted only once in Paris, although a laterEnglish dramatist says it met with great applause in the French capital. _Le Caffè_ was written in Laurent's café, which was frequented byFontenelle, Houdard de la Motte, Dauchet, the abbé Alary Boindin, andothers. Voltaire said that "this work of a young man without anyexperience either of the world of letters or of the theater seems toherald a new genius. " About this time it was the fashion for the coffee-house keepers ofParis, and the waiters, to wear Armenian costumes; for Pascal hadbuilded better than he knew. In _La Foire Saint-Germain_, a comedy byDancourt, played in 1696, one of the principal characters is old"Lorange, a coffee merchant clothed as an Armenian". In scene 5, he saysto Mlle. Mousset, "a seller of house dresses" that he has been "anaturalized Armenian for three weeks. " Mrs. Susannah Centlivre (1667?-1723), in her comedy, _A Bold Stroke fora Wife_, produced about 1719, has a scene laid in Jonathan's coffeehouse about that period. While the stock jobbers are talking in thefirst scene of act II, the coffee boys are crying, "Fresh Coffee, gentlemen, fresh coffee?... Bohea tea, gentlemen?" Henry Fielding (1707-1754) published "_The Coffee-House Politician, orJustice caught in his own trap_, " a comedy, in 1730. _The Coffee House, a dramatick Piece by James Miller_, was performed atthe Theater Royal in Drury Lane in 1737. The interior of Dick's coffeehouse figured as an engraved frontispiece to the published version ofthe play. The author states in the preface that "this piece is partly taken from acomedy of one act written many years ago in French by the famousRosseau, called 'Le Caffè', which met with great applause in Paris. "The coffee house in the play is conducted by the Widow Notable, who hasa pretty daughter for whom, like all good mothers, she is anxious toarrange a suitable marriage. In the first scene, an acrimonious conversation takes place betweenPuzzle, the Politician, and Bays, the poet, in which squabble the PertBeau and the Solemn Beau, and other habitués of the place take part. Puzzle discovers that a comedian and other players are in the room, andinsists that they be ejected or forbidden the house. The Widow is justlyincensed, and indignantly replies: Forbid the Players my House, Sir! Why, Sir, I get more by them in a Week than I do by you in seven Years. You come here and hold a paper in your hand for an Hour, disturb the whole Company with your Politics, call for Pen and Ink, Paper and Wax, beg a Pipe of Tobacco, burn out half a Candle, eat half a Pound of Sugar, and then go away, and pay Two-pence for a Dish of Coffee. I could soon shut up my doors, if I had not some other good People to make amends for what I lose by such as you, Sir. All join the Widow in scoffing and jeering, and exit the highlydiscomfited Puzzle. The pretty little Kitty tricks her mother with theaid of the Player, and marries the man of her choice, but is forgivenwhen he is found to be a gentleman of the Temple. The play is in one act and has several songs. The last is one of fivestanzas, with music "set by Mr. Caret:" SONG What Pleasures a Coffee-House daily bestows!To read and hear how the World merrily goes;To laugh, sing and prattle of This, That, and T' other;And be flatter'd and ogl'd and kiss'd too, like Mother. Here the Rake, after Roving and Tipling all Night, For his Groat in the Morning may set his Head right. And the Beau, who ne'er fouls his White fingers with Brass, May have his Sixpen' worth of--Stare in the Glass. The Doctor, who'd always be ready to kill, May ev'ry Day here take his Stand, if he will;And the soldier, who'd bluster and challenge secure, May draw boldly here, for--we'll hold him he's sure. The Lawyer, who's always in quest of his Prey, May find fools here to feed upon every Day;And the sage Politician, in Coffee-Grounds known, May point out the Fate of each Crown but--his own. Then, Gallants, since ev'rything here you may findThat pleasures the Fancy or profits the Mind, Come all, and take each a full Dish of Delight, And crowd up our Coffee-House every night. [Illustration: SONG FROM "THE COFFEE HOUSE"] John Timbs tells us this play "met with great opposition on itsrepresentation, owing to its being stated that the characters wereintended for a particular family (that of Mrs. Yarrow and her daughter)who kept Dick's, the coffee-house which the artist had inadvertentlyselected as the frontispiece. It appears, " Timbs continues, "that thelandlady and her daughter were the reigning toast of the Templars, whothen frequented Dick's; and took the matter up so strongly that theyunited to condemn the farce on the night of its production; theysucceeded, and even extended their resentment to everything suspected tobe this author's (the Rev. James Miller) for a considerable time after. " Carlo Goldoni, who has been called the Molière of Italy, wrote _LaBottega di Caffè_, (The Coffee House), a naturalistic comedy ofbourgeois Venice, satirizing scandal and gambling, in 1750. The scene isa Venetian coffee house (probably Florian's), where several actions takeplace simultaneously. Among several remarkable studies is one of aprattling slanderer, Don Marzio, which ranks as one of the finest bitsof original character drawing the stage has ever seen. The play wasproduced in English by the Chicago Theatre Society in 1912. Chatfield-Taylor[353] thinks Voltaire probably imitated _La Bottega diCaffè_ in his _Le Café, ou l'Ecossaise_. Goldoni was a lover of coffee, a regular frequenter of the coffee houses of his time, from which hedrew much in the way of inspiration. Pietro Longhi, called the VenetianHogarth, in one of his pictures presenting life and manners in Veniceduring the years of her decadence, shows Goldoni as a visitor in a caféof the period, with a female mendicant soliciting alms. It is in thecollection of Professor Italico Brass. Goldoni, in the comedy _The Persian Wife_, gives us a glimpse of coffeemaking in the middle of the eighteenth century. He puts these words intothe mouth of Curcuma, the slave: Here is the coffee, ladies, coffee native of Arabia, And carried by the caravans into Ispahan. The coffee of Arabia is certainly always the best. While putting forth its leaves on one side, upon the other the flowers appear;Born of a rich soil, it wishes shade, or but little sun. Planted every three years is this little tree in the surface of the soil. The fruit, though truly very small, Should yet grow large enough to become somewhat green. Later, when used, it should be freshly ground. Kept in a warm and dry place and jealously guarded. * * * * * But a small quantity is needed to prepare it. Put in the desired quantity and do not spill it over the fire;Heat it till the foam rises, then let it subside again away from the fire;Do this seven times at least, and coffee is made in a moment. In 1760 there appeared in France _Le Café, ou l'Ecossaise, comédie_, which purported to have been written by a Mr. Hume, an Englishman, andto have been translated into French. It was in reality the work ofVoltaire, who had brought out another play, _Socrates_, in the samemanner a short time before. _Le Café_, was translated into English thesame year under the title _The Coffee House, or Fair Fugitive_. Thetitle page says the play is written by "Mr. Voltaire" and translatedfrom the French. It is a comedy in five acts. The principal charactersare: Fabrice, a good-natured man and the keeper of the coffee house;Constantia, the fair fugitive; Sir William Woodville, a gentleman ofdistinction under misfortune; Belmont, in love with Constantia, a man offortune and interest; Freeport, a merchant and an epitome of Englishmanners; Scandal, a sharper; and Lady Alton, in love with Belmont. _Il Caffè di Campagna_, a play with music by Galuppi, appeared in Italyin 1762. Another Italian play, a comedy called _La Caffettiéra da Spirito_ wasproduced in 1807. _Hamilton_, a play by Mary P. Hamlin and George Arliss, the latter alsoplaying the title rôle, was produced in America by George C. Tyler in1918. The first-act scene is laid in the Exchange coffee house ofPhiladelphia, during the period of Washington's first administration. Among the characters introduced in this scene are James Monroe, CountTallyrand, General Philip Schuyler, and Thomas Jefferson. The authors very faithfully reproduce the atmosphere of the coffee houseof Washington's time. As Tallyrand remarks, "Everybody comes to seeeverybody at the Exchange Coffee House.... It is club, restaurant, merchants' exchange, everything. " _The Autocrat of the Coffee Stall_, a play in one act, by Harold Chapin, was published in New York in 1921. _Coffee and Literature in General_ An interesting book might be written on the transformation that tea andcoffee have wrought in the tastes of famous literary men. And of the twostimulants, coffee seems to have furnished greater refreshment andinspiration to most. However, both beverages have made civilizationtheir debtor in that they weaned so many fine minds from the heavy winesand spirits in which they once indulged. Voltaire and Balzac were the most ardent devotees of coffee among theFrench _literati_. Sir James Mackintosh (1765-1832), the Scottishphilosopher and statesman, was so fond of coffee that he used to assertthat the powers of a man's mind would generally be found to beproportional to the quantity of that stimulant which he drank. Hisbrilliant schoolmate and friend, Robert Hall (1764-1831), the Baptistminister and pulpit orator, preferred tea, of which he sometimes drank adozen cups. Cowper; Parson and Parr, the famous Greek scholars; Dr. Samuel Johnson; and William Hazlitt, the writer and critic, were greattea drinkers; but Burton, Dean Swift, Addison, Steele, Leigh Hunt, andmany others, celebrated coffee. Dr. Charles B. Reed, professor in the medical school of NorthwesternUniversity, says that coffee may be considered as a type of substancethat fosters genius. History seems to bear him out. Coffee's essentialqualities are so well defined, says Dr. Reed, that one critic hasclaimed the ability to trace throughout the works of Voltaire thoseportions that came from coffee's inspiration. Tea and coffee promote aharmony of the creative faculties that permits the mental concentrationnecessary to produce the masterpieces of art and literature. Voltaire (1694-1778) the king of wits, was also king of coffee drinkers. Even in his old age he was said to have consumed fifty cups daily. Tothe abstemious Balzac (1799-1850) coffee was both food and drink. In Frederick Lawton's _Balzac_ we read: "Balzac worked hard. His habitwas to go to bed at six in the evening, sleep till twelve, and, after, to rise and write for nearly twelve hours at a stretch, imbibing coffeeas a stimulant through these spells of composition. " In his _Treatise on Modern Stimulants_, Balzac thus describes hisreaction to his most beloved stimulant: This coffee falls into your stomach, and straightway there is a general commotion. Ideas begin to move like the battalions of the Grand Army on the battlefield, and the battle takes place. Things remembered arrive at full gallop, ensign to the wind. The light cavalry of comparisons deliver a magnificent deploying charge, the artillery of logic hurry up with their train and ammunition, the shafts of wit start up like sharpshooters. Similes arise, the paper is covered with ink; for the struggle commences and is concluded with torrents of black water, just as a battle with powder. When Balzac tells how Doctor Minoret, Ursule Minoret's guardian, used toregale his friends with a cup of "Moka, " mixed with Bourbon andMartinique, which the Doctor insisted on personally preparing in asilver coffee pot, it is his own custom that he is detailing. HisBourbon he bought only in the rue Mont Blanc (now the chaussé d'Antin);the Martinique, in the rue des Vielles Audriettes; the Mocha, at agrocer's in the rue de l'Université. It was half a day's journey tofetch them. There have been notable contributions to the general literature ofcoffee by French, Italian, English, and American writers. Space does notpermit of more than passing mention of some of them. The reactions of the early French and English writers have been touchedupon in the chapters on the coffee houses of old London and the earlyParisian coffee houses, and in the history chapters dealing with theevolution of coffee drinking and coffee manners and customs. After Dufour, Galland, and La Roque in France, there were Count Rumford, John Timbs, Douglas Ellis, and Robinson in England; Jardin and Franklinin France; Belli in Italy; Hewitt, Thurber, and Walsh in America. Mention has been made of coffee references in the works of Aubrey, Burton, Addison, Steele, Bacon, and D'Israeli. Brillat-Savarin (1755-1826) the great French epicure, knew coffee as fewmen before him or since. In his historical elegy, contained in_Gastronomy as a Fine Art, or the Science of Good Living_, he exclaims: You crossed and mitred abbots and bishops who dispensed the favors of Heaven, and you the dreaded templars who armed yourselves for the extermination of the Saracens, you knew nothing of the sweet restoring influence of our modern chocolate, nor of the thought-inspiring bean of Arabia--how I pity you! O. De Gourcuff's _De la Café, épître attribué à Senecé_, is deserving ofhonorable mention. An early French writer pays this tribute to the inspirational effects ofcoffee: It is a beverage eminently agreeable, inspiring and wholesome. It is at once a stimulant, a cephalic, a febrifuge, a digestive, and an anti-soporific; it chases away sleep, which is the enemy of labor; it invokes the imagination, without which there can be no happy inspiration. It expels the gout, that enemy of pleasure, although to pleasure gout owes its birth; it facilitates digestion, without which there can be no true happiness. It disposes to gaiety, without which there is neither pleasure nor enjoyment; it gives wit to those who already have it, and it even provides wit (for some hours at least) to those who usually have it not. Thank heaven for Coffee, for see how many blessings are concentrated in the infusion of a small berry. What other beverage in the world can compare with it? Coffee, at once a pleasure and a medicine; Coffee, which nourishes at the same moment the mind, body and imagination. Hail to thee! Inspirer of men of letters, best digestive of the gourmand. Nectar of all men. In Bologna, 1691, Angelo Rambaldi published _Ambrosia arabica, caffèdiscorso_. This work is divided into eighteen sections, and describesthe origin, cultivation, and roasting of the bean, as well as tellinghow to prepare the beverage. During the time that Milan was under Spanish rule, Cesare Beccariadirected and edited a publication entitled _Il Caffè_, which waspublished from June 4, 1764, to May, 1766, "edited in Brescia byGiammaria Rizzardi and undertaken by a little society of friends, "according to the salutatory. Besides the Marchese Beccaria, othereditors and contributors were Pietro and Alexander Verri, Baillon, Visconti, Colpani, Longhi, Albertenghi, Frisi, and Secchi. The sameperiodical, with the same editorial staff, was published also in Venicein the Typografia Pizzolato. Another publication called _Il Caffè_, devoted to arts, letters, andscience, was published in Venice in 1850-52. Still another, having thesame name, a national weekly journal, was published in Milan, 1884-89. An almanac, having the title _Il Caffè_, was published in Milan in 1829. A weekly paper, called _Il Caffè Pedrocchi_, was published in Padua in1846-48. It was devoted to art, literature and politics. A publication called _Coffee and Surrogates_ (tea, chocolate, saffron, pepper, and other stimulants) was founded by Professor Pietro Polli, inMilan, in 1885; but was short-lived. An early English magazine (1731) contains an account of divination bycoffee-grounds. The writer pays an unexpected visit, and "surprised thelady and her company in close cabal over their coffee, the interest veryintent upon one whom, by her address and intelligence, he guessed was atire woman, to which she added the secret of divining by coffee grounds. She was then in full inspiration, and with much solemnity observing theatoms around the cup; on the one hand sat a widow, on the other a maidenlady. They assured me that every cast of the cup is a picture of allone's life to come, and every transaction and circumstance is delineatedwith the exactest certainty. " The advertisement used by this seer is quite interesting: An advise is hereby given that there has lately arrived in this city (Dublin) the famous Mrs. Cherry, the only gentlewoman truly learned in the occult science of _tossing of coffee grounds_; who has with uninterrupted success for some time past practiced to the general satisfaction of her female visitants. Her hours are after prayers are done at St. Peter's Church, until dinner. (N. B. She never requires more than 1 oz. Of coffee from a single gentlewoman, and so proportioned for a second or third person, but not to exceed that number at any one time. ) If the one ounce of coffee represented her payment for reading thefuture, the charge could not be considered exorbitant! English writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries werenoticeably affected by coffee, and the coffee-houses of the times havebeen immortalized by them; and in many instances they themselves wereimmortalized by the coffee houses and their frequenters. In the chaptersalready referred to and at the close of this chapter, will be foundstories, quips, and anecdotes, in which occur many names that are nowfamous in art and literature. Modern journalism dates from the publication, April 12, 1709, of the_Tatler_, whose editor was Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729) the Irishdramatist and essayist. He received his inspiration from the coffeehouses; and his readers were the men that knew them best. In the firstissue he announced: All accounts of gallantry, pleasure and entertainment shall be under the article of White's Coffee House; poetry under that of Will's Coffee House; learning under the title of Grecian; foreign and domestic news you will have from St. James's Coffee House, and what else I shall on any other subject offer shall be dated from my own apartment. Steele's _Tatler_ was issued three times weekly until 1711, when itsuspended to be succeeded by the _Spectator_, whose principalcontributor was Joseph Addison (1672-1719), the essayist and poet, andSteele's school-fellow. Sir Richard Steele immortalized the Don and Don Saltero's coffee housein old Chelsea in No. 34 of the _Tatler_, wherein he tells us of thenecessity of traveling to know the world, by his journey for fresh air, no farther than the village of Chelsea, of which he fancied that hecould give an immediate description--from the five fields, where thethe robbers lie in wait, to the coffee house, where the literati sit incouncil. But he found, even in a place so near town as this, that therewere enormities and persons of eminence, whom he before knew nothing of. The coffee house was almost absorbed by the museum, Steele says: When I came into the coffee-house, I had not time to salute the company, before my eyes were diverted by ten thousand gimcracks round the room, and on the ceiling. When my first astonishment was over, comes to me a sage of thin and meagre countenance, which aspect made me doubt whether reading or fretting had made it so philosophic; but I very soon perceived him to be that sort which the ancients call "gingivistee", in our language "tooth-drawers". I immediately had a respect for the man; for these practical philosophers go upon a very practical hypothesis, not to cure, but to take away the part affected. My love of mankind made me very benevolent to Mr. Salter, for such is the name of this eminent barber and antiquary. The Don was famous for his punch, and for his skill on the fiddle. Hedrew teeth also, and wrote verses; he described his museum in severalstanzas, one of which is: Monsters of all sorts are seen: Strange things in nature as they grew so;Some relicks of the Sheba Queen, And fragments of the fam'd Bob Crusoe. Steele then plunges into a deep thought why barbers should go farther inhitting the ridiculous than any other set of men; and maintains that DonSaltero is descended in a right line, not from John Tradescant, as hehimself asserts, but from the memorable companion of the Knight ofMancha. Steele certifies to all the worthy citizens who travel to seethe Don's rarities, that his double-barreled pistols, targets, coats ofmail, his sclopeta (hand-culverin) and sword of Toledo, were left to hisancestor by the said Don Quixote; and by his ancestor to all his progenydown to Saltero. Though Steele thus goes far in favor of Don Saltero'sgreat merit, he objects to his imposing several names (without hislicense) on the collection he has made, to the abuse of the good peopleof England; one of which is particularly calculated to deceive religiouspersons, to the great scandal of the well-disposed and may introduceheterodox opinions. (Among the curiosities presented by Admiral Mundenwas a coffin, containing the body or relics of a Spanish saint, who hadwrought miracles. ) Says Steele: He shows you a straw hat, which I know to be made by Madge Peskad, within three miles of Bedford; and tells you "It is Pontius Pilate's wife's chambermaid's sister's hat. " To my knowledge of this very hat, it may be added that the covering of straw was never used among the Jews, since it was demanded of them to make bricks without it. Therefore, this is nothing but, under the specious pretense of learning and antiquities, to impose upon the world. There are other things which I can not tolerate among his rarities, as, the china figure of the lady in the glass-case; the Italian engine, for the imprisonment of those who go abroad with it; both of which I hereby order to be taken down, or else he may expect to have his letters patent for making punch superseded, be debarred wearing his muff next winter, or ever coming to London without his wife. Babillard says that Salter had an old grey muff, and that, by wearing itup to his nose, he was distinguishable at the distance of a quarter of amile. His wife was none of the best, being much addicted to scolding;and Salter, who liked his glass, if he could make a trip to London byhimself, was in no haste to return. Don Saltero's proved very attractive as an exhibition, and drew crowdsto the coffee house. A catalog was published of which were printed morethan forty editions. Smollett, the novelist, was among the donors. Thecatalog, in 1760, comprehended the following rarities: Tigers' tusks; the Pope's candle; the skeleton of a Guinea-pig; a fly-cap monkey, a piece of the true Cross; the Four Evangelists' heads cut out on a cherry stone; the King of Morocco's tobacco-pipe; Mary Queen of Scots' pincushion; Queen Elizabeth's prayer-book; a pair of Nun's stockings; Job's ears, which grew on a tree; a frog in a tobacco stopper; and five hundred more odd relics! The Don had a rival, as appears by _A Catalogue of the Rarities to beseen at Adam's, at the Royal Swan, in Kingsland-road, leading fromShoreditch Church, 1756_. Mr. Adams exhibited, for the entertainment ofthe curious: Miss Jenny Cameron's shoes; Adam's eldest daughter's hat; the heart of the famous Bess Adams, that was hanged at Tyburn with Lawyer Carr, January 18, 1736-37; Sir Walter Raleigh's tobacco pipe; Vicar of Bray's clogs; engine to shell green peas with; teeth that grew in a fish's belly; Black Jack's ribs; the very comb that Abraham combed his son Isaac and Jacob's head with; Wat Tyler's spurs; rope that cured Captain Lowry of the head-ach, ear-ach, tooth-ach, and belly-ach; Adam's key of the fore and back door of the Garden of Eden, etc. , etc. These are only a few out of five hundred other equally marvellousexhibits. The success of Don Saltero in attracting visitors to his coffee house, induced the proprietor of the Chelsea bunhouse to make a similarcollection of rarities, to attract customers for his buns; and to someextent it was successful. In the first number of the _Spectator_, Addison says: There is no place of general resort wherein I do not often make my appearance. Sometimes I am seen thrusting my head into a round of politicians at Will's, and listening with great attention to the narratives that are made in those little circular audiences. Sometimes I smoke a pipe at Child's, and while I seem attentive to nothing but the _Postman_, overhear the conversation of every table in the room. I appear on Sunday nights at St. James' coffee house, and _sometimes_ join the little committee of politics in the inner room as one who comes there to hear and improve. My face is likewise very well known at the Grecian, the Cocoa Tree, and in the theatres both of Drury Lane and the Hay Market. I have been taken for a merchant upon the Exchange for above these ten years, and sometimes pass for a Jew in the assembly of stock jobbers at Jonathan's; in short, wherever I see a cluster of people, I always mix with them, though I never open my lips, but in my own club. In the second number he tells that: I am now settled with a widow woman, who has a great many children and complies with my humor in everything. I do not remember that we have exchanged a word together for these five years; my coffee comes into my chamber every morning without asking for it, if I want fire I point to the chimney, if water, to my basin; upon which my landlady nods as much as to say she takes my meaning, and immediately obeys my signals. Three of Addison's papers in the _Spectator_ (Nos. 402, 481, and 568)are humorously descriptive of the coffee houses of the period. No. 403opens with the remark that: The courts of two countries do not so much differ from one another, as the Court and the City, in their peculiar ways of life and conversation. In short, the inhabitants of St. James, notwithstanding they live under the same laws, and speak the same language, are a distinct people from those of Cheapside, who are likewise removed from those of the Temple on the one side, and those of Smithfleld on the other, by several climates and degrees in their way of thinking and conversing together. For this reason, the author takes a ramble through London andWestminster, to gather the opinions of his ingenious countrymen upon acurrent report of the king of France's death. I know the faces of all the principal politicians within the bills of mortality; and as every coffee-house has some particular statesman belonging to it, who is the mouth of the street where he lives, I always take care to place myself near him, in order to know his judgment on the present posture of affairs. And, as I foresaw the above report would produce a new face of things in Europe, and many curious speculations in our British coffee-houses, I was very desirous to learn the thoughts of our most eminent politicians on that occasion. That I might begin as near the fountain-head as possible, I first of all called in at St. James's, where I found the whole outward room in a buzz of politics; the speculations were but very indifferent towards the door, but grew finer as you advanced to the upper end of the room, and were so much improved by a knot of theorists, who sat in the inner room, within the steams of the coffee-pot, that I there heard the whole Spanish monarchy disposed of, and all the line of Bourbons provided for in less than a quarter of an hour. I afterwards called in at Giles's, where I saw a board of French gentlemen sitting upon the life and death of their grand monarque. Those among them who had espoused the Whig interest very positively affirmed that he had departed this life about a week since, and therefore, proceeded without any further delay to the release of their friends in the galleys, and to their own re-establishment; but, finding they could not agree among themselves, I proceeded on my intended progress. Upon my arrival at Jenny Man's I saw an alert young fellow that cocked his hat upon a friend of his, who entered just at the same time with myself, and accosted him after the following manner: "Well, Jack, the old prig is dead at last. Sharp's the word. Now or never, boy. Up to the walls of Paris, directly;" with several other deep reflections of the same nature. I met with very little variation in the politics between Charing Cross and Covent Garden. And, upon my going into Will's, I found their discourse was gone off, from the death of the French King, to that of Monsieur Boileau, Racine, Corneille, and several other poets, whom they regretted on this occasion as persons who would have obliged the world with very noble elegies on the death of so great a prince, and so eminent a patron of learning. At a coffee-house near the Temple, I found a couple of young gentlemen engaged very smartly in a dispute on the succession to the Spanish monarchy. One of them seemed to have been retained as advocate for the Duke of Anjou, the other for his Imperial Majesty. They were both for regarding the title to that kingdom by the statute laws of England; but finding them going out of my depth, I pressed forward to Paul's Churchyard, where I listened with great attention to a learned man, who gave the company an account of the deplorable state of France during the minority of the deceased king. I then turned on my right hand into Fish-street, where the chief politician of that quarter, upon hearing the news, (after having taken a pipe of tobacco, and ruminated for some time) "If, " says he, "the King of France is certainly dead, we shall have plenty of mackerel this season: our fishery will not be disturbed by privateers, as it has been for these ten years past. " He afterwards considered how the death of this great man would affect our pilchards, and by several other remarks infused a general joy into his whole audience. I afterwards entered a by-coffee-house that stood at the upper end of a narrow lane, where I met with a Nonjuror engaged very warmly with a laceman who was the great support of a neighboring conventicle. The matter in debate was whether the late French King was most like Augustus Caesar, or Nero. The controversy was carried on with great heat on both sides, and as each of them looked upon me very frequently during the course of their debate, I was under some apprehension that they would appeal to me, and therefore laid down my penny at the bar and made the best of my way to Cheapside. I here gazed upon the signs for some time before I found one to my purpose. The first object I met in the coffee-room was a person who expressed a great grief for the death of the French King; but upon his explaining himself, I found his sorrow did not arise from the loss of the monarch, but for his having sold out of the Bank about three days before he heard the news of it. Upon which a haberdasher, who was the oracle of the coffee-house, and had his circle of admirers about him, called several to witness that he had declared his opinion, above a week before, that the French King was certainly dead; to which he added, that considering the late advices we had received from France, it was impossible that it could be otherwise. As he was laying these together, and debating to his hearers with great authority, there came a gentlemen from Garraway's, who told us that there were several letters from France just come in, with advice that the King was in good health, and was gone out a hunting the very morning the post came away; upon which the haberdasher stole off his hat that hung upon a wooden peg by him, and retired to his shop with great confusion. This intelligence put a stop to my travels, which I had prosecuted with so much satisfaction; not being a little pleased to hear so many different opinions upon so great an event, and to observe how naturally, upon such a piece of news, every one is apt to consider it to his particular interest and advantage. Johnson wrote in his _Life of Addison_ concerning the _Tatler_ and the_Spectator_ that they were: Published at a time when two parties, loud, restless and violent, each with plausible declarations, and both perhaps without any distinct determination of its views, were agitating the nation; to minds heated with political contest they supplied cooler and more inoffensive reflections.... They had a perceptible influence on the conversation of the time, and taught the frolic and the gay to unite merriment with decency, effects which they can never wholly lose. Harold Routh in the Cambridge _History of Literature_, speaking of the_Spectator_, says: It surpassed the _Tatler_ in style and in thought. It gave expression to the _power_ of commerce. For more than a century traders had been characterized as dishonest and avaricious, because playwrights and pamphleteers generally wrote for the leisure classes, and were themselves too poor to have any but unpleasant relations with men of business. Now merchants were becoming ambassadors of civilization, and had developed intellect so as to control distant and, as it seemed, mysterious sources of wealth; by a stroke of the pen and largely through the coffee houses they had come to know their own importance and power. Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) was very fond of good eating, and almost dailyentries were made in his _Diary_ of dinner delicacies that he hadenjoyed. One dinner, that he considered a great success, was served toeight persons, and consisted of oysters, a hash of rabbits, a lamb, arare chine of beef; next a great dish of roasting fowl ("cost me about30 s. ") a tart, then fruit and cheese. "My dinner was noble enough ... Ibelieve this day's feast will cost me near 5 pounds. " But it will benoted that coffee was not mentioned as a part of the menu. He makes countless references to visits paid to this and that coffeehouse, but records only one instance of actually drinking coffee: Up betimes to my office, and thence at seven o'clock to Sir G. Carteret, and there with Sir J. Minnes made an end of his accounts, but staid not to dinner my Lady having made us drink our morning draft there of several wines, but I drank nothing but some of her coffee, which was poorly made, with a little sugar in it. This note which he considered worthy of record was certainly notinspired by the excellence of the good lady's matutinal coffee. William Cobbett (1762-1835) the English-American politician, reformer, and writer on economics, denounced coffee as "slops"; but he was one ofa remarkably small minority. Before his day, one of England's greatestsatirists, Dean Swift, (1667-1745) led a long roll of literary men whowere devotees of coffee. Swift's writings are full of references to coffee; and his letters fromStella came to him under cover, at the St. James coffee house. There isscarcely a letter to Esther (Vanessa) Vanhomrigh which does not containa significant reference to coffee, by which the course of theirfriendship and clandestine meetings may be traced. In one dated August13, 1720, written while traveling from place to place in Ireland, hesays: We live here in a very dull town, every valuable creature absent, and Cad says he is weary of it, and would rather prefer his coffee on the barrenest mountain in Wales than be king here. A fig for partridges and quails, Ye dainties I know nothing of ye; But on the highest mount in Wales, Would choose in peace to drink my coffee. In another letter, about two years later, replying to one in whichVanessa has reproached him and begged him to write her soon, he advises: The best maxim I know in life, is to drink your coffee when you can, and when you cannot, to be easy without it; while you continue to be splenetic, count upon it I will always preach. Thus much I sympathize with you, that I am not cheerful enough to write, for, I believe, coffee once a week is necessary, and you know very well that coffee makes us severe, and grave, and philosophical. These various references to coffee are thought to have been based uponan incident in the early days of their friendship, when on the occasionof the Vanhomrigh family journeying from Dublin to London, Vanessaaccidentally spilt her coffee in the chimney-place at a certain inn, which Swift considered a premonition of their growing friendship. Writing from Clogher, Swift reminds Vanessa: Remember that riches are nine parts in ten of all that is good in life, and health is the tenth--drinking coffee comes long after, and yet it is the eleventh, but without the two former you cannot drink it right. In another letter he writes facetiously, in memory of her playfulbadinage: I long to drink a dish of coffee in the sluttery and hear you dun me for a secret, and "Drink your coffee; why don't you drink your coffee?" Leigh Hunt had very pleasant things to say about coffee, giving to itthe charm of appeal to the imagination, which he said one never finds intea. For example: Coffee, like tea, used to form a refreshment by itself, some hours after dinner; it is now taken as a digester, right upon that meal or the wine, and sometimes does not even close it; or the digester itself is digested by a liquor of some sort called a _Chasse-Café_ [coffee-chaser]. We like coffee better than tea for taste, but tea "for a constancy. " To be perfect in point of relish (we do not say of wholesomeness) coffee should be strong and hot, with little milk and sugar. It has been drunk after this mode in some parts of Europe, but the public have nowhere, we believe, adopted it. The favorite way of taking it at a meal, abroad, is with a great superfluity of milk--very properly called, in France _café au lait_ (coffee _to the_ milk). One of the pleasures we receive in drinking coffee is that, being the universal drink in the East, it reminds of that region of the "Arabian Nights" as smoking does for the same reason; though neither of these refreshments, which are identified with Oriental manners, is to be found in that enchanting work. They had not been discovered when it was written; the drink then was sherbet. One can hardly fancy what a Turk or a Persian could have done without coffee and a pipe, any more than the English ladies and gentlemen, before the civil wars, without tea for breakfast. In his old age, Immanuel Kant, the great metaphysician, became extremelyfond of coffee; and Thomas de Quincey relates a little incident showingKant's great eagerness for the after-dinner cup. At the beginning of the last year of his life, he fell into a custom of taking, immediately after dinner, a cup of coffee, especially on those days when it happened that I was of his party. And such was the importance that he attached to his little pleasure that he would even make a memorandum beforehand, in the blank paper book that I had given him, that on the next day I was to dine with him, and consequently "_that there was to be coffee_. " Sometimes in the interest of conversation, the coffee was forgotten, but not for long. He would remember and with the querulousness of old age and infirm health would demand that coffee be brought "upon the spot. " Arrangements had always been made in advance, however; the coffee was ground, and the water was boiling: and in the very moment the word was given, the servant shot in like an arrow and plunged the coffee into the water. All that remained, therefore, was to give it time to boil up. But this trifling delay seemed unendurable to Kant. If it were said, "Dear Professor, the coffee will be brought up in a moment, " he would say, _"Will be!_ There's the rub, that it only _will_ be. " Then he would quiet himself with a stoical air, and say, "Well, one can die after all; it is but dying; and in the next world, thank God, there is no drinking of coffee and consequently no waiting for it. " When at length the servant's steps were heard upon the stairs, he would turn round to us, and joyfully call out: "Land, land! my dear friends, I see land. " Thackeray (1811-1863) must have suffered many tea and coffeedisappointments. In the _Kickleburys on the Rhine_ he asks: "Why do theyalways put mud into coffee aboard steamers? Why does the tea generallytaste of boiled boots?" In _Arthur's_, A. Neil Lyons has preserved for all time the atmosphereof the London coffee stall. "I would not, " he says, "exchange a night atArthur's for a week with the brainiest circle in London. " The book is acollection of short stories. As already recorded, Harold Chapindramatized this picturesque London institution in _The Autocrat of theCoffee Stall_. In General Horace Porter's _Campaigning with Grant_, we have threedistinct coffee incidents within fifty-odd pages; or explicitly, seepages 47, 56, 101; where, deep in the fiercest snarls of The Wildernesscampaign we are treated to: General Grant, slowly sipping his coffee ... A full ration of that soothing army beverage.... The general made rather a singular meal preparatory to so exhausting a day as that which was to follow. He took a cucumber, sliced it, poured some vinegar over it, and partook of nothing else except a cup of strong coffee.... The general seemed in excellent spirits, and was even inclined to be jocose. He said to me, "We have just had our coffee, and you will find some left for you. " ... I drank it with the relish of a shipwrecked mariner. One of the first immediate supplies General Sherman desired fromWilmington, on reaching Fayetteville and lines of communication inMarch, 1865, was, expressly, coffee; does he not say so himself, on page297 of the second volume of his _Memoirs_? Still more expressly, towards the close of his _Memoirs_, and amongfinal recommendations, the fruit of his experiences in that whole vastwar, General Sherman says this for coffee: Coffee has become almost indispensable, though many substitutes were found for it, such as Indian corn, roasted, ground and boiled as coffee, the sweet potato, and the seed of the okra plant prepared in the same way. All these were used by the people of the South, who for years could procure no coffee, but I noticed that the women always begged of us real coffee, which seemed to satisfy a natural yearning or craving more powerful than can be accounted for on the theory of habit. Therefore I would always advise that the coffee and sugar ration be carried along, even at the expense of bread, for which there are many substitutes. George Agnew Chamberlain's novel _Home_ contains a vivid description ofcoffee-making on an old plantation, and could only have been written bya devoted lover of this drink. Gerry Lansing, the American, has escapeddrowning in the river, and is now lost in the Brazilian forest. He findshis way at last to an old plantation house: A stove was built into the masonry, and a cavernous oven gaped from the massive wall. At the stove was an old negress, making coffee with shaky deliberation.... The girl and the wrinkled old woman made him sit down at the table, and then placed before him crisp rusks of mandioc flour and steaming coffee whose splendid aroma triumphed over the sordidness of the scene and through the nostrils reached the palate with anticipatory touch. It was sweetened with dark, pungent syrup and was served black in a capacious bowl, as though one could not drink too deeply of the elixir of life. Gerry ate ravenously and sipped the coffee, at first sparingly, then greedily.... Gerry set down the empty bowl with a sigh. The rusks had been delicious. Before the coffee the name of nectar dwindled to impotency. Its elixir rioted in his veins. In the _Rosary_, Florence L. Barclay has a Scotch woman tell how shemakes coffee. She says: Use a jug--it is not what you make it in; it is how ye make it. It all hangs upon the word fresh--freshly roasted--freshly ground--water freshly boiled. And never touch it with metal. Pop it into an earthenware jug, pour in your boiling water straight upon it, stir it with a wooden spoon, set it on the hob ten minutes to settle; the grounds will all go to the bottom, though you might not think it, and you pour it out, fragrant, strong and clear. But the secret is, _fresh, fresh, fresh_, and don't stint your coffee. Cyrus Townsend Brady's _The Corner in Coffee_ is "a thrilling romance ofthe New York coffee market. " Coffee, Du Barry, and Louis XV figure in one scene of the story of _TheMoat with the Crimson Stains_, as told by Elizabeth W. Champney in her_Romance of the Bourbon Chateaux_. [354] It tells of the Germanapprentice Riesener, who assisted his master Oeben in designing forLouis XV a beautiful desk with a secret drawer, which it took ten yearsof unremitting industry to execute. At the end, Riesener was to beaccepted by his master as a partner and a son-in-law. Little Victoire, who loved to sit in a punt and trail her doll in the waters of theBievre to see to what color its frock would be changed by the dyes ofthe Gobelin factory, was then only five, and Madam Oeben twenty-three. As the years rolled by, Riesener grew to love the mother and not thedaughter, who, meanwhile, shot up into a slim girl, not of her mother'sbeauty, but of a loveliness all her own. Then there was a quarrelbecause the young apprentice thought the master should have resented thesuggestion of M. Duplessis that his wife pose in the nude for thestatuettes which were to hold the sconces on the king's desk; andRiesener left in a fine youthful frenzy, vowing he would never returnwhile the _maître_ lived. The latter, unable to complete the masterpiecewhich he loved more than anything else on earth, sought death, andperished in the crimson waters of the Bievre. The _maître_ had no enemies, but his quarrel with Riesener caused a fearto spring up in the widow's heart that the apprentice might have beenguilty of his murder, so she refused to see him when, hearing of hismaster's death, he returned, stricken with remorse, to finish the desk. On it were the statuettes modeled in perfect likeness of Mlle. DeVaubernier, a wily little milliner of Riesener's bohemian set who hadtaken this way to bring herself to the attention of Louis XV. The rusewas successful; and after the acceptance of the desk, there wasinstalled a new _maîtresse en titre_, the notorious Madame Du Barry, erstwhile the pretty milliner, Mlle. De Vaubernier. Later, Madame Du Barry sent for the now famous _ebeniste_ (cabinetmaker); and, when her negro page Zamore admitted him, he found HisMajesty Louis XV kneeling in front of the fireplace, making coffee forher while she laughed at him for scalding his fingers. He had beensummoned to show the king the mechanism of the secret drawer, socunningly concealed in the king's desk that no one could find it. ButRiesener knew not the secret of his master, who had died withoutrevealing it. Then the red revolution came; and when the pretty pavilionat Louveciennes was sacked, and its costly furniture hurled down thecliff to the Seine, the king's desk, shattered almost beyond repair, wascarried to the Gobelins' factory and presented to Mme. Oeben inrecognition of her husband's workmanship. Then the secret compartmentwas found to have been disclosed, and Riesener was absolved by a lettertherein, from the _maître_, who intimated he was about to end it allbecause of paralysis. Riesener marries the widow and all ends happily. James Lane Allen, in _The Kentucky Warbler_, tells a tale of the BlueGrass country and of a young hero who wanders after a bird's note tofind romance and the key to his own locked nature. Here is an incidentfrom his first forest adventure: There was one tree he curiously looked around for, positive that he should not be blind to it if fortunate enough to set his eyes on one--the coffee tree. That is, he felt sure he'd recognize it if it yielded coffee ready to drink, of which never in his life had they given him enough. Not once throughout his long troubled experience as to being fed had he been allowed as much coffee as he craved. Once, when younger, he had heard some one say that the only tree in all the American forests that bore the name of Kentucky was the Kentucky coffee tree, and he had instantly conceived a desire to pay a visit in secret to that corner of the woods. To take his cup and a few lumps of sugar and sit under the boughs and catch the coffee as it dripped down.... No one to hold him back ... As much as he wanted at last.... The Kentucky coffee tree--his favorite in Nature! John Kendrick Bangs relates, in _Coffee and Repartee_[355], some amusingskirmishes indulged in at the boarding-house table, between the Idiotand the guests, where coffee served the purpose of enlivening the tilt: "Can't I give you another cup of coffee?" asked the landlady of the School Master. "You may, " returned the School Master, pained at the lady's grammar, but too courteous to call attention to it save by the emphasis with which he spoke the word "may". Said the Idiot: "You may fill my cup too, Mrs. Smithers. " "The coffee is all gone, " returned the landlady, with a snap. "Then, Mary, " said the Idiot, gracefully turning to the maid, "you may give me a glass of ice water. It is quite as warm, after all, as the coffee and not quite so weak. " One other little skit remains at the expense of Mrs. Smithers' coffee. At the breakfast table, where the air, as usual, is charged withrepartee, Mr. Whitechoker, the minister, says to his landlady: "Mrs. Smithers, I'll have a dash of hot water in my coffee, this morning. " Then with a glance toward the Idiot, he added, "I think it looks like rain. " "Referring to the coffee, Mr. Whitechoker?" queried the Idiot.... "Ah, --I don't quite follow you, " replied the Minister with some annoyance. "You said something looked like rain, and I asked you if the thing referred to was the coffee, for I was disposed to agree with you, " said the Idiot. "I am sure, " put in Mrs. Smithers, "that a gentleman of Mr. Whitechoker's refinement would not make any such insinuation, sir. He is not the man to quarrel with what is set before him. " "I must ask your pardon, Madam, " returned the Idiot politely. "I hope I am not the man to quarrel with my food, either. Indeed, I make it a rule to avoid unpleasantness of all sorts, particularly with the weak, under which category I find your coffee. " _Coffee Quips and Anecdotes_ Coffee literature is full of quips and anecdotes. Probably the mostfamous coffee quip is that of Mme. De Sévigné, who, as already told inchapter XI, was wrongfully credited with saying, "Racine and coffee willpass. " It was Voltaire in his preface to _Irene_ who thus accused theamiable letter-writer; and she, being dead, could not deny it. That Mme. De Sévigné was at one time a coffee drinker is apparent fromthis quotation from one of her letters: "The cavalier believes thatcoffee gives him warmth, and I at the same time, foolish as you know me, do not take it any longer. " La Roque called the beverage "the King of Perfumes", whose charm wasenriched when vanilla was added. Emile Souvestre (1806-1854) said: "Coffee keeps, so to say, the balancebetween bodily and spiritual nourishment. " Isid Bourdon said: "The discovery of coffee has enlarged the realm ofillusion and given more promise to hope. " An old Bourbon proverb says: "To an old man a cup of coffee is like thedoor post of an old house--it sustains and strengthens him. " Jardin says that in the Antilles, instead of orange blossoms, the bridescarry a spray of coffee blossoms; and when a woman remains unmarried, they say she has lost her coffee branch. "We say in France, that she has_coiffé_ Sainte-Catherine. " Fontenelle and Voltaire have both been quoted as authors of the famousreply to the remark that coffee was a slow poison: "I think it must be, for I've been drinking it for eighty-five years and am not dead yet. " In Meidinger's _German Grammar_ the "slow-poison" _bon mot_ isattributed to Fontenelle. It seems reasonable to give Fontenelle credit for this _bon mot_. Voltaire died at eighty-four. Fontenelle lived to be nearly a hundredyears. Of his cheerfulness at an advanced age an anecdote is related. Inconversation, one day, a lady a few years younger than Fontenelleplayfully remarked, "Monsieur, you and I stay here so long, methinksDeath has forgotten us. " "Hush! Speak in a whisper, madame, " repliedFontenelle, "_tant mieux!_ (so much the better!) don't remind him ofus. " Flaubert, Hugo, Baudelaire, Paul de Kock, Théophile Gautier, Alfred deMusset, Zola, Coppée, George Sand, Guy de Maupassant, and SarahBernhardt, all have been credited with many clever or witty salliesabout coffee. Prince Talleyrand (1754-1839), the French diplomat and wit, has given usthe cleverest summing up of the ideal cup of coffee. He said it shouldbe "_Noir comme le diable, chaud comme l'enfer, pur comme un ange, douxcomme l'amour. _" Or in English, "black as the devil, hot as hell, pureas an angel, sweet as love. " This quip has been wrongfully attributed to Brillat-Savarin. Talleyrandsaid also: A cup of coffee lightly tempered with good milk detracts nothing from your intellect; on the contrary, your stomach is freed by it, and no longer distresses your brain; it will not hamper your mind with troubles, but give freedom to its working. Suave molecules of Mocha stir up your blood, without causing excessive heat; the organ of thought receives from it a feeling of sympathy; work becomes easier, and you will sit down without distress to your principal repast, which will restore your body, and afford you a calm delicious night. Among coffee drinkers a high place must be given to Prince Bismarck(1815-1898). He liked coffee unadulterated. While with the Prussian armyin France, he one day entered a country inn and asked the host if he hadany chicory in the house. He had. Bismarck said: "Well, bring it to me;all you have. " The man obeyed, and handed Bismarck a canister full ofchicory. "Are you sure this is all you have?" demanded the chancellor. "Yes, my lord, every grain. " "Then, " said Bismarck, keeping the canister by him, "go now and make mea pot of coffee. " This same story has been related of François Paul Jules Grévy(1807-1891), president of France, 1879-1887. According to the Frenchstory, Grévy never took wine, even at dinner. He was, however, passionately fond of coffee. To be certain of having his favoritebeverage of the best quality, he always, when he could, prepared ithimself. Once he was invited, with a friend, M. Bethmont, to a huntingparty by M. Menier, the celebrated manufacturer of chocolate, atNoisiel. It happened that M. Grévy and M. Bethmont lost themselves inthe forest. Trying to find their way out, they stumbled upon a littlewine house, and stopped for a rest. They asked for something to drink. M. Bethmont found his wine excellent; but, as usual, Grévy would notdrink. He wanted coffee, but he was afraid of the decoction which wouldbe brought him. He got a good cup, however, and this is how he managedit: "Have you any chicory?" he said to the man. "Yes, sir. " "Bring me some. " Soon the proprietor returned with a small can of chicory. "Is that all you have?" asked Grévy. "We have a little more. " "Bring me the rest. " When he came again, with another can of chicory, Grévy said: "You have no more?" "No, sir. " "Very well. Now go and make me a cup of coffee. " As already told, Louis XV had a great passion for coffee, which he madehimself. Lenormand, the head gardener at Versailles, raised six poundsof coffee a year which was for the exclusive use of the king. The king'sfondness for coffee and for Mme. Du Barry gave rise to a celebratedanecdote of Louveciennes which was accepted as true by many seriouswriters. It is told in this fashion by Mairobert in a pamphletscandalizing Du Barry in 1776: His Majesty loves to make his own coffee and to forsake the cares of the government. One day the coffee pot was on the fire and, his Majesty being occupied with something else, the coffee boiled over. "Oh France, take care! Your coffee _f---- le camp_!" cried the beautiful favorite. Charles Vatel has denied this story. It is related of Jean Jacques Rousseau that once when he was walking inthe Tuileries he caught the aroma of roasting coffee. Turning to hiscompanion, Bernardino de Saint-Pierre, he said, "Ah, that is a perfumein which I delight; when they roast coffee near my house, I hasten toopen the door to take in all the aroma. " And such was the passion forcoffee of this philosopher of Geneva that when he died, "he just misseddoing it with a cup of coffee in his hand". Barthez, confidential physician of Napoleon the first, drank a greatdeal of it, freely, calling it "the intellectual drink. " Bonaparte, himself, said: "Strong coffee, and plenty, awakens me. Itgives me a warmth, an unusual force, a pain that is not withoutpleasure. I would rather suffer than be senseless. " Edward R. Emerson[356] tells the following story of the Café Procope. One day while M. Saint-Foix was seated at his usual table in this caféan officer of the king's body-guard entered, sat down, and ordered a cupof coffee, with milk and a roll, adding, "It will serve me for adinner. " At this, Saint-Foix remarked aloud that a cup of coffee, withmilk and a roll, was a confoundedly poor dinner. The officerremonstrated. Saint-Foix reiterated his remark, adding that nothing hecould say to the contrary would convince him that it was _not_ aconfoundedly poor dinner. Thereupon a challenge was given and accepted, and the whole company present adjourned as spectators to a duel whichended by Saint-Foix receiving a wound in the arm. "That is all very well, " said the wounded combatant; "but I call you towitness, gentlemen, that I am still profoundly convinced that a cup ofcoffee, with milk and a roll, is a confoundedly poor dinner. " At this moment the principals were arrested and carried before the Dukede Noailles, in whose presence Saint-Foix, without waiting to bequestioned, said: "Monseigneur, I had not the slightest intention of offending thisgallant officer who, I doubt not, is an honorable man; but yourexcellency can never prevent my asserting that a cup of coffee, withmilk and a roll, is a confoundedly poor dinner. " "Why, so it is, " said the Duke. "Then I am not in the wrong, " persisted Saint-Foix; "and a cup ofcoffee"--at these words magistrates, delinquents, and auditory burstinto a roar of laughter, and the antagonists forthwith became warmfriends. "Boswell in his _Life of Johnson_ tells a story of an old chevalier deMalte, of _ancienne noblesse_, but in low circumstances, who was in acoffee house in Paris, where was also Julien, the great manufacturer atGobelins, of fine tapestry, so much distinguished for the figures andthe colours. The chevalier's carriage was very old. Says Julien with aplebeian insolence, 'I think, sir, you had better have your carriage newpainted. ' "The chevalier looked at him with indignant contempt, and answered: "'Well, sir, you may take it home and dye it. ' "All the coffee house rejoiced at Julien's confusion. " Sydney Smith (1771-1845) the English clergyman and humorist, once said:"If you want to improve your understanding, drink coffee; it is theintellectual beverage. " Our own William Dean Howells pays the beverage this tribute: "Thiscoffee intoxicates without exciting, soothes you softly out of dullsobriety, making you think and talk of all the pleasant things that everhappened to you. " The wife of the president of the United States prefers coffee to tea. Afternoon guests at the White House may be refreshed, if they choose, bya sip of tea. But while tea is on tap for callers, Mrs. Harding alwayshas coffee for those who, like herself, prefer it. _Old London Coffee-House Anecdotes_ A good-sized volume might be compiled of the many anecdotes that havebeen written about habitués of the London coffee houses of theseventeenth and eighteenth centuries. [Illustration: DR. JOHNSON'S SEAT AT THE CHESHIRE CHEESE] Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), the lexicographer, was one of the mostconstant frequenters of the coffee houses of his day. His big, awkwardfigure was a familiar sight as he went about attended by his satellite, young James Boswell, who was to write about him for the delight offuture generations in his marvelous _Life of Johnson_. The intellectualand moral peculiarities of the man found a natural expression in thecoffee house. Johnson was fifty-four and Boswell only twenty-three whenthe two first met in Tom Davies' book-shop in Covent Garden. The storyis told by Boswell with great particularity and characteristic naiveté: Mr. Davies mentioned my name, and respectfully introduced me to him. I was much agitated, and recollecting his prejudice against the Scotch, of which I had heard so much, I said to Davies, "Don't tell him where I come from. " "From Scotland, " cried Davies roguishly. "Mr. Johnson, " said I, "I do indeed come from Scotland, but I cannot help it. " I am willing to flatter myself that I meant this as a light pleasantry to sooth and conciliate him, and not as a humiliating abasement at the expense of my country. But however that might be, this speech was somewhat unlucky, for with that quickness of wit for which he was so remarkable, he seized the expression, "come from Scotland!" which I used In the sense of being of that country; and, as if I had come away from it, or left it, he retorted, "That, sir, I find is what a great many of your countrymen cannot help. " Nothing daunted, however, Boswell within a week called upon Johnson inhis chambers. This time the doctor urged him to tarry. Three weeks laterhe said to him, "Come to me as often as you can. " Within a fortnightthereafter Boswell was giving the great man a sketch of his own life andJohnson was exclaiming, "Give me your hand; I have taken a liking toyou. " [Illustration: ORIGINAL COFFEE ROOM, OLD COCK TAVERN] When people began to ask, "Who is this Scotch cur at Johnson's heels?"Goldsmith replied: "He is not a cur; he is only a bur. Tom Davies flunghim at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of sticking. " Thus began one of the strangest friendships, out of which developed themost delightful biography in all literature. Boswell's taste forliterary adventures, and Johnson's literary vagrancy met in acompanionship that found much satisfaction in the bohemianism of theinns and coffee houses of old London. Boswell thus describes theeccentric doctor's outlook on this mode of living: We dined today at an excellent inn at Chapel-House, where Mr. Johnson commented on English coffee houses and inns remarking that the English triumphed over the French in one respect, in that the French had no perfection of tavern life. There is no private house, (said he) in which people can enjoy themselves so well, as at a capital tavern. Let there be ever so great plenty of good things, ever so much grandeur, ever so much elegance, ever so much desire that everybody should be easy; in the nature of things it cannot be: there must always be some degree of care and anxiety. The master of the house is anxious to entertain his guests; the guests are anxious to be agreeable to him; and no man, but a very impudent dog indeed, can as freely command what is in another man's house, as if it were his own. Whereas, at a tavern, there is a general freedom from anxiety. You are sure you are welcome: and the more noise you make, the more trouble you give, the more good things you call for, the welcomer you are. No servants will attend you with the alacrity which waiters do, who are incited by the prospect of an immediate reward in proportion as they please. No, Sir, there is nothing which has yet been contrived by man, by which so much happiness is produced as by a good tavern or inn. He then repeated, with great emotion, Shenstone's lines: "Whoe'er has travell'd life's dull round, Where'er his stages may have been, May sigh to think he still has found His warmest welcome at an inn. " Patient delving into Johnsoniana is rewarded with many anecdotes aboutthe mad doctor philosopher and his faithful reporter who delighted intranslating his genius to the world. Boswell was a wine-bibber, but Johnson confessed to being "a hardenedand shameless tea drinker. " When Boswell twigged him for abstaining fromthe stronger drink, the doctor replied: "Sir, I have no objection to aman's drinking wine if he can do it in moderation. I find myself apt togo to excess in it and therefore, after having been for some timewithout it, on account of illness, I thought it better not to return toit. " Another time he said of tea: "What a delightful beverage must that bethat pleases all palates at a time when they can take nothing else atbreakfast. " [Illustration: FIREPLACE IN THE COFFEE ROOM OF THE OLD COCK TAVERN] [Illustration: MORNING GOSSIP IN THE COFFEE ROOM OF THE OLD COCKTAVERN] In his early days Johnson had David Garrick as an unwilling pupil. Afterthe actor had become famous and his prosperity had turned his head, hewas wont to "put the table in a roar" by mimicking the doctor'sgrimaces. There is a story that on the occasion of a certain dinnerparty where both were guests, Garrick indulged in a coarse jest on thegreat man's table manners. After the merriment had subsided, DoctorJohnson arose solemnly and said: "Gentlemen, you must doubtless suppose from the extreme familiarity withwhich Mr. Garrick has thought fit to treat me that I am an acquaintanceof his; but I can assure you that until I met him here, I never saw himbut once before--and then I paid five shillings for the sight. " A certain sycophant, thinking to curry favor with Johnson, took tolaughing loud and long at everything he said. Johnson's patience at lastbecame exhausted, and after a particularly objectionable outburst, heturned upon the boor with: "Pray sir, what is the matter? I hope I have not said anything which youcan comprehend!" Because of his physical and mental disabilities Dr. Johnson was not agood social animal. Nevertheless, when it pleased his humor, he could bethe cavalier, for his mind overcame every impediment. It is related of him that once when a lady who was showing him aroundher garden expressed her regret at being unable to bring a particularflower to perfection, he arose gallantly to the occasion by taking herhand and remarking: "Then, madam, permit me to bring perfection to the flower!" Again, when Mrs. Siddons, the great English tragedienne, called upon himin his chambers and the servant did not promptly bring her a chair, hisquick wit made capital of the incident by the remark: "You see, madam, wherever you go there are no seats to be had!" John Thomas Smith in his _Antiquarian Rambles in the Streets of London_(1846), tells an amusing incident in the life of Sir George Etherege, the playright, who having run up a bill at Locket's ordinary, a coffeehouse much frequented by dramatists of the period, and finding himselfunable to pay, began to absent himself from the place. Mrs. Locketthereupon sent a man to dun and to threaten him with prosecution if hedid not pay. Sir George sent back word that if she stirred a step in thematter he would kiss her. On receiving this answer, the good lady, muchexasperated, called for her hood and scarf, and told her husband, whointerposed, that "she would see if there was any fellow alive who wouldhave the impudence--" "Prithee! my dear, don't be so rash, " said herhusband; "there is no telling what a man may do in his passion. " Richard Savage, the English poet and friend of Johnson, who included himin his famous _Lives of the Poets_, was arrested for the murder of JamesSinclair after a drunken brawl in Robinson's coffee house in 1727. Hewas found guilty, but narrowly escaped the death penalty by theintercession of the countess of Hertford. A feature of his trial was theextraordinary charge to the jury of Judge Page, who for his hard wordsand his love of hanging, is damned to everlasting fame in the verse ofPope. The charge was: Gentlemen of the jury! You are to consider that Mr. Savage is a very great man, a much greater man than you or I, gentlemen of the jury; that he wears very fine clothes, much finer than you or I, gentlemen of the jury; that he has an abundance of money in his pocket, much more money than you or I, gentlemen of the jury; but, gentlemen of the jury, is it not a very hard case, gentlemen of the jury, that Mr. Savage should therefore kill you or me, gentlemen of the jury? Albert V. Lally[357] has made a collection of old coffee-houseanecdotes. Among them are the following: The story is told of how Sir Richard Steele in Button's Coffee House was once made the umpire in an amusing difference between two unnamed disputants. These two were arguing about religion, when one of them said: "I wonder, sir, you should talk of religion, when I'll hold you five guineas you can't say the Lord's prayer. " "Done, " said the other, "and Sir Richard Steele shall hold the stakes. " The money being deposited the gentleman began with, "I believe in God", and so went right through the creed. "Well, " said the other when he had finished, "I didn't think he could have done it. " * * * * * There is another story of a famous judge, Sir Nicholas Bacon, who was importuned by a criminal to spare his life on account of kinship. "How so, " demanded the judge. "Because my name is Hog and yours is Bacon; and hog and bacon are so near akin that they cannot be separated. " "Ay, " responded the judge dryly, "but you and I cannot yet be kindred, for hog is not bacon until it is well hanged. " * * * * * On another occasion a nervous barrister, pleading before this same judge, began with repeated references to his "unfortunate client. " "Go on, sir, " said the judge, "so far the Court is with you. " * * * * * Of Jonathan Swift it is related that a gentleman who had sought to persuade him to accept an invitation to dinner said, in way of special inducement, "I'll send you my bill of fare. " "Send me rather your bill of company, " retorted Swift, showing his appreciation of the truth that not that which is eaten, but those who eat, form the more important part of a good dinner. On the occasion when the "dreadful Judge Jeffreys" was trying Compton, bishop of London, before the Court of High Commission, that prelate, asCampbell relates in his _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, complained ofhaving no copy of the indictment. Jeffreys replied to this excuse that"all the coffee houses had it for a penny. " The case being resumed afterthe lapse of a week, the bishop again protested that he was unprepared, owing to his continued difficulty in obtaining a copy of the necessarydocument. Jeffreys was obliged once more to adjourn the case, and in sodoing offered this bantering apology: "My lord, " said he, "in telling you our commission was to be seen inevery coffee house, I did not speak with any design to reflect on yourlordship, as if you were a haunter of coffee houses. I abhor thethoughts of it!" As the Judge had once been distinctly opposed to the party andprinciples which he went to such a length in supporting, so had heformerly owed something to the very institution against which his lastblow was directed. Roger North relates (and Campbell repeats the story)that, "after he was called to the bar, he used to sit in coffee housesand order his man to come and tell him that company attended him at hischamber; at which he would huff and say, 'let them stay a little, I willcome presently, ' and thus made a show of business. " John Timbs, in his _Clubs and Club Life in London_, has a host ofanecdotes and stories of the old London coffee houses, among them thefollowing: Garraway's noted coffee-house, situated in Change-alley, Cornhill, had a threefold celebrity; tea was first sold in England here; it was a place of great resort in the time of the South Sea Bubble; and was later a place of great mercantile transactions. The original proprietor was Thomas Garway, tobacconist and coffee-man, the first who retailed tea, recommending it as a cure of all disorders. [Illustration: "HIS WARMEST WELCOME AT AN INN" The George Inn of today has retained a portion of its old galleries, the original of which completely surrounded the courtyard in typical "Dickens Inn" style. The visitor can imagine Mr. Pickwick emerging from the door of one of the bedrooms and calling into the yard to Sam Weller. In the old-fashioned coffee room on the ground floor one may still lunch and dine enclosed in high bench seats] Ogilby, the compiler of the _Britannia_, had his standing lottery of books at Mr. Garway's Coffee-house from April 7, 1673, till wholly drawn off. And, in the "Journey through England, " 1722, Garraway's, Robins's, and Joe's are described as the three celebrated coffee-houses: "In the first, the People of Quality, who have business in the City, and the most considerable and wealthy citizens frequent. In the second the Foreign Banquiers, and often even Foreign Ministers. And in the third, the buyers and sellers of stock. " Wines were sold at Garraway's in 1673, "by the candle", that is, by auction, while an inch of candle burns. In the _Tatler_, No. 147, we read: "Upon my coming home last night, I found a very handsome present of French wine, left for me, as a taste of 216 hogshead, which are to be put on sale at 20£ a hogshead, at Garraway's Coffee-house, in Exchange alley" etc. The sale by candle is not, however, by candlelight, but during the day. At the commencement of the sale, when the auctioneer has read a description of the property, and the conditions on which it is to be disposed of, a piece of candle, usually an inch long, is lighted, and he who is the last bidder at the time the light goes out is declared the purchaser. Swift, in his _Ballad on the South Sea Scheme_, 1721, did not forget Garraway's: There is a gulf, where thousands fell, Here all the bold adventurers came, A narrow sound, though deep as hell, 'Change alley is the dreadful name. Subscribers here by thousands float, And jostle one another down, Each paddling in his leaky boat, And here they fish for gold and drown. Now buried in the depths below, Now mounted up to heaven again, They reel and stagger to and fro, At their wits' end, like drunken men. Meantime secure on Garway cliffs, A savage race, by shipwrecks fed, Lie waiting for the founder'd skiffs, And strip the bodies of the dead. Dr. Jno. Radcliff, who was a rash speculator in the South Sea Scheme, was usually planted at a table at Garraway's about Exchange time, to watch the turn of the market; and here he was seated when the footman of his powerful rival, Dr. Edward Hannes, came into Garraway's and inquired by way of a puff, if Dr. H. Was there. Dr. Radcliff, who was surrounded with several apothecaries and chirurgeons that flocked about him, cried out, "Dr. Hannes is not here, " and desired to know "who wants him?" The fellow's reply was, "such a lord and such a lord;" but he was taken up with the dry rebuke, "No, no, friend, you are mistaken; the Doctor wants those lords. " One of Radcliff's ventures was five thousand guineas upon one South Sea project. When he was told at Garraway's that 'twas all lost, "Why, " said he, "'tis but going up five thousand pair of stairs more. " "This answer, " says Tom Brown, "deserved a statue. " * * * * * Jonathan's Coffee-house was another Change-alley coffee-house, which is described in the _Tatler_, No. 38, as "the general mart of stock-jobbers, " and the _Spectator_, No. 1, tells us that he "sometimes passes for a Jew in the assembly of stock-jobbers at Jonathan's. " This was their rendezvous, where gambling of all sorts was carried on, notwithstanding a former prohibition against the assemblage of the jobbers, issued by the City of London, which prohibition continued unrepealed until 1825. * * * * * The _Spectator_, No. 16, notices some gay frequenters of the Rainbow Coffee-house in Fleet Street: "I have received a letter desiring me to be very satirical upon the little muff that is now in fashion; another informs me of a pair of silver garters buckled below the knee, that have been lately seen at the Rainbow Coffee-house in Fleet Street. " Mr. Moncrieff, the dramatist, used to tell that about 1780, this house was kept by his grandfather, Alexander Moncrieff, when it retained its original title of "The Rainbow Coffee-house. " * * * * * Nando's Coffee-house at the east corner of Inner Temple-lane, No. 17, Fleet-Street, by some confused with Groom's house, No. 16, was the favourite haunt of Lord Thurlow before he dashed into law practice. At this coffee-house a large attendance of professional loungers was attracted by the fame of the punch and the charms of the landlady, which, with the small wits, were duly admired by and at the bar. One evening, the famous cause of Douglas _v. _ the Duke of Hamilton was the topic of discussion, when Thurlow being present, it was suggested, half in earnest, to appoint him junior counsel, which was done. This employment brought him acquaintance with the Duchess of Queensberry, who saw at once the value of a man like Thurlow, and recommended Lord Bute to secure him by a silk gown. * * * * * Dick's Coffee-house, at No. 8, Fleet-street, (south side, near Temple Bar) was originally "Richard's", named from Richard Torner, or Turner, to whom the house was let in 1680. Richard's was frequented by Cowper, when he lived in the Temple. In his own account of his insanity, Cowper tells us: "At breakfast I read the newspaper, and in it a letter, which, the further I perused it, the more closely engaged my attention. I cannot now recollect the purport of it; but before I had finished it, it appeared demonstratively true to me that it was a libel or satire upon me. The author appeared to be acquainted with my purpose of self-destruction, and to have written that letter on purpose to secure and hasten the execution of it. My mind, probably, at this time began to be disordered; however it was, I was certainly given to a strong delusion. I said within myself, 'Your cruelty shall be gratified; you shall have your revenge, ' and flinging down the paper in a fit of strong passion, I rushed hastily out of the room; directing my way towards the fields, where I intended to find some house to die in; or, if not, determined to poison myself in a ditch, where I could meet with one sufficiently retired. " * * * * * Lloyd's Coffee-house was one of the earliest establishments of its kind; it is referred to in a poem printed in the year 1700, called the _Wealthy Shopkeeper, or Charitable Christian_: Now to Lloyd's Coffee-house he never fails, To read the letters, and attend the sales. In 1710, Steele (_Tatler_, No. 246) dates from Lloyd's his Petition on Coffee-house Orators and Newsvendors. And Addison, in _Spectator_, April 23, 1711, relates this droll incident: "About a week since there happened to me a very odd accident, by reason of one of these my papers of minutes which I had accidentally dropped at Lloyd's Coffee-house, where the auctions are usually kept. Before I missed it, there were a cluster of people who had found it, and were diverting themselves with it at one end of the coffee-house. It had raised so much laughter among them before I observed what they were about, that I had not the courage to own it. The boy of the coffee-house, when they had done with it, carried it about in his hand, asking everybody if they had dropped a written paper; but nobody challenging it, he was ordered by those merry gentlemen who had before perused it, to get up into the auction pulpit, and read it to the whole room, that if anybody would own it they might. The boy accordingly mounted the pulpit, and with a very audible voice read what proved to be minutes, which made the whole coffee-house very merry; some of them concluded it was written by a madman, and others by somebody that had been taking notes out of the _Spectator_. After it was read, and the boy was coming put of the pulpit, the _Spectator_ reached his arm out, and desired the boy to given it him; which was done according. This drew the whole eyes of the company upon the _Spectator_; but after casting a cursory glance over it, he shook his head twice or thrice at the reading of it, twisted it into a kind of match, and lighted his pipe with it. 'My profound silence, ' says the _Spectator_, 'together with the steadiness of my countenance, and the gravity of my behaviour during the whole transaction, raised a very loud laugh on all sides of me; but as I had escaped all suspicion of being the author, I was very well satisfied, and applying myself to my pipe and the _Postman_, took no further notice of anything that passed about me. '" * * * * * The Smyrna Coffee-house in Pall Mall, was, in the reign of Queen Anne, famous for "that cluster of wise-heads" found sitting every evening from the left side of the fire to the door. The following announcement in the _Tatler_, No. 78, is amusing: "This is to give notice to all ingenious gentlemen in and about the cities of London and Westminster, who have a mind to be instructed in the noble sciences of music, poetry and politics, that they repair to the Smyrna Coffee-house, in Pall Mall, betwixt the hours of eight and ten at night, where they may be instructed gratis, with elaborate essays 'by word of mouth', on all or any of the above-mentioned arts. " * * * * * St. James's Coffee-house was the famous Whig coffee-house from the time of Queen Anne till late in the reign of George III. It was the last house but one on the southwest corner of St. James's street, and is thus mentioned in No. 1 of the _Tatler_: "Foreign and Domestic News you will have from St. James's Coffee-house. " It occurs also in the passage quoted previously from the _Spectator_. The St. James's was much frequented by Swift; letters for him were left here. In his Journal to Stella he says: "I met Mr. Harley, and he asked me how long I had learnt the trick of writing to myself? He had seen your letter through the glass case at the Coffee-house, and would swear it was my hand. " Elliott, who kept the coffee-house, was, on occasions, placed on a friendly footing with his guests. Swift, in his Journal to Stella, November 19, 1710, records an odd instance of this familiarity: "This evening I christened our coffee-man Elliott's child; when the rogue had a most noble supper, and Steele and I sat amongst some scurvy company over a bowl of punch. " In the first advertisement of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's "Town Eclogues, " they are stated to have been read over at the St. James's Coffee-house, when they were considered by the general voice to be productions of a Lady of Quality. From the proximity of the house to St. James's Palace, it was much frequented by the Guards; and we read of its being no uncommon circumstance to see Dr. Joseph Warton at breakfast in the St. James's Coffee-house, surrounded by officers of the Guards, who listened with the utmost attention and pleasure to his remarks. To show the order and regularity observed at the St. James's, we may quote the following advertisement, appended to the _Tatler_. No. 25; "To prevent all mistakes that may happen among gentlemen of the other end of the town, who come but once a week to St. James's Coffee-house, either by miscalling the servants, or requiring such things from them as are not properly within their respective provinces, this is to give notice that Kidney, keeper of the book-debts of the outlying customers, and observer of those who go off without paying, having resigned that employment, is succeeded by John Sowton; to whose place of enterer of messages and first coffee-grinder, William Bird is promoted; and Samuel Burdock comes as shoe-cleaner in the room of the said Bird. " But the St. James's is more memorable as the house where originated Goldsmith's celebrated poem, "Retaliation. " The poet belonged to a temporary association of men of talent, some of them members of the Club, who dined together occasionally here. At these dinners he was generally the last to arrive. On one occasion, when he was later than usual, a whim seized the company to write epitaphs on him as "the late Dr. Goldsmith", and several were thrown off in a playful vein. The only one extant was written by Garrick, and has been preserved, very probably, by its pungency: Here lies poet Goldsmith, for shortness called Noll;He wrote like an angel, but talked like poor Poll. Goldsmith did not relish the sarcasm, especially coming from such a quarter; and, by way of _retaliation_, he produced the famous poem, of which Cumberland has left a very interesting account, but which Mr. Forster, in his "Life of Goldsmith", states to be "pure romance". The poem itself, however, with what was prefixed to it when published, sufficiently explains its own origin. What had formerly been abrupt and strange in Goldsmith's manners, had now so visibly increased, as to become matter of increased sport to such as were ignorant of its cause; and a proposition made at one of the dinners, when he was absent, to write a series of epitaphs upon him (his "country dialect" and his awkward person) was agreed to, and put in practice by several of the guests. The active aggressors appear to have been Garrick, Doctor Bernard, Richard Burke, and Caleb Whitefoord. Cumberland says he, too, wrote an epitaph; but it was complimentary and grave, and hence the grateful return he received. Mr. Forster considers Garrick's epitaph to indicate the tone of all. This, with the rest, was read to Goldsmith when he next appeared at the St. James's Coffee-house, where Cumberland, however, says he never again met his friends. But "the Doctor was called on for Retaliation, " says the friend who published the poem with that name, "and at their next meeting produced the following, which I think adds one leaf to his immortal wreath. " "'Retaliation'", says Sir Walter Scott, "had the effect of placing the author on a more equal footing with his Society than he had ever before assumed. " Cumberland's account differs from the version formerly received, which intimates that the epitaphs were written before Goldsmith arrived: whereas the pun, "the late Dr. Goldsmith" appears to have suggested the writing of the epitaphs. In the "Retaliation", Goldsmith has not spared the characters and failings of his associates, but has drawn them with satire, at once pungent and good-humoured. Garrick is smartly chastised; Burke, the Dinner-bell of the House of Commons, is not let off; and of all the more distinguished names of the Club, Thomson, Cumberland, and Reynolds alone escape the lash of the satirist. The former is not mentioned, and the two latter are even dismissed with unqualified and affectionate applause. Still we quote Cumberland's account of the "Retaliation" which is very amusing from the closely circumstantial manner in which the incidents are narrated, although they have so little relationship to truth: "It was upon a proposal started by Edmund Burke, that a party of friends who had dined together at Sir Joshua Reynolds's and my house, should meet at the St. James's Coffee-house, which accordingly took place, and was repeated occasionally with much festivity and good fellowship. Dr. Bernard, Dean of Derry; a very amiable and old friend of mine, Dr. Douglas, since Bishop of Salisbury; Johnson, David Garrick, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Oliver Goldsmith, Edmund and Richard Burke, Hickey, with two or three others, constituted our party. At one of these meetings, an idea was suggested of extemporary epitaphs upon the parties present; pen and ink were called for, and Garrick, offhand, wrote an epitaph with a good deal of humour, upon poor Goldsmith, who was the first in jest, as he proved to be in reality, that we committed to the grave. The Dean also gave him an epitaph, and Sir Joshua illuminated the Dean's verses with a sketch of his bust in pen and ink, inimitably caricatured. Neither Johnson nor Burke wrote anything, and when I perceived that Oliver was rather sore, and seemed to watch me with that kind of attention which indicated his expectation of something in the same kind of burlesque with theirs; I thought it time to press the joke no further, and wrote a few couplets at a side-table, which, when I had finished, and was called upon by the company to exhibit, Goldsmith, with much agitation, besought me to spare him; and I was about to tear them, when Johnson wrested them out of my hand, and in a loud voice read them at the table. I have now lost recollection of them, and, in fact, they were little worth remembering; but as they were serious and complimentary, the effect upon Goldsmith was the more pleasing for being so entirely unexpected. The concluding line, which was the only one I can call to mind, was: "All mourn the poet, I lament the man. "This I recollect, because he repeated it several times, and seemed much gratified by it. At our next meeting he produced his epitaphs ... And this was the last time he ever enjoyed the company of his friends. " * * * * * Will's Coffee-house, the predecessor of Button's, and even more celebrated than that coffee-house, was kept by William Urwin. It first had the title of the Red Cow, then of the Rose, and, we believe, is the same house alluded to in the pleasant story in the second number of the _Tatler_. "Supper and friends expect we at the Rose. " Dean Lockier has left this life-like picture of his interview with the presiding genius (Dryden) at Will's. "I was about seventeen when I first came up to town, " says the Dean, "an odd-looking boy, with short rough hair, and that sort of awkwardness which one always brings up at first out of the country with one. However, in spite of my bashfulness and appearance, I used, now and then, to thrust myself into Will's to have the pleasure of seeing the most celebrated wits of that time, who then resorted thither. The second time that ever I was there, Mr. Dryden was speaking of his own things, as he frequently did, especially of such as had been lately published. 'If anything of mine is good, ' says he, ''tis 'Mac-Flecno', and I value myself the more upon it, because it is the first piece of ridicule written in heroics. ' On hearing this I plucked up my spirit so far as to say, in a voice but just loud enough to be heard, 'that "Mac-Flecno" was a very fine poem, but that I had not imagined it to be the first that was ever writ that way. ' On this, Dryden turned short upon me, as surprised at my interposing; asked me how long 'I had been a dealer in poetry'; and added, with a smile, 'Pray, Sir, what is it that you did imagine to have been writ so before?'--I named Boileau's 'Lutrin' and Tassoni's 'Secchia Rapita, ' which I had read, and knew Dryden had borrowed some strokes from each. ''Tis true, ' said Dryden, 'I had forgot them. ' A little after, Dryden went out, and in going, spoke to me again, and desired me to come and see him the next day. I was highly delighted with the invitation; went to see him accordingly; and was well acquainted with him after, as long as he lived. " * * * * * Will's Coffee-house was the open market for libels and lampoons, the latter named from the established burden formerly sung to them: _Lampone, lampone, camerada lampone. _ There was a drunken fellow, named Julian, who was a characterless frequenter of Will's, and Sir Walter Scott has given this account of him and his vocation: "Upon the general practice of writing lampoons, and the necessity of finding some mode of dispersing them, which should diffuse the scandal widely while the authors remained concealed, was founded the self-erected office of Julian, Secretary, as he called himself, to the Muses. This person attended Will's, the Wits' Coffee-house, as it was called; and dispersed among the crowds who frequented that place of gay resort copies of the lampoons which had been privately communicated to him by their authors. 'He is described, ' says Mr. Malone, 'as a very drunken fellow, and at one time was confined for a libel. '" * * * * * Tom Brown describes 'a Wit and a Beau set up with little or no expense. A pair of red stockings and a swordknot set up one, and peeping once a day in at Will's, and two or three second-hand sayings, the other. ' * * * * * Pepys, one night, going to fetch home his wife, stopped in Covent Garden, at the Great Coffee-house there, as he called Will's, where he never was before: "Where, " he adds, "Dryden, the poet (I knew at Cambridge), and all the Wits of the town, and Harris the player, and Mr. Hoole of our College. And had I had time then, or could at other times, it will be good coming thither, for there, I perceive, is very witty and pleasant discourse. But I could not tarry, and, as it was late, they were all ready to go away. " Addison passed each day alike, and much in the manner that Dryden did. Dryden employed his mornings in writing, dined _en famille_, and then went to Will's, "only he came home earlier o' nights. " Pope, when very young, was impressed with such veneration for Dryden, that he persuaded some friends to take him to Will's Coffee-house, and was delighted that he could say that he had seen Dryden. Sir Charles Wogan, too, brought up Pope from the Forest of Windsor, to dress _a la mode_, and introduce at Will's Coffee-house. Pope afterwards described Dryden as "a plump man with a down look, and not very conversible, " and Cibber could tell no more "but that he remembered him a decent old man, arbiter of critical disputes at Will's. " Prior sings of-- The younger Stiles, Whom Dryden pedagogues at Will's! Most of the hostile criticism on his Plays, which Dryden has noticed in his various Prefaces, appear to have been made at his favourite haunt, Will's Coffee-house. Dryden is generally said to have been returning from Will's to his house in Gerard Street, when he was cudgelled in Rose Street by three persons hired for the purpose by Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, in the winter of 1679. The assault, or "the Rose-alley Ambuscade, " certainly took place; but it is not so certain that Dryden was on his way from Will's, and he then lived in Long-acre, not Gerard Street. It is worthy of remark that Swift was accustomed to speak disparagingly of Will's, as in his "Rhapsody on Poetry:" Be sure at Will's the following dayLie snug, and hear what critics say;And if you find the general voguePronounces you a stupid rogue, Damns all your thoughts as low and little;Sit still, and swallow down your spittle. Swift thought little of the frequenters of Will's: "he used to say, the worst conversation he ever heard in his life was at Will's Coffee-house, where the wits (as they were called) used formerly to assemble; that is to say, five or six men who had writ plays or at least prologues, or had a share in a miscellany, came thither, and entertained one another with their trifling composures, in so important an air as if they had been the noblest efforts of human nature, or that the fate of kingdoms depended on them. " In the first number of the _Tatler_, poetry is promised under the article of Will's Coffee-house. The place, however, changed after Dryden's time: "you used to see songs, epigrams, and satires in the hands of every man you met, you have now only a pack of cards; and instead of the cavils about the turn of the expression, the elegance of the style, and the like, the learned now dispute only about the truth of the game. " "In old times, we used to sit upon a play here, after it was acted, but now the entertainment's turned another way. " The _Spectator_ is sometimes seen "thrusting his head into a round of politicians at Will's, and listening with great attention to the narratives that are made in these little circular audiences. " Then, we have as an instance of no one member of human society but that would have some little pretension for some degree in it, "like him who came to Will's Coffee-house upon the merit of having writ a posie of a ring. " And, "Robin, the porter who waits at Will's, is the best man in town for carrying a billet: the fellow has a thin body, swift step, demure looks, sufficient sense, and knows the town. " After Dryden's death, in 1701, Will's continued for about ten years to be still the Wits' Coffee-house, as we see by Ned Ward's account, and by the "Journey through England" in 1722. Pope entered with keen relish into society, and courted the correspondence of the town wits and coffee-house critics. Among his early friends was Mr. Henry Cromwell, one of the _cousinry_ of the Protector's family: he was a bachelor, and spent most of his time in London; he had some pretensions to scholarship and literature, having translated several of Ovid's Elegies, for Tonson's Miscellany. With Wycherly, Gay, Dennis, the popular actors and actresses of the day, and with all the frequenters of Will's, Cromwell was familiar. He had done more than take a pinch out of Dryden's snuff-box, which was a point of high ambition and honor at Will's; he had quarrelled with him about a frail poetess, Mrs. Elizabeth Thomas, whom Dryden had christened Corinna, and who was also known as Sappho. Gay characterized this literary and eccentric beau as Honest, hatless Cromwell, with red breeches: it being his custom to carry his hat in his hand when walking with ladies. What with ladies and literature, rehearsals and reviews, and critical attention to the quality of his coffee and Brazil snuff, Henry Cromwell's time was fully occupied in town. Cromwell was a dangerous acquaintance for Pope at the age of sixteen or seventeen, but he was a very agreeable one. Most of Pope's letters to his friends are addressed to him at the Blue Hall, in Great Wild-street, near Drury Lane, and others to "Widow Hambledon's Coffee-house, at the end of Princes-street, near Drury-lane, London. " Cromwell made one visit to Binfield; on his return to London, Pope wrote to him, "referring to the ladies in particular, " and to his favorite coffee. * * * * * Will's was the great resort for the wits of Dryden's time, after whose death it was transferred to Button's. Pope describes the houses as "opposite each other, in Russell-street, Covent Garden, " where Addison established Daniel Button, in a new house, about 1712; and his fame, after the production of _Cato_, drew many of the Whigs thither. Button had been servant to the Countess of Warwick. The house is more correctly described as "over against Tom's, near the middle of the south side of the street. " Addison was the great patron of Button's; but it is said that when he suffered any vexation from his Countess, he withdrew from Button's house. His chief companions, before he married Lady Warwick, were Steele, Budgell, Philips, Carey, Davenant, and Colonell Brett. He used to breakfast with one or other of them in St. James's-place, dine at taverns with them, then to Button's, and then to some tavern again, for supper in the evening; and this was the usual round of his life, as Pope tells us in Spencer's Anecdotes, where Pope also says: "Addison usually studied all the morning, then met his party at Button's, dined there, and stayed five or six hours; and sometimes far into the night. I was of the company for about a year, but found it too much for me; it hurt my health, and so I quitted it. " Again: "There had been a coldness between me and Mr. Addison for some time, and we had not been in company together for a good while anywhere but at Button's Coffee-house, where I used to see him almost every day. " Here Pope is reported to have said of Patrick, the lexicographer, that "a dictionary-maker might know the meaning of one word, but not of two put together. " Button's was the receiving house for contributions to _The Guardian_, for which purpose was put up a lion's head letter box, in imitation of the celebrated lion at Venice, as humorously announced. Thus: "N. B. --Mr. Ironside has, within five weeks last past, muzzled three lions, gorged five, and killed one. On Monday next the skin of the dead one will be hung up, _in terrorem_, at Button's Coffee-house. " * * * * * "I intend to publish once every week the roarings of the Lion, and hope to make him roar so loud as to be heard over all the British nation. I have, I know not how, been drawn into tattle of myself, more majorum, almost the length of a whole _Guardian_. I shall therefore fill up the remaining part of it with what still relates to my own person, and my correspondents. Now I would have them all know that on the 20th instant, it is my intention to erect a Lion's Head, in imitation of those I have described in Venice, through which all the private commonwealth is said to pass. This head is to open a most wide and voracious mouth, which shall take in such letters and papers as are conveyed to me by my correspondents, it being my resolution to have a particular regard to all such matters as come to my hands through the mouth of the Lion. There will be under it a box, of which the key will be in my own custody, to receive such papers as are dropped into it. Whatever the Lion swallows I shall digest for the use of the publick. This head requires some time to finish, the workmen being resolved to give it several masterly touches, and to represent it as ravenous as possible. It will be set up in Button's Coffee-house, in Covent Garden, who is directed to show the way to the Lion's Head, and to instruct any young author how to convey his works into the mouth of it with safety and secrecy. " * * * * * "I think myself obliged to acquaint the publick, that the Lion's Head, of which I advertised them about a fortnight ago, is now erected at Button's Coffee-house, in Russell-street, Covent Garden, where it opens its mouth at all hours for the reception of such intelligence as shall be thrown into it. It is reckoned an excellent piece of workmanship, and was designed by a great hand in imitation of the antique Egyptian lion, the face of it being compounded out of that of a lion and a wizard. The features are strong and well furrowed. The whiskers are admired by all that have seen them. It is planted on the western side of the Coffee-house, holding its paws under the chin, upon a box, which contains everything that he swallows. He is, indeed, a proper emblem of knowledge and action, being all head and paws. " * * * * * "Being obliged, at present, to attend a particular affair of my own, I do empower my printer to look into the arcana of the Lion, and select out of them such as may be of publick utility; and Mr. Button is hereby authorized and commanded to give my said printer free ingress and egress to the lion, without any hindrance, let, or molestation whatsoever, until such time as he shall receive orders to the contrary. And, for so doing, this shall be his warrant. " * * * * * "My Lion, whose jaws are at all times open to intelligence, informs me that there are a few enormous weapons still in being; but that they are to be met with only in gaming houses and some of the obscure retreats of lovers, in and about Drury-lane and Covent Garden. " * * * * * This memorable Lion's Head was tolerably well carved: through the mouth the letters were dropped into a till at Button's; and beneath were inscribed these two lines from Martial: _Cervantur magnis isti Cervicibus ungues;Non nisi delicta pascitur ille fera. _ The head was designed by Hogarth, and is etched in Ireland's "Illustrations. " Lord Chesterfield is said to have once offered for the Head fifty guineas. From Button's it was removed to the Shakspeare's Head Tavern, under the Piazza, kept by a person named Tomkyns; and in 1751, was, for a short time, placed in the Bedford Coffee-house immediately adjoining the Shakspeare, and there employed as a letter-box by Dr. John Hill, for his _Inspector_. In 1769, Tomkyns was succeeded by his waiter, Campbell, as proprietor of the tavern and lion's head, and by him the latter was retained until November 8, 1804, when it was purchased by Mr. Charles Richardson, of Richardson's Hotel, for 17£ 10s. , who also possessed the original sign of the Shakspeare's Head. After Mr. Richardson's death in 1827, the Lion's Head devolved to his son, of whom it was bought by the Duke of Bedford, and deposited at Woburn Abbey, where it still remains. Pope was subjected to much annoyance and insult at Button's. Sir Samuel Garth wrote to Gay, that everybody was pleased with Pope's Translation, "but a few at Button's;" to which Gay adds, to Pope, "I am confirmed that at Button's your character is made very free with, as to morals, etc. " [Illustration: ALEXANDER POPE AT BUTTON'S COFFEE HOUSE--1730 From a drawing by Hogarth. The man opposite the seated figure is thoughtto be Pope] Cibber, in a letter to Pope, says: "When you used to pass your hours at Button's, you were even there remarkable for your satirical itch of provocation; scarce was there a gentleman of any pretension to wit, whom your unguarded temper had not fallen upon in some biting epigram, among which you once caught a pastoral Tartar, whose resentment, that your punishment might be proportionate to the smart of your poetry, had stuck up a birchen rod in the room, to be ready whenever you might come within reach of it; and at this rate you writ and rallied and writ on, till you rhymed yourself quite out of the coffee-house. " The "pastoral Tartar" was Ambrose Philips, who, says Johnson, "hung up a rod at Button's, with which he threatened to chastise Pope. " Pope, in a letter to Crags, thus explains the affair: "Mr. Philips did express himself with much indignation against me one evening at Button's Coffee-house (as I was told), saying that I was entered into a cabal with Dean Swift and others, to write against the Whig interest, and in particular to undermine his own reputation and that of his friends, Steele and Addison; but Mr. Philips never opened his lips to my face, on this or any like occasion, though I was almost every night in the same room with him, nor ever offered me any indecorum. Mr. Addison came to me a night or two after Philips had talked in this idle manner, and assured me of his disbelief of what had been said, of the friendship we should always maintain, and desired I would say nothing further of it. My Lord Halifax did me the honour to stir in this matter, by speaking to several people to obviate a false aspersion, which might have done me no small prejudice with one party. However, Philips did all he could secretly to continue to report with the Hanover Club, and kept in his hands the subscriptions paid for me to him, as secretary to that Club. The heads of it have since given him to understand, that they take it ill; but (upon the terms I ought to be with such a man) I would not ask him for this money, but commissioned one of the players, his equals, to receive it. This is the whole matter; but as to the secret grounds of this malignity, they will make a very pleasant history when we meet. " Another account says that the rod was hung up at the bar of Button's, and that Pope avoided it by remaining at home--"his usual custom. " Philips was known for his courage and superior dexterity with the sword; he afterwards became justice of the peace, and used to mention Pope, whenever he could get a man in authority to listen to him, as an enemy to the Government. At Button's the leading company, particularly Addison and Steele, met in large flowing flaxen wigs. Sir Godfrey Kneller, too, was a frequenter. The master died in 1731, when in the _Daily Advertiser_, October 5 appeared the following: "On Sunday morning, died, after three days' illness, Mr. Button, who formerly kept Button's Coffee-house, in Russell-street, Covent Garden: a very noted house for wits, being the place where the Lyon produced the famous _Tatlers_ and _Spectators_, written by the late Mr. Secretary Addison and Sir Richard Steele, Knt. , which works will transmit their names with honour to posterity. " * * * * * Among other wits who frequented Button's were Swift, Arbuthnot, Savage, Budgell, Martin Folkes, and Drs. Garth and Armstrong. In 1720, Hogarth mentions "four drawings in Indian ink" of the characters at Button's Coffee-house. In these were sketches of Arbuthnot, Addison, Pope (as it is conjectured) and a certain Count Viviani, identified years afterwards by Horace Walpole, when the drawings came under his notice. They subsequently came into Ireland's possession. Jemmy Maclaine, or M'Clean, the fashionable highwayman, was a frequent visitor at Button's. Mr. John Taylor, of the _Sun_ newspaper, describes Maclaine as a tall, showy, good-looking man. A Mr. Donaldson told Taylor that, observing Maclaine paid particular attention to the barmaid of the Coffee-house, the daughter of the landlord, he gave a hint to the father of Maclaine's dubious character. The father cautioned the daughter against the highwayman's addresses, and imprudently told her by whose advice he put her on her guard; she as imprudently told Maclaine. The next time Donaldson visited the coffee-room, and sitting in one of the boxes, Maclaine entered, and in a loud tone said, "Mr. Donaldson, I wish to _spake_ to you in a private room. " Mr. D. Being unarmed, and naturally afraid of being alone with such a man, said, in answer, that as nothing could pass between them that he did not wish the whole world to know, he begged leave to decline the invitation. "Very well, " said Maclaine, as he left the room, "we shall meet again. " A day or two after, as Mr. Donaldson was walking near Richmond, in the evening, he saw Maclaine on horseback; but fortunately, at that moment, a gentleman's carriage appeared in view, when Maclaine immediately turned his horse towards the carriage, and Donaldson hurried into the protection of Richmond as fast as he could. But for the appearance of the carriage, which presented better prey, it is possible that Maclaine would have shot Mr. Donaldson immediately. Maclaine's father was an Irish Dean; his brother was a Calvinist minister in great esteem at the Hague. Maclaine himself had been a grocer in Welbeck-street, but losing a wife that he loved extremely, and by whom he had one little girl, he quitted his business with two hundred pounds in his pockets which he soon spent, and then took to the road with only one companion, Plunket, a journeyman apothecary. Maclaine was taken in the autumn of 1750, by selling a laced waistcoat to a pawnbroker in Monmouth-street, who happened to carry it to the very man who had just sold the lace. Maclaine impeached his companion, Plunket, but he was not taken. The former got into verse: Gray, in his "Long Story, " sings: A sudden fit of ague shook him;He stood as mute as poor M'Lean. Button's subsequently became a private house, and here Mrs. Inchbald lodged, probably, after the death of her sister, for whose support she practised such noble and generous self-denial. Mrs. Inchbald's income was now 172£ a year, and we are told that she now went to reside in a boarding-house, where she enjoyed more of the comforts of life. Phillips, the publisher, offered her a thousand pounds for her Memoirs, which she declined. She died in a boarding-house at Kensington, on the 1st of August, 1821, leaving about 6, 000£ judiciously divided amongst her relatives. Her simple and parsimonious habits were very strange. "Last Thursday, " she writes, "I finished scouring my bedroom, while a coach with a coronet and two footmen waited at my door to take me an airing. " "One of the most agreeable memories connected with Button's, " says Leigh Hunt, "is that of Garth, a man whom, for the sprightliness and generosity of his nature, it is a pleasure to name. He was one of the most amiable and intelligent of a most amiable and intelligent class of men--the physicians. " It was just after Queen Anne's accession that Swift made acquaintance with the leaders of the wits at Button's. Ambrose Philips refers to him as the strange clergyman whom the frequenters of the Coffee-house had observed for some days. He knew no one, no one knew him. He would lay his hat down on a table, and walk up and down at a brisk pace for half an hour without speaking to any one, or seeming to pay attention to anything that was going forward. Then he would snatch up his hat, pay his money at the bar, and walk off, without having opened his lips. The frequenters of the room had christened him "the mad parson. " One evening, as Mr. Addison and the rest were observing him, they saw him cast his eyes several times upon a gentleman in boots, who seemed to be just come out of the country. At last, Swift advanced towards this bucolic gentleman, as if intending to address him. They were all eager to hear what the dumb parson had to say, and immediately quitted their seats to get near him. Swift went up to the country gentleman, and in a very abrupt manner, without any previous salute, asked him, "Pray, Sir, do you know any good weather in the world?" After staring a little at the singularity of Swift's manner and the oddity of the question, the gentleman answered, "Yes, Sir, I thank God I remember a great deal of good weather in my time. "--"That is more, " replied Swift, "than I can say; I never remember any weather that was not too hot or too cold, too wet or too dry; but, however God Almighty contrives it, at the end of the year 'tis all very well. " * * * * * Sir Walter Scott gives, upon the authority of Dr. Wall, of Worcester, who had it from Dr. Arbuthnot himself, the following anecdote--less coarse than the version generally told. Swift was seated by the fire at Button's; there was sand on the floor of the coffee-room, and Arbuthnot, with a design to play upon this original figure, offered him a letter, which he had been just addressing, saying at the same time, "There--sand that"--"I have got no sand, " answered Swift, "but I can help you to a little _gravel_. " This he said so significantly, that Arbuthnot hastily snatched back his letter, to save it from the fate of the capital of Lilliput. * * * * * Tom's Coffee-house in Birchin-lane, Cornhill, though in the main a mercantile resort, acquired some celebrity from its having been frequented by Garrick, who, to keep up an interest in the City, appeared here about twice in a winter at 'Change time, when it was the rendezvous of young merchants. * * * * * Hawkins says: "After all that has been said of Mr. Garrick, envy must own that he owed his celebrity to his merit; and yet, of that himself so diffident, that he practiced sundry little but innocent arts, to insure the favour of the public:" yet, he did more. When a rising actor complained to Mrs. Garrick that the newspapers abused him, the widow replied, "You should write your own criticisms; David always did. " * * * * * One evening, Murphy was at Tom's, when Colley Cibber was playing at whist, with an old general for his partner. As the cards were dealt to him, he took up every one in turn, and expressed his disappointment at each indifferent one. In the progress of the game he did not follow suit, and his partner said, "What! have you not a spade, Mr. Cibber?" The latter, looking at his cards, answered, "Oh yes, a thousand;" which drew a very peevish comment from the general. On which, Cibber, who was shockingly addicted to swearing, replied, "Don't be angry, for--I can play ten times worse if I like. " * * * * * The celebrated Bedford Coffee-house, in Covent Garden, once attracted so much attention as to have published, "Memoirs of the Bedford Coffee-house, " two editions, 1751 and 1763. It stood "under the Piazza, in Covent Garden, " in the northwest corner, near the entrance to the theatre, and has long ceased to exist. * * * * * In the _Connoisseur_, No. 1, 1754, we are assured that "this Coffee-house is every night crowded with men of parts. Almost every one you meet is a polite scholar and a wit. Jokes and bon-mots are echoed from box to box: every branch of literature is critically examined, and the merit of every production of the press, or performance of the theatres, weighed and determined. " And in the above-named "Memoirs" we read that "this spot has been signalized for many years as the emporium of wit, the seat of criticism, and the standard of taste. --Names of those who frequented the house: Foote, Mr. Fielding, Mr. Woodward, Mr. Leone, Mr. Murphy, Mopsy, Dr. Arne. Dr. Arne was the only man in a suit of velvet in the dog-days. " Stacie kept the Bedford when John and Henry Fielding, Hogarth, Churchill, Woodward, Lloyd, Dr. Goldsmith and many others met there and held a gossiping shilling rubber club. Henry Fielding was a very smart fellow. The _Inspector_ appears to have given rise to this reign of the Bedford, when there was placed here the Lion from Button's, which proved so serviceable to Steele, and once more fixed the dominion of wit in Covent Garden. The reign of wit and pleasantry did not, however, cease at the Bedford at the demise of the _Inspector_. A race of punsters next succeeded. A particular box was allotted to this occasion, out of hearing of the lady of the bar, that the _double entendres_, which were sometimes very indelicate, might not offend her. The Bedford was beset with scandalous nuisances, of which the following letter, from Arthur Murphy to Garrick, April 10, 1768, presents a pretty picture: "Tiger Roach (who used to bully at the Bedford Coffee-house because his name was Roach) is set up by Wilke's friends to burlesque Luttrel and his pretensions. I own I do not know a more ridiculous circumstance than to be a joint candidate with the Tiger. O'Brien used to take him off very pleasantly, and perhaps you may, from his representation, have some idea of this important wight. He used to sit with a half-starved look, a black patch upon his cheek, pale with the idea of murder, or with rank cowardice, a quivering lip, and a downcast eye. In that manner he used to sit at a table all alone, and his soliloquy, interrupted now and then with faint attempts to throw off a little saliva, was to the following effect:--'Hut! hut! a mercer's 'prentice with a bag-wig;--d---- n my s---- l, if I would not skiver a dozen of them like larks! Hut! hut! I don't understand such airs!--I'd cudgel him back, breast and belly, for three skips of a louse!--How do you do, Pat? Hut! hut! God's blood--Larry, I'm glad to see you; 'Prentices! a fine thing indeed!--Hut! hut! How do you do, Dominick!--D---- n my s---- l, what's here to do!' These were the meditations of this agreeable youth. From one of these reveries he started up one night, when I was there, called a Mr. Bagnell out of the room, and most heroically stabbed him in the dark, the other having no weapon to defend himself with. In this career, the Tiger persisted, till at length a Mr. Lennard brandished a whip over his head, and stood in a menacing attitude, commanding him to ask pardon directly. The Tiger shrank from the danger, and with a faint voice pronounced--'Hut! what signifies it between you and me? Well! well! I ask your pardon. ' 'Speak louder, Sir; I don't hear a word you say. ' And indeed he was so very tall, that it seemed as if the sound, sent feebly from below, could not ascend to such a height. This is the hero who is to figure at Brentford. " * * * * * Foote's favourite coffee-house was the Bedford. He was also a constant frequenter of Tom's, and took a lead in the Club held there, and already described. Dr. Barrowby, the well-known newsmonger of the Bedford, and the satirical critic of the day, has left this whole-length sketch of Foote: "One evening (he says) he saw a young man extravagantly dressed out in a frock suit of green and silver lace, bag-wig, sword, bouquet, and point ruffles, enter the room (at the Bedford), and immediately join the critical circle at the upper end. Nobody recognized him; but such was the ease of his bearing, and the point of humor and remark with which he at once took up the conversation, that his presence seemed to disconcert no one, and a sort of pleased buzz of 'who is he?' was still going round the room unanswered, when a handsome carriage stopped at the door; he rose, and quitted the room, and the servants announced that his name was Foote, and that he was a young gentleman of family and fortune, a student of the Inner Temple, and that the carriage had called for him on its way to the assembly of a lady of fashion". Dr. Barrowby once turned the laugh against Foote at the Bedford, when he was ostentatiously showing his gold repeater, with the remark--'Why, my watch does not go!' 'It soon _will go_, ' quietly remarked the Doctor. Young Collins, the poet, who came to town in 1744 to seek his fortune, made his way to the Bedford, where Foote was supreme among the wits and critics. Like Foote, Collins was fond of fine clothes, and walked about with a feather in his hat, very unlike a young man who had not a single guinea he could call his own. A letter of the time tells us that "Collins was an acceptable companion everywhere; and among the gentlemen who loved him for a genius, may be reckoned the Doctors Armstrong, Barrowby, Hill, Messrs. Quin, Garrick, and Foote, who frequently took his opinions upon their pieces before they were seen by the public. He was particularly noticed by the geniuses who frequented the Bedford and Slaughter's Coffee-houses. " * * * * * Ten years later (1754) we find Foote again supreme in his critical corner at the Bedford. The regular frequenters of the room strove to get admitted to his party at supper; and others got as near as they could to the table, as the only humor flowed from Foote's tongue. The Bedford was now in its highest repute. Foote and Garrick often met at the Bedford, and many and sharp were their encounters. They were the two great rivals of the day. Foote usually attacked, and Garrick, who had many weak points, was mostly the sufferer. Garrick, in early life, had been in the wine trade, and had supplied the Bedford with wine; he was thus described by Foote as living in Durham-yard, with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar, calling himself a wine-merchant. How Foote must have abused the Bedford wine of this period! One night, Foote came into the Bedford, where Garrick was seated, and there gave him an account of a most wonderful actor he had just seen. Garrick was on the tenters of suspense, and there Foote kept him a full hour. Foote brought the attack to a close by asking Garrick what he thought of Mr. Pitt's histrionic talents, when Garrick, glad of the release, declared that if Pitt had chosen the stage, he might have been the first actor upon it. Another night, Garrick and Foote were about to leave the Bedford together, when the latter, in paying the bill, dropped a guinea; and not finding it at once, said, "Where on earth can it be gone to?"--"Gone to the devil, I think, " replied Garrick, who had assisted in the search. --"Well said, David!" was Foote's reply, "let you alone for making a guinea go further than anybody else. " Churchill's quarrel with Hogarth began at the shilling rubber club, in the parlour of the Bedford; when Hogarth used some very insulting language towards Churchill, who resented it in the _Epistle_. This quarrel showed more venom than wit. "Never, " says Walpole, "did two angry men of their abilities throw mud with less dexterity. " Woodward, the comedian, mostly lived at the Bedford, was intimate with Stacie, the landlord, and gave him his (W. 's) portrait, with a mask in his hand, one of the early pictures by Sir Joshua Reynolds. Stacie played an excellent game at whist. One morning about two o'clock, one of the waiters awoke him to tell him that a nobleman had knocked him up, and had desired him to call his master to play a rubber with him for one hundred guineas. Stacie got up, dressed himself, won the money, and was in bed and asleep, all within an hour. * * * * * After Macklin had retired from the stage, in 1754, he opened that portion of the Piazza-houses, in Covent Garden, afterwards known as the Tavistock Hotel. Here he fitted up a large coffee-room, a theatre for oratory, and other apartments. To a three-shilling ordinary he added a shilling lecture, or "School of Oratory and Criticism;" he presided at the dinner table, and carved for the company; after which he played a sort of "Oracle of Eloquence. " Fielding has happily sketched him in his "Voyage to Lisbon": "Unfortunately for the fishmongers of London, the Dory only resides in the Devonshire seas; for could any of this company only convey one to the Temple of luxury under the piazza, where Macklin, the high priest, daily serves up his rich offerings, great would be the reward of that fishmonger. " In the Lecture, Macklin undertook to make each of his audience an orator, by teaching him how to speak. He invited hints and discussions; the novelty of the scheme attracted the curiosity of numbers; and this curiosity he still further excited by a very uncommon controversy which now subsisted, either in imagination or reality, between him and Foote, who abused one another very openly--"Squire Sammy, " having for his purpose engaged the Little Theatre in the Haymarket. Besides this personal attack, various subjects were debated here in the manner of the Robin Hood Society, which filled the Orator's pocket, and proved his rhetoric of some value. Here is one of his combats with Foote. The subject was Duelling In Ireland, which Macklin had illustrated as far as the reign of Elizabeth. Foote cried, "Order;" he had a question to put. "Well, Sir, " said Macklin, "what have you to say on this subject, " "I think, Sir" said Foote, "this matter might be settled in a few words. What o'clock is it, Sir?" Macklin could not possibly see what the clock had to do with a dissertation upon Duelling, but gruffly reported the hour to be half-past nine. "Very well, " said Foote, "about this time of the night every gentleman in Ireland that can possibly afford it is in his third bottle of claret, and therefore in a fair way of getting drunk; and from drunkenness proceeds quarrelling, and from quarrelling, duelling, and so there's an end of the chapter. " The company were much obliged to Foote for his interference, the hour being considered; though Macklin did not relish this abridgment. The success of Foote's fun upon Macklin's Lectures, led him to establish a summer entertainment of his own at the Haymarket. He took up Macklin's notion of applying Greek tragedy to modern subjects, and the squib was so successful that Foote cleared by it 500£ in five nights, while the great Piazza Coffee-room in Covent Garden was shut up, and Macklin in the _Gazette_ as a bankrupt. But when the great plan of Mr. Macklin proved abortive, when as he said in a former prologue, upon a nearly similar occasion-- From scheming, fretting, famine and despair. We saw to grace restor'd an exiled player; when the town was sated with the seemingly-concocted quarrel between the two theatrical geniuses, Macklin locked his doors, all animosity was laid aside, and they came and shook hands at the Bedford; the group resumed their appearance, and, with a new master, a new set of customers was seen. * * * * * Tom King's Coffee-house was one of the old night-houses of Covent Garden Market; it was a rude shed immediately beneath the portico of St. Paul's Church, and was one "well known to all gentlemen to whom beds are unknown. " Fielding in one of his Prologues says: What rake is ignorant of King's Coffee-house? It is in the background of Hogarth's print of _Morning_ where the prim maiden lady, walking to church, is soured with seeing two fuddled _beaux_ from King's Coffee-house caressing two frail women. At the door there is a drunken row, in which swords and cudgels are the weapons[358]. Harwood's _Alumni Etonenses_, p. 239, in the account of the Boys elected from Eton to King's College, contains this entry: "A. D. 1713, Thomas King, born at West Ashton, in Wiltshire, went away scholar in apprehension that his fellowship would be denied him; and afterwards kept that Coffee-house in Covent Garden, which was called by his own name. " Moll King was landlady after Tom's death: she was witty, and her house was much frequented, though it was little better than a shed. "Noblemen and the first _beaux_, " said Stacie, "after leaving Court would go to her house in full dress, with swords and bags, and in rich brocaded silk coats, and walked and conversed with persons of every description. She would serve chimney-sweepers, gardeners, and the market-people in common with her lords of the highest rank. Mr. Apreece, a tall thin man in rich dress, was her constant customer. He was called Cadwallader by the frequenters of Moll's. " It is not surprising that Moll was often fined for keeping a disorderly house. At length, she retired from business--and the pillory--to Hempstead, where she lived on her ill-earned gains, but paid for a pew in church, and was charitable at appointed seasons, and died in peace in 1747. * * * * * The Piazza Coffee-house at the northeastern angle of Covent Garden Piazza, appears to have originated with Macklin's; for we read in an advertisement in the _Publick Adviser_, March 5, 1756; "The Great Piazza Coffee-room, in Covent Garden. " The Piazza was much frequented by Sheridan; and here is located the well-known anecdote told of his coolness during the burning of Drury-lane Theatre, in 1809. It is said that as he sat at the Piazza, during the fire, taking some refreshment, a friend of his having remarked on the philosophical calmness with which he bore his misfortune, Sheridan replied: "A man may surely be allowed to take a glass of wine by his _own fireside_. " * * * * * Sheridan and John Kemble often dined together at the Piazza, to be handy to the theatre. During Kemble's management, Sheridan had occasion to make a complaint, which brought a "nervous" letter from Kemble, to which Sheridan's reply is amusing enough. Thus, he writes: "that the management of a theatre is a situation capable of becoming _troublesome_, is information which I do not want, and a discovery which I thought you made long ago. " Sheridan then treats Kemble's letter as "a nervous flight, " not to be noticed seriously, adding his anxiety for the interest of the theatre, and alluding to Kemble's touchiness and reserve; and thus concludes: "If there is anything amiss in your mind not arising from the _troublesomeness_ of your situation, it is childish and unmanly not to disclose it. The frankness with which I have dealt towards you entitles me to expect that you should have done so. "But I have no reason to believe this to be the case; and attributing your letter to a disorder which I know ought not to be indulged, I prescribe that thou shalt keep thine appointment at the Piazza Coffee-house, tomorrow at five, and, taking four bottles of claret instead of three, to which in sound health you might stint yourself, forget that you ever wrote the letter, as I shall that I ever received it. " "R. B. Sheridan. " The Piazza facade, and interior, were of Gothic design. When the house was demolished, in its place was built the Floral Hall, after the Crystal Palace model. * * * * * The Chapter Coffee-house was a literary place of resort in Paternoster Row, more especially in connection with the Wittinagemot of the last century. A very interesting account of the Chapter, at a later period (1848) is given by Mrs. Gaskell. Goldsmith frequented the Chapter, and always occupied one place, which for many years after was the seat of literary honor there. There are leather tokens of the Chapter Coffee-house in existence. * * * * * Child's Coffee-house, in St. Paul's Churchyard, was one of the _Spectator's_ houses. "Sometimes, " he says, "I smoke a pipe at Child's and whilst I seem attentive to nothing but the _Postman_, overhear the conversation of every table in the room. " It was much frequented by the clergy; for the _Spectator_, No. 609, notices the mistake of a country gentleman in taking all persons in scarfs for Doctors of Divinity, since only a scarf of the first magnitude entitles him to "the appellation of Doctor from his landlady and the _Boy at Child's_. " Child's was the resort of Dr. Mead, and other professional men of eminence. The Fellows of the Royal Society came here. Whiston relates that Sir Hans Sloane, Dr. Halley and he were once at Child's when Dr. H. Asked him, W. , why he was not a member of the Royal Society? Whiston answered, because they durst not choose a heretic. Upon which Dr. H. Said, if Sir Hans Sloane would propose him, W. , he, Dr. H. , would second it, which was done accordingly. The propinquity of Child's to the Cathedral and Doctors' Commons, made it the resort of the clergy, and ecclesiastical loungers. In that respect, Child's was superseded by the Chapter, in Paternoster Row. * * * * * The London Coffee-house was established previous to the year 1731, for we find of it the following advertisement: "May, 1731. "Whereas, it is customery for Coffee-houses and other Public-houses, to take 8s. For a quart of Arrack, and 6s. For a quart of Brandy or Rum, made into Punch: "This is to give notice, "That James Ashley has opened on Ludgate Hill, the London Coffee-house, Punch-house, Dorchester Beer and Welsh Ale Warehouse, where the finest and best old Arrack, Rum and French Brandy is made into Punch, with the other of the finest Ingredients--viz. , A quart of Arrack made into Punch for six shillings; and so in proportion to the smallest quantity, which is half-a-quartern for fourpence half-penny. A quart of Rum or Brandy made into Punch for four shillings; and so in proportion to the smallest quantity, which is half-a-quartern for fourpence half-penny; and gentlemen may have it as soon made as a gill of Wine can be drawn. " The premises occupied a Roman site; for, in 1800, in the rear of the house, in a bastion of the City Wall, was found a sepulchral monument dedicated to Claudina Martina by her husband, a provincial Roman soldier; here also were found a fragment of a statue of Hercules and a female head. In front of the Coffee-house immediately west of St. Martin's Church, stood Ludgate. * * * * * The London Coffee-house was noted for its publishers' sales of stock and copyrights. It was within the rules of the Fleet prison; and in the Coffee-house were "locked up" for the night such juries from the Old Bailey Sessions, as could not agree upon verdicts. The house was long kept by the grandfather and father of Mr. John Leech, the celebrated artist. A singular incident occurred at the London Coffee-house, many years since: Mr. Brayley, the topographer, was present at a party here, when Mr. Broadhurst, the famous tenor, by singing a high note, caused a wine-glass on the table to break, the bowl being separated from the stem. * * * * * From _The Kingdom's Intelligencer_, a weekly paper, published by authority, in 1662, we learn that there had just been opened a "new coffee-house, " with the sign of the Turk's Head, where was sold by retail "the right coffee-powder, " from 4s. To 6s. 8d. Per pound; that pounded in a mortar, 2s; East Indian berry, 1s. 6d. ; and the right Turkie berry, well garbled, at 3s. "The ungarbled for lesse, with directions how to use the same. " Also Chocolate at 2s. 6d. Per pound; the perfumed from 4s. To 10s. ; "also, Sherbets made in Turkie, of lemons, roses and violets perfumed; and Tea, or Chaa, according to its goodness. The house seal is Morat the Great. Gentlemen customers and acquaintances are (the next New Year's Day) invited to the sign of the Great Turk at this new Coffee-house, where Coffee will be on free cost. " Morat figures as a tyrant in Dryden's "Aurung Zebe. " There is a token of this house, with the sultan's head, in the Beaufoy collection[359]. Another token in the same collection, is of unusual excellence, probably by John Roettier. It has on the obverse, Morat ye Great Men did mee call, --Sultan's head; reverse, Where eare I came I conquered all. --In the field, Coffee, Tobacco, Sherbet, Tea, Chocolate, retail in Exchange Alee. "The word Tea, " says Mr. Burn, "occurs on no other tokens than those issued from 'the Great Turk' Coffee-house, in Exchange alley;" in one of its advertisements, 1662, tea is from 6s. To 60s. A pound. Competition arose. One Constantine Jennings in Threadneedle-street, over against St. Christopher's Church, advertised that coffee, chocolate, sherbet, and tea, the right Turkey berry, may be had as cheap and as good of him as is anywhere to be had for money; and that people may there be taught to prepare the said liquors gratis. Pepys, in his "Diary, " tells, September 25, 1669, of his sending for "a cup of Tea, a China Drink, he had not before tasted. " Henry Bennet, Earl of Arlington, about 1666, introduced tea at Court. And, in his "Sir Charles Sedley's Mulberry Garden, " we are told that "he who wished to be considered a man of fashion always drank wine-and-water at dinner, and a dish of tea afterwards. " These details are condensed from Mr. Burn's excellent "Beaufoy Catalogue, " 2nd edition, 1855. * * * * * In Gerard-street, Soho, also, was another Turk's Head Coffee-house, where was held a Turk's Head Society; in 1777, we find Gibbon writing to Garrick: "At this time of year (August 14) the Society of the Turk's Head can no longer be addressed as a corporate body, and most of the individual members are probably dispersed: Adam Smith, in Scotland; Burke in the shades of Beaconsfield; Fox, the Lord or the devil knows where. " The place was a kind of headquarters for the Loyal Association during the Rebellion of 1745. Here was founded "The Literary Club" and a select body for the Protection and Encouragement of Art. Another Society of Artists met in Peter's-court, St. Martin's-lane, from the year 1739 to 1769. After continued squabbles, which lasted for many years, the principal artists met together at the Turk's Head, where many others having joined them, they petitioned the King (George III) to become patron of a Royal Academy of Art. His Majesty consented; and the new Society took a room in Pall Mall, opposite to Market-lane, where they remained until the King, in the year 1771, granted them apartments in Old Somerset House. * * * * * The Turk's Head Coffee-house, No. 142, in the Strand, was a favourite supping-house with Dr. Johnson and Boswell, in whose Life of Johnson are several entries, commencing with 1763--"At night, Mr. Johnson and I supped in a private room at the Turk's Head Coffee-house, in the Strand; 'I encourage this house, ' said he, 'for the mistress of it is a good civil woman, and has not much business'. " Another entry is--"We concluded the day at the Turk's Head Coffee-house very socially. " And, August 3, 1673--"We had our last social meeting at the Turk's Head Coffee-house, before my setting out for foreign parts. " The name was afterwards changed to "The Turk's Head, Canada and Bath Coffee-house, " and was a well frequented tavern and hotel. * * * * * At the Turk's Head, or Miles's Coffee-house, New Palace-yard, Westminster, the noted Rota Club met, founded by Harrington, in 1659; where was a large oval table, with a passage in the middle, for Miles to deliver his coffee. [360] * * * * * For many years previous to the streets of London being completely paved, "Slaughter's Coffee-house" was called "The Coffee-house on the Pavement. " Besides being the resort of artists, Old Slaughter's was the house of call for Frenchmen. St. Martin's-lane was long one of the headquarters of the artists of the last century. "In the time of Benjamin West, " says J. T. Smith, "and before the formation of the Royal Academy, Greek-street, St. Martin's-lane, and Gerard-street, was their only colony. Old Slaughter's Coffee-house, in St. Martin's-lane, was their grand resort in the evenings, and Hogarth was a constant visitor. " He lived at the Golden Head, on the eastern side of Leicester Fields, in the northern half of the Sabloniere Hotel. The head he cut out himself from pieces of cork, glued and bound together; it was placed over the street-door. At this time, young Benjamin West was living in chambers, in Bedford-street, Covent Garden, and had there set up his easel; he was married in 1765, at St. Martin's Church. Roubiliac was often to be found at Slaughter's in early life; probably before he gained the patronage of Sir Edward Walpole, through finding and returning to the baronet the pocket-book of bank-notes which the young maker of monuments had picked up in Vauxhall Gardens. Sir Edward, to remunerate his integrity, and his skill, of which he showed specimens, promised to patronize Roubiliac through life, and he faithfully performed this promise. Young Gainsborough, who spent three years amid the works of the painters in St. Martin's-lane, Hayman, and Cipriani, who were all eminently convival, were, in all probability, frequenters of Slaughter's. Smith tells us that Quin and Hayman were inseparable friends, and so convival, that they seldom parted till daylight. Mr. Cunningham relates that here, "in early life, Wilkie would enjoy a small dinner at a small cost. I have been told by an old frequenter of the house, that Wilkie was always the last dropper-in for dinner, and that he was never seen to dine in the house by daylight. The truth is, he slaved at his art at home till the last glimpse of daylight had disappeared. " Haydon was accustomed, in the early days of his fitful career, to dine here with Wilkie. In his "Autobiography, " in the year 1808, Haydon writes: "This period of our lives was one of great happiness; painting all day, then dining at the Old Slaughter Chop-house, then going to the Academy until eight to fill up the evening, then going home to tea--that blessing of a studious man--talking over respective exploits, what he, Wilkie, had been doing and what I had been doing, and, then frequently to relieve our minds fatigued by their eight and twelve hours' work, giving vent to the most extraordinary absurdities. Often have we made rhymes on odd names, and shouted with laughter at each new line that was added. Sometimes lazily inclined after a good dinner, we have lounged about, near Drury Lane or Covent Garden, hesitating whether to go in, and often have I (knowing first that there was nothing I wished to see) assumed a virtue I did not possess, and pretending moral superiority, preached to Wilkie on the weakness of not resisting such temptations for the sake of our art and our duty, and marched him off to his studies, when he was longing to see Mother Goose. " J. T. Smith refers to Old Slaughter's as "formerly the rendezvous of Pope, Dryden and other wits, and much frequented by several eminently clever men of his day. " Thither came Ware, the architect, who, when a little sickly boy, was apprenticed to a chimney-sweeper, and was seen chalking the street-front of Whitehall, by a gentleman who purchased the remainder of the boy's time; gave him an excellent education; then sent him to Italy, and, upon his return, employed him, and introduced him to his friends as an architect. Ware was heard to tell this story while he was sitting to Roubiliac for his bust. Ware built Chesterfield House and several other noble mansions, and compiled a Palladio, in folio: he retained the soot in his skin to the day of his death. He was very intimate with Roubiliac, who was an opposite eastern neighbour of Old Slaughter's. Another architect, Gwynn, who competed with Mylne for designing and building Blackfriars Bridge, was also a frequent visitor at Old Slaughter's, as was Gravelot, who kept a drawing-school in the Strand, nearly opposite to Southampton-street. Hudson, who painted the Dilettanti portraits; M'Ardell, the mezzotinto-scraper; and Luke Sullivan, the engraver of Hogarth's March to Finchley, also frequented Old Slaughter's; likewise Theodore Gardell, the portrait painter, who was executed for the murder of his landlady: and Old Moser, keeper of the Drawing Academy in Peter's-court. Parry, the Welsh harper, though totally blind, was one of the first draught-players in England, and occasionally played with the frequenters of Old Slaughter's; and here in consequence of a bet. Roubiliac introduced Nathaniel Smith (father of John Thomas), to play at draughts with Parry; the game lasted about half an hour; Parry was much agitated, and Smith proposed to give in; but as there were bets depending, it was played out, and Smith won. This victory brought Smith numerous challenges; and the dons of the Barn, a public-house, in St. Martin's-lane, nearly opposite the church, invited him to become a member; but Smith declined. The Barn, for many years, was frequented by all the noted players of chess and draughts; and it was there that they often decided games of the first importance, played between persons of the highest rank. * * * * * The Grecian Coffee-house, Devereux-court, Strand, (closed in 1843) was named from Constantine, of Threadneedle street, the _Grecian_ who kept it. In the _Tatler_ announcement, all accounts of learning are to be "under the title of the Grecian;" and, in the _Tatler_, No. 6: "While other parts of the town are amused with the present actions (Marlborough's) we generally spend the evening at this table (at the Grecian) in inquiries into antiquity, and think anything new, which gives us new knowledge. Thus, we are making a very pleasant entertainment to ourselves in putting the actions of Homer's Iliad into an exact journal. " The _Spectator's_ face was very well known at the Grecian, a coffee-house "adjacent to the law. " Occasionally it was the scene of learned discussion. Thus Dr. King relates that one evening, two gentlemen, who were constant companions, were disputing here, concerning the accent of a Greek word. This dispute was carried to such a length, that the two friends thought proper to determine it with their swords; for this purpose they stepped into Devereux-court, where one of them (Dr. King thinks his name was Fitzgerald) was run through the body, and died on the spot. The Grecian was Foote's morning lounge. It was handy, too, for the young Templar, Goldsmith, and often did it echo with Oliver's boisterous mirth; for "it had become the favourite resort of the Irish and Lancashire Templars, whom he delighted in collecting around him, in entertaining with a cordial and unostentatious hospitality, and in occasionally amusing with his flute, or with whist, neither of which he played very well!" Here Goldsmith occasionally wound up his "Shoemaker's Holiday" with supper. It was at the Grecian that Fleetwood Shephard told this memorable story to Dr. Tancred Robinson, who gave Richardson permission to repeat it. "The Earle of Dorset was in Little Britain, beating about for books to his taste: there was 'Paradise Lost'. He was surprised with some passages he struck upon, dipping here and there and bought it; the bookseller begged him to speak in his favour, if he liked it, for they lay on his hands as waste paper.... Shephard was present. My Lord took it home, read it, and sent it to Dryden, who in a short time returned it. 'This man, ' says Dryden, 'cuts us all out, and the ancients, too!'" * * * * * George's Coffee-house, No. 213, Strand, near Temple Bar, was a noted resort in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. When it was a coffee-house, one day, there came in Sir James Lowther, who after changing a piece of silver with the coffee-woman, and paying twopence for his dish of coffee, was helped into his chariot, for he was very lame and infirm, and went home: some little time afterwards, he returned to the same coffee-house, on purpose to acquaint the woman who kept it, that she had given him a bad half-penny, and demanded another in exchange for it. Sir James had about £40, 000 per annum. Shenstone, who found "the warmest welcome at an inn, " found George's to be economical. "What do you think, " he writes, "must be my expense, who love to pry into everything of the kind? Why, truly one shilling. My company goes to George's Coffee-house, where, for that small subscription I read all pamphlets under a three shillings' dimension; and indeed, any larger would not be fit for coffee-house perusal. " Shenstone relates that Lord Oxford was at George's, when the mob, that were carrying his Lordship in effigy, came into the box where he was, to beg money of him, amongst others; this story Horace Walpole contradicts, adding that he supposes Shenstone thought that after Lord Oxford quitted his place he went to the coffee-house to learn news. Arthur Murphy frequented George's, "where the town wits met every evening. " Lloyd, the law-student, sings: By law let others toil to gain renown!Florio's a gentleman, a man o' the town. He nor courts clients, or the law regarding, Hurries from Nando's down to Covent Garden. Yet, he's a scholar; mark him in the pit, With critic catcall sound the stops of wit!Supreme at George's, he harangues the throng, Censor of style, from tragedy to song. * * * * * The Percy Coffee-house, Rathbone-place, Oxford-street, no longer exists; but it will be kept in recollection for its having given name to one of the most popular publications of its class, namely, the "Percy Anecdotes, " by Sholto and Reuben Percy, Brothers of the Benedictine Monastery of Mont Benger, in forty-four parts, commencing in 1820. So said the title pages, but the names and the locality were _supposé_. Reuben Percy was Thomas Byerly, who died in 1824; he was the brother of Sir John Byerley, and the first editor of the _Mirror_, commenced by John Limbird, in 1822. Sholto Percy was Joseph Clinton Robertson, who died in 1852; he was the projector of the _Mechanics' Magazine_, which he edited from its commencement to his death. The name of the collection of Anecdotes was not taken, as at the time supposed, from the popularity of the "Percy Reliques, " but from the Percy Coffee-house, where Byerley and Robertson were accustomed to meet to talk over their joint work. The _idea_ was, however, claimed by Sir Richard Phillips, who stoutly maintained that it originated in a suggestion made by him to Dr. Tilloch and Mr. Mayne, to cut the anecdotes from the many years' files of the _Star_ newspaper, of which Dr. Tilloch was the editor; and Mr. Byerley assistant editor; and to the latter overhearing the suggestion, Sir Richard contested, might the "Percy Anecdotes" be traced. They were very successful, and a large sum was realised by the work. * * * * * Peele's Coffee-house, Nos. 177 and 178, Fleet-street, east corner of Fetter-lane, was one of the coffee-houses of the Johnsonian period; and here was long preserved a portrait of Dr. Johnson, on the keystone of a chimney-piece, stated to have been painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds. Peele's was noted for files of newspapers from these dates: _Gazette_, 1759; _Times_, 1780; _Morning Chronicle_, 1773; _Morning Post_, 1773; _Morning Herald_, 1784; _Morning Advertiser_, 1794; and the evening papers from their commencement. The house is now a tavern. _Coffee Literature and Ideals_ The bibliography at the end of this work will serve to indicate thenature and extent of the general literature of coffee. Not that it iscomplete or nearly so; it would require twice the space to includemention of all the fugitive bits of verse, essays, and miscellaneouswritings in newspapers, and periodicals, dealing with the poetry andromance, history, chemistry, and physiological effects of coffee. Onlythe early works, and the more notable contributions of the last threecenturies, are included in the bibliography; but there is sufficient toenable the student to analyze the lines of general progress. A study of the literature of coffee shows that the French reallyinternationalized the beverage. The English and Italians followed. Withthe advent of the newspaper press, coffee literature began to sufferfrom its competition. The complexities of modern life suggest that coffee drinking inperfection, the esthetics, and a new literature of coffee may once morebecome the pleasure of a small caste. Are the real pleasures of life, the things truly worth while, only to the swift--the most efficient? Whoshall say? Are not some of us, particularly in America, rather prone toglorify the gospel of work to such an extent that we are in danger oflosing the ability to understand or to enjoy anything else? Granted that this is so, coffee, already recognized as the most gratefullubricant known to the human machine, is destined to play another partof increasing importance in our national life as a kind of nationalshock-absorber as well. But its rôle is something more than this, surely. When life is drab, it takes away its grayness. When life is sad, it brings us solace. When life is dull, it brings us new inspiration. When we are a-weary, it brings us comfort and good cheer. The lure of coffee lies in its appeal to our finer sensibilities; andsigns are not wanting that that pursuit of the long, sweet happinessthat every one is seeking will lead some of us (even in big bustlingAmerica) into footpaths that end in places where coffee will offer muchof its pristine inspiration and charm. It probably will not be a coffeehouse anything like that of the long ago, but perhaps it will be a kindof modernized coffee club. Why not? [Illustration: A COFFEE HOUSE IN HOLLAND, ABOUT 1650 After the etching by J. Beauvarlet from a painting by Adriaen Van Ostade(1610-1675), which is said to be the earliest picture of a coffee housein western Europe] CHAPTER XXXIII COFFEE IN RELATION TO THE FINE ARTS _How coffee and coffee drinking have been celebrated in painting, engraving, sculpture, caricature, lithography, and music--Epics, rhapsodies, and cantatas in praise of coffee--Beautiful specimens of the art of the potter and the silversmith as shown in the coffee service of various periods in the world's history--Some historical relics_ Coffee has inspired the imagination of many poets, musicians, andpainters. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries those whose geniuswas dedicated to the fine arts seem to have fallen under its spell andto have produced much of great beauty that has endured. To the painters, engravers, and caricaturists of that period we are particularly indebtedfor pictures that have added greatly to our knowledge of early coffeecustoms and manners. Adriaen Van Ostade (1610-1685), the Dutch genre painter and etcher, pupil of Frans Hals, in his "Dutch Coffee House" (1650), shows thegenesis of the coffee house of western Europe about the time it stillpartook of some of the tavern characteristics. Coffee is being served toa group in the foreground. It is believed to be the oldest existingpicture of a coffee house. The illustration is after the etching by J. Beauvarlet in the graphic collection at Munich. William Hogarth (1697-1764), the famous English painter and engraver ofsatirical subjects, chose the coffee houses of his time for the scenesof a number of his social caricatures. In his series, "Four Times of theDay, " which throws a vivid light on the street life of London of theperiod of 1738, we are shown Covent Garden at 7:55 A. M. By the clock onSt. Paul's Church. A prim maiden lady (said to have been sketched froman elderly relation of the artist, who cut him out of her will) on herway home from early service, accompanied by a shivering foot-boy, isscandalized by the spectacle presented by some roystering blades issuingfrom Tom King's notorious coffee house to the right. The _beaux_ areforcing their attentions upon the more comely of the market women in theforeground. Tom King was a scholar at Eton before he began his ignoblecareer. At the date of this picture, it is thought he had been succeededby his widow, Moll King, also of scandalous repute. Scene VI of the "Rake's Progress" by Hogarth is laid at the club inWhite's chocolate (coffee) house, which Dr. Swift described as "thecommon rendezvous of infamous sharpers and noble cullies. " The rake haslost all his recently acquired wealth, pulls off his wig and flingshimself upon the floor in a paroxysm of fury and execration. In allusionto the burning of White's in 1733, flames are seen bursting from thewainscot, but the pre-occupied gamblers take no heed, even of thewatchman crying "Fire!" To the left is seated a highwayman, with horsepistol and black mask in a skirt pocket of his coat. He is so engrossedin his thoughts that he does not notice the boy at his side offering aglass of liquor on a tray. The scene well depicts the low estate towhich White's had fallen. It recalls a bit of dialogue from Farquhar's_Beaux' Stratagem_ (act III, scene 2), where Aimwell says to Gibbet, whois a highwayman: "Pray, sir, ha'nt I seen your face at Will's CoffeeHouse?" "Yes sir, and at White's, too, " answers the highwayman. [Illustration: IN THE CLUB AT WHITE'S COFFEE HOUSE, 1733 From a painting in the series, "The Rake's Progress, " by WilliamHogarth] After the fire, the club and chocolate house were removed to Gaunt'scoffee house. The removal was thus announced in the _Daily Post_ of May3: This is to acquaint all noblemen and gentlemen that Mr. Arthur having had the misfortune to be burnt out of White's Chocolate House is removed to Gaunt's Coffee House, next the St. James Coffee House in St. James Street, where he humbly begs they will favour him with their company as usual. Alessandro Longhi (1733-1813) the Italian painter and engraver, calledthe Venetian Hogarth, in one of his pictures presenting life and mannersin Venice during the years of her decadence, shows Goldoni, thedramatist, as a visitor in a café of the period, with a female mendicantsoliciting alms. In the Louvre at Paris hangs the "Petit Déjeuner" by François Boucher(1703-1770), famous court painter of Louis XV. It shows a Frenchbreakfast-room of the period of 1744, and is interesting because itillustrates the introduction of coffee into the home; it shows also thecoffee service of the time. In Van Loo's portrait of Madame de Pompadour, second mistress andpolitical adviser of Louis XV of France, the coffee service of a laterperiod of the eighteenth century appears. The Nubian servant is shownoffering the marquise a demi-tasse which has just been poured from thecovered oriental pot which succeeded the original Arabian-Turkishboiler, and was much in vogue at the time. Coffee and Madame du Barry (or would it be more polite to say Madame duBarry and coffee?) inspired the celebrated painting of Madame dePompadour's successor in the affections of Louis "the well beloved. "This is entitled "Madame du Barry at Versailles", and in the Versaillescatalog it is described as painted by Decreuse after Drouais. Decreusewas a pupil of Gros, and painted many of the historical portraits atVersailles. [Illustration: TOM KING'S COFFEE HOUSE IS COVENT GARDEN, 1738 From a printing in the series, "Four Times of the Day, " by WilliamHogarth] Malcolm C. Salaman, in his _French Color Prints of the XVIII Century_, referring to Dagoty's print of this picture, done in 1771, says, "theoriginal has been attributed to François Hubert Drouais, but there canbe little doubt that the original portraiture was from the hand of theengraver (Dagoty), as the style is far inferior to Drouais. " He thusdescribes it: Here we see the last of Louis XV's mistresses, sitting in her bedroom in that alluring retreat of hers at Louveciennes, near the woods of Marly, as she takes her cup of coffee from her pet attendant, the little negro boy, Zamore, as the Prince de Conti had named him, all brave in red and gold. Doubtless she is expecting the morning visit of the King, no longer the handsome young gallant, but old and leaden-eyed, and puffy-cheeked; and perhaps it will be on this very morning that she will wheedle Louis, in a moment of extravagant badinage, into appointing the negro boy to be Governor of the Chateau and Pavilion of Louveciennes at a handsome salary, just as, on another day, she playfully teased the jaded old sensualist into decorating with the cordon bleu her cuisinière when it was triumphantly revealed to him that the dinner he had been praising with enthusiastic gusto was, after all, the work of a woman cook, the very possibility of which he had contemptuously doubted. But as we look at these two, the royal mistress and her little black favorite, we forget the "well beloved" and his voluptuous pleasures and indulgences, for in the shadows we see another picture, some twenty years on, when the proud unconscionable beauty, no longer _reine de la main gauche_, stands before the dreaded Tribunal of the Terror, while Zamore, the treacherous, ungrateful negro, dismissed from his service at Louveciennes and now devoted to the committee of public safety, and one of her implacable accusers, sends her shrieking to the guillotine. [Illustration: "PETIT DÉJEUNER, " BY BOUCHER Showing the home coffee service of the period of 1744] [Illustration: COFFEE SERVICE IN THE HOME OF MADAME DEPOMPADOUR--PAINTING BY VAN LOO] The introduction of the coffee house into Europe was memorialized byFranz Schams, the genre painter, pupil of the Vienna Academy, in abeautiful picture entitled "The First Coffee House in Vienna, 1684, "owned by the Austrian Art Society. A lithographic reproduction wasexecuted by the artist and printed by Joseph Stoufs in Vienna. There areseveral specimens in the United States; and the illustration printed onpage 48 has been made from one of these in the possession of the author. The picture shows the interior of the Blue Bottle, where Kolschitzkyopened the first coffee house in Vienna. The hero-proprietor stands inthe foreground pouring a cup of the beverage from an oriental coffeepot, and another is suspended from the coffee-house sign that hangs overthe fireplace. In the fire alcove a woman is pounding coffee in amortar. Men and women in the costumes of the period are being servedcoffee by a Vienna _mädchen_. [Illustration: MADAME DU BARRY AND HER SLAVE BOY ZAMORE--PAINTING BYDECREUSE] The painters Marilhat, Descamps, and de Tournemine have pictured caféscenes; the first in his "Café sur une route de Syrie", which was shownat the Salon of 1844; the second in his "Café Turc", which figured atthe Exposition of 1855; and the third in his "Café en Asia Mineure", which received honors at the Salon of 1859, and attracted attention atthe Universal Exposition of 1867. A decorative panel designed for the buffet at the Paris Opera House byS. Mazerolles was shown at the Exposition of 1878. A French artist, Jacquand, has painted two charming compositions; one representing thereading room, and the other the interior, of a café. Many German artists have shown coffee manners and customs in picturesthat are now hanging in well known European galleries. Among others, mention should be made of C. Schmidt's "The Sweets Shop of Josty inBerlin", 1845; Milde's "Pastor Rautenberg and His Family at the CoffeeTable", 1833; and his "Manager Classen and His Family at the AfternoonCoffee Table", 1840; Adolph Menzel's "Parisian Boulevard Café", 1870;Hugo Meith's "Saturday Afternoon at the Coffee Table"; John Philipp's"Old Woman with Coffee Cup"; Friedrich Walle's "Afternoon Coffee in theCourt Gardens at Munich"; Paul Meyerheim's "Oriental Coffee House"; andPeter Philippi's (Dusseldorf) "Kaffeebesuch. " At the Exposition des Beaux Arts, Salon of 1881, there was shown P. A. Ruffio's picture, "Le café vient au secours de la Muse" (Coffee comes tothe aid of the Muse), in which the graceful form of an oriental ewerappears. The "Coffee House at Cairo, " a canvas by Jean Léon Gérôme (1824-1904)that hangs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, has been muchadmired. It shows the interior of a typical oriental coffee house withtwo men near a furnace at the left preparing the beverage; a man seatedon a wicker basket about to smoke a hooka; a dervish dancing; andseveral persons seated against the wall in the background. [Illustration: COFFEE HOUSE AT CAIRO--PAINTING BY GÉRÔME IN THEMETROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK] The New York Historical Society acquired in 1907 from Miss Margaret A. Ingram an oil painting of the "Tontine Coffee House. " It was painted inPhiladelphia by Francis Guy, and was sold at a raffle, after having beenadmired by President John Adams. It shows lower Wall Street in1796-1800, with the Tontine coffee house on the northwest corner of Walland Water Streets, where its more famous predecessor, the Merchantscoffee house, was located before it moved to quarters diagonallyopposite. Charles P. Gruppe's (_b. _ 1860) painting showing General "Washington'sOfficial Welcome to New York by City and State Officials at theMerchants Coffee House, " April 23, 1789, just one week before hisinauguration as first president of the United States, is a colorfulcanvas that has been much praised for its atmosphere and historicalassociations. It is the property of the author. The art museums and libraries of every country contain many beautifulwater-colors, engravings, prints, drawings, and lithographs, whosecreators found inspiration in coffee. Space permits the mention of onlya few. T. H. Shepherd has preserved for us Button's, afterward the Caledoniencoffee house, Great Russell Street, Covent Garden, in a water-colordrawing of 1857; Tom's coffee house, 17 Great Russell Street, CoventGarden, 1857; Slaughter's coffee house in St. Martin's Lane, 1841; also, in 1857, the Lion's Head at Button's, put up by Addison and now theproperty of the Duke of Bedford at Woburn. [Illustration: "KAFFEEBESUCH" From the painting by Peter Philippi] [Illustration: "COFFEE COMES TO THE AID OF THE MUSE" From the painting by Ruffio] Hogarth figures in the Sam Ireland collection with several originaldrawings of frequenters of Button's in 1730. Thomas Rowlandson (1756-1827) the great English caricaturist andillustrator, has given us several fine pictures of English coffee-houselife. His "Mad Dog in a Coffee House" presents a lively scene; and hiswater-color of "The French Coffee House" is one of the best pictures wehave of the French coffee house in London as it looked during the latterhalf of the eighteenth century. During the campaign in France in 1814, Napoleon arrived one day, unheralded, in a country presbytery, where the good curé was quietlyturning his hand coffee-roaster. The emperor asked him, "What are youdoing there, abbé?" "Sire", replied the priest, "I am doing like you. Iam burning the colonial fodder. " Charlet (1792-1845) made a lithographof the incident. Several French poet-musicians resorted to music to celebrate coffee. Brittany has its own songs in praise of coffee, as have other Frenchprovinces. There are many epics, rhapsodies, and cantatas--and even acomic opera by Meilhat, music by Deffes, bearing the title, _Le Café duRoi_, produced at the Théâtre Lyrique, November 16, 1861. [Illustration: "MAD DOG IN A COFFEE HOUSE"--CARICATURE BY ROWLANDSON] Fuzelier wrote, in honor of coffee, a cantata, set to music by Bernier. This is the burden of the poet's song: Ah coffee, what climes yet unknown, Ignore the clear fires that thy vapors inspire!Thou countest, in thy vast empireThose realms that Bacchus' reign disown. Favored liquid, which fills all my soul with delights, Thy enchantments to life happy hours persuade, We vanquish e'en sleep by thy fortunate aid, Thou hast rescued the hours sleep would rob from our nights. Favored liquid which fills all my soul with delights, Thy enchantments to life happy hours persuade. Oh liquid that I love, Triumphant stream of sable, E'en for the gods above, Drive nectar from the table. Make thou relentless war On treacherous juices sly, Let earth taste and adore The sweet calm of the sky. Oh liquid that I love, Triumphant stream of sable, E'en for the gods above, Drive nectar from the table. During the early vogue of the café in Paris, a _chanson_, entitled_Coffee_, reproduced here, was set to music with accompaniment for thepiano by M. H. Colet, a professor of harmony at the Conservatoire. Printed in the form of a placard, and put up in cafés, it received theapprobation of, and was signed by, de Voyer d'Argenson, at that time(1711) lieutenant of police. The poetry is not irreproachable. It canhardly be attributed to any of the well known poets of the time; butrather to one of those bohemian rimesters that wrote all too abundantlyon all sorts of subjects. It is the development of a theory concerningthe properties of coffee and the best method of making it. It isinteresting to note that the uses of advertising were known andappreciated in Paris in 1711; for in the _chanson_ there appears thename and address of one Vilain, a merchant, rue des Lombards, who wasevidently in fashion at that period. The translation of the stanzareproduced is as follows: COFFEE--A CHANSON If you, with mind untroubled, Would flourish, day by day, Let each day of the seven Find coffee on your tray. It will your frame preserve from every malady, Its virtues drive afar, la! la!Migrain and dread catarrh--ha! ha! Dull cold and lethargy. The most notable contribution to the "music of coffee, " if one may bepermitted the expression, is the _Coffee Cantata_ of Johann SebastianBach (1685-1750) the German organist and the most modern composer of thefirst half of the eighteenth century. He hymned the religious sentimentof protestant Germany; and in his _Coffee Cantata_ he tells in music theprotest of the fair sex against the libels of the enemies of thebeverage, who at the time were actively urging in Germany that it shouldbe forbidden women, because its use made for sterility! Later on, thegovernment surrounded the manufacture, sale, and use of coffee with manyobnoxious restrictions, as told in chapter VIII. [Illustration: NAPOLEON AND THE CURÉ--LITHOGRAPH BY CHARLET] Bach's _Coffee Cantata_ is No. 211 of the _Secular Cantatas_, and waspublished in Leipzig in 1732. In German it is known as _Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht_ (Be silent, do not talk). It is written for soprano, tenor, and bass solos and orchestra. Bach used as his text a poem byPiccander. The cantata is really a sort of one-act operetta--a jocoseproduction representing the efforts of a stern parent to check hisdaughter's propensities in coffee drinking, the new fashioned habit. Oneseldom thinks of Bach as a humorist; but the music here is written in amock-heroic vein, the recitatives and arias having a merry flavor, hinting at what the master might have done in light opera. [Illustration: COFFEE--A CHANSON; MUSIC BY COLET, 1711] The libretto shows the father Schlendrian, or Slowpoke, trying byvarious threats to dissuade his daughter from further indulgence in thenew vice, and, in the end, succeeding by threatening to deprive her of ahusband. But his victory is only temporary. When the mother and thegrandmother indulge in coffee, asks the final trio, who can blame thedaughter? Bach uses the spelling coffee--not _kaffee_. The cantata was sung asrecently as December 18, 1921, at a concert in New York by the Societyof the Friends of Music, directed by Arthur Bodanzky. Lieschen, or Betty, the daughter, has a delightful aria, beginning, "Ah, how sweet coffee tastes--lovelier than a thousand kisses, sweeter farthan muscatel wine!" the opening bars of which are reproduced on page598. As the text is not long, it is printed here in its entirety. [Illustration: STATUE OF KOLSCHITZKY IN VIENNA] _CHARACTERS_ MESSENGER AND NARRATOR _Tenor_SLOWPOKE _Bass_BETTY, DAUGHTER TO SLOWPOKE _Soprano_ TENOR (_Recitative_): Be silent, do not talk, but notice what will happen! Here comes old Slowpoke with his daughter Betty. He's grumbling like a common bear--just listen to what he says. (_Enter_ SLOWPOKE _muttering_): What vexatious things one's children are! A hundred thousand naughty ways! What I tell my daughter Betty might as well be told to the moon! (_Enter_ BETTY. ) SLOWPOKE (_Recitative_): You naughty child, you mischievous girl, oh when can I have my way--give up your coffee! BETTY: Dear father, do not be so strict! If I can't have my little demi-tasse of coffee three times a day, I'm just like a dried up piece of roast goat! BETTY (_Aria_): Ah! How sweet coffee tastes! Lovelier than a thousand kisses, sweeter far than muscatel wine! I must have my coffee, and if any one wishes to please me, let him present me with--coffee! SLOWPOKE _(Recitative_): If you won't give up coffee, young lady, I won't let you go to any wedding feasts--I won't even let you go walking! BETTY: O yes! Do let me have my coffee! SLOWPOKE: What a little monkey you are, anyway! I will not let you have any whale-bone skirts of the present fashionable size! BETTY: Oh, I can easily fix _that_! SLOWPOKE: But I won't let you stand at the window and watch the new styles! BETTY: That doesn't bother me, either. But be good and let me have my coffee! SLOWPOKE: But from my hands you'll get no silver or gold ribbon for your hair! BETTY: Oh well! so long as I have what does satisfy me! SLOWPOKE: You wretched Betty, you! You won't give in to me? SLOWPOKE (_Air_): Oh these girls--what obstinate dispositions they do have! They certainly are not easy to manage! But if one hits the right spot--oh well, one _may_ succeed! SLOWPOKE, _with an air of being sure of success this time_ (_Recitative_): Now please do what father says. BETTY: In everything, except about coffee. SLOWPOKE: Well, then, you must make up your mind to do without a husband. BETTY: Oh--yes? Father, a husband? SLOWPOKE: I swear you can't have him-- BETTY: Till I give up coffee? Oh well--coffee--let it be forgotten--dear father--I will not drink--none! SLOWPOKE: _Then_ you can have one! BETTY (_Aria_): Today, dear father--do it _today_. (_He goes out. _) Ah, a husband! Really this suits me exactly! When they know I must have coffee, why, before I go to bed to-night I can have a valiant lover! (_Goes out. _) TENOR (_Recitative_): Now go hunt up old Slowpoke, and just watch him get a husband for his daughter--for Betty is secretly making it known "that no wooer may come to the house, unless he promises me himself, and has it put in the marriage contract that he will allow me to make coffee whenever I will!" [Illustration: "AH, HOW SWEET COFFEE TASTES--LOVELIER THAN A THOUSANDKISSES, SWEETER FAR THAN MUSCATEL WINE!" Opening bars of Betty's aria in Bach's _Coffee Cantata_, 1732] (_Enter_ SLOWPOKE _and_ BETTY, _singing--as chorus--with_ TENOR. ) TRIO: The cat will not give up the mouse, old maids continue "coffee-sisters!"--the mother loves her drink of coffee--grandma, too, is a coffee fiend--_who_ now will blame the daughter! [Illustration: THE MOST BEAUTIFUL COFFEE HOUSE IN THE WORLD The Caffè Pedrocchi in Padua, Italy, empire period, erected by the poorlemonade vendor and coffee seller, Antonio Pedrocchi. ] Research has discovered only one piece of sculpture associated withcoffee--the statue of the Austrian hero Kolschitzky, the patron saint ofthe Vienna coffee houses. It graces the second-floor corner of a housein the Favoriten Strasse, where it was erected in his honor by theCoffee Makers' Guild of Vienna. The great "brother-heart" is shown inthe attitude of pouring coffee into cups on a tray from an orientalservice pot. The celebrated Caffè Pedrocchi, the center of life in the city of Padua, Italy, in the early part of the nineteenth century, is one of the mostbeautiful buildings erected in Italy. Its use is apparent at firstglance. It was begun in 1816, opened June 9, 1831, and completed in1842. Antonio Pedrocchi (1776-1852), an obscure Paduan coffee-housekeeper, tormented by a desire for glory, conceived the idea of buildingthe most beautiful coffee house in the world, and carried it out. Artists and craftsmen of all ages since the discovery of coffee havebrought their genius into play to fashion various forms of apparatusassociated with the preparation of the coffee drink. Coffee roasters andgrinders have been made of brass, silver, and gold; coffee mortars, ofbronze; and coffee making and serving pots, of beautiful copper, pewter, pottery, porcelain, and silver designs. In the Peter collection in the United States National Museum there is tobe seen a fine specimen of the Bagdad coffee pot made of beaten copperand used for making and serving; also, a beautiful Turkish coffee set. In the Metropolitan Museum in New York there are some beautifulspecimens of Persian and Egyptian ewers in faience, probably used forcoffee service. Also, in American and continental museums are to be seenmany examples of seventeenth-century German, Dutch, and English bronzemortars and pestles used for "braying" coffee beans to make coffeepowder. [Illustration: COFFEE GRINDER SET WITH JEWELS In the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York] A very beautiful specimen of the oriental coffee grinder, made of brassand teakwood, set with red and green glass jewels, and inlaid in theteakwood with ivory and brass, is at the Metropolitan. This is ofIndo-Persian design of the nineteenth century. The Metropolitan Museum shows also many specimens of pewter coffee potsused in India, Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, Russia, and England inthe seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. One can guess at the luxuriousness of the coffee pots in use in Francethroughout the eighteenth century by noting that from March 20, 1754, toApril 16, 1755, Louis XV bought no fewer than three gold coffee pots ofLazare Duvaux. They had carved branches, and were supplied with "chafingdishes of burnished steel" and lamps for spirits of wine. They cost, respectively, 1, 950, 1, 536, and 2, 400 francs. In the "inventory ofMarie-Josephe de Saxe, Dauphine of France", we note, too, a "two cupcoffee pot of gold with its chafing dish for spirits of wine in aleather case. " The Italian wrought-iron coffee roaster of the seventeenth century wasoften a work of art. The specimen illustrated is rich in decorativemotifs associated with the best in Florentine art. Madame de Pompadour's inventory disclosed a "gold coffee mill, carved incolored gold to represent the branches of a coffee tree. " The art ofgold, which sought to embellish everything, did not disdain these homelyutensils; and one may see at the Cluny Museum in Paris, among many millsof graceful form, a coffee mill of engraved iron dating from theeighteenth century, upon which are represented the four seasons. We aretold, however, that it graced the "sale after the death of Mme. DePompadour", which, of course, makes it much more valuable. [Illustration: ITALIAN WROUGHT-IRON COFFEE ROASTER Courtesy of _Edison Monthly_] "The tea pot, coffee pot and chocolate pot first used in England closelyresembled each other in form", says Charles James Jackson in his_Illustrated History of English Plate_, "each being circular in plan, tapering towards the top, and having its handle fixed at a right anglewith the spout. " [Illustration: Tea Pot, 1670 Coffee Pot, 1681 Coffee Pot, 1689 SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY TEA POTS AND COFFEE POTS] He says further: The earliest examples were of oriental ware and the form of these was adopted by the English plate workers as a model for others of silver. It apparently was not until after both tea and coffee had been used for several years in this country [England] that the tea pot was made proportionately less in height and greater in diameter than the coffee pot. This distinction, which was probably due to copying the forms of Chinese porcelain tea pots, was afterwards maintained, and to the present day the difference between the tea pot and the coffee pot continued to be mainly one of height. The coffee pot illustrated (1681) formerly belonged to the East IndiaCompany, and is preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It isalmost identical with a tea pot (1670) in the same museum, except thatits straight spout is fixed nearer to the base, as is itsleather-covered handle, which, with the sockets into which it fits, forms a long recurving scroll fixed opposite to and in line with thespout. Its cover, which is hinged to the upper handle socket, is highlike that of the 1670 tea-pot; but instead of the straight outline ofthat cover, this is slightly waved and surmounted by a somewhat flatbutton-shaped knob. Engraved on the body is a shield of arms, a chevronbetween three crosses fleury, surrounded by tied feathers. Theinscription is, "The Guift of Richard Sterne Eq to ye Honorable EastIndia Compa. " This pot is nine and three-quarters inches in height by four andseven-eighths inches in diameter at the base; it bears the Londonhall-marks of 1681-82 and the maker's mark "G. G. " in a shaped shield, thought by Jackson to be George Garthorne's mark. The 1689 coffee pot illustrated is the property of King George V. Itbears the London hall-marks of 1689-90, and the mark of FrancisGarthorne. Its tall, round body tapers toward the top, and has appliedmoldings on the base and rim. Its spout is straight and tapers upward tothe level of the rim of the pot. Its handle is of ebony, crescent-shaped, and riveted into two sockets fixed at a right anglewith the spout. The lid is a high cone surmounted by a small vase-shapedfinial, and is hinged to the upper socket of the handle. On no part ofthe pot is there any ornamentation other than the royal cipher of KingWilliam III and Queen Mary, which is engraved on the reverse side of thebody. This example, which measures nine inches in height to the top ofits cover, resembles very closely in form the East India Company'stea-pot just referred to; but as teapots with much lower bodies appearto have come into fashion before 1689, this pot was probably used as acoffee pot from the first. The 1692 coffee pot of lantern shape is the property of H. D. Ellis, andhas its spout curved upward at the top, being furnished with a small, hinged flap and a scroll-shaped thumb-piece attached to the rim of thecover. The body and cover were originally quite plain, the embossing andchasing with symmetrical rococo decoration being added later, probablyabout 1740. Jackson says the wooden handle is not the original one, which was probably C-shaped. The pot bears the usual London hall-marksfor the year 1692 and the maker's mark is "G G" upon a shaped shield, amark recorded upon the copper plate belonging to the Goldsmiths'company, which Mr. Cripps thinks was that of George Garthorne. Thecharacteristics of this lantern shaped coffee pot are: 1. The straight sides, so rapidly tapering from the base upward that in a height of only six inches the base diameter of four and three-eighths inches tapers to a diameter of no more than two and one-half inches at the rim. 2. The nearly straight spout, furnished with a flap or shutter. 3. The true cone of the lid. 4. The thumb-piece, which is a familiar feature upon the tankards of the period. 5. The handle fixed at right angles to the spout. [Illustration: LANTERN COFFEE POT, 1692] [Illustration: FOLKINGHAM POT, 1715-16] Mr. Ellis, in a paper before the Society of Antiquaries[361] on theearliest form of coffee pot, says: If coffee was first introduced into this country by the Turkey merchants, nothing is more probable than that those who first brought the berry, brought also the vessel in which it was to be served. Such a vessel would be the Turkish ewer whose shape is familiar to us, the same today as two hundred years ago, for in the East things are slow to change. And throughout the reign of the second Charles, so long as the extended use of coffee in the houses of the people was retarded by the opposition of the Women of England, and by the scarcely less powerful influence of the King's Court, the small requirements of a mere handful of coffee-houses would be easily met by the importation of Turkish vessels. Reference to the coffee-house keepers' tokens in the Beaufoy collection in the Guildhall Museum shows that many of the traders of 1660-1675 adopted as their trade sign a hand pouring coffee from a pot. This pot is invariably of the Turkish ewer pattern. It is true that there is nothing to show that the Turks themselves ever served coffee from the ewer, but it is scarcely conceivable that the English coffee-house keepers should have adopted as their trade sign, their pictorial advertisement, so to speak, a vessel which had no connection with the commodity in which they dealt, and which would convey no meaning associated with coffee to the public. But as soon as the extended use of the beverage created a demand which stimulated a home manufacture of coffee-pots, a new departure is apparent. The undulating outlines beloved by the Orientals, bowed as their scimitars, curvilinear as their graceful flowing script, do not commend themselves to the more severe Western taste of the period which had then declared its preference for sweet simplicity in silversmiths' work, such as we see in the basons, cups, and especially the flat-topped tankards of that day. The beauty of the straight line had asserted its power, and fashion felt its sway. Such was the feeling that produced the coffee-pot of 1692, the straight lines of which continued in vogue until the middle of the following century, when a reaction in favour of bulbous bodies and serpentine spouts set in. [Illustration: WASTELL POT, 1720-21] Some of the more notable of the coffee-house-keepers' tokens in theGuildhall Museum were photographed for this work. They are described andillustrated in chapter X. There are illustrated other silver coffee pots in the Victoria andAlbert Museum, by Folkingham (1715-16), and by Wastell (1720-21), thelatter pot being octagonal. There is illustrated also a design in tiles that were let into the wallof an ancient coffee house in Brick Lane, Spitalfields, known as the"Dish of Coffee Boy" in the catalog of the collection of Londonantiquities in the Guildhall Museum. Mr. Ellis thinks this belongs to aperiod a little earlier, but certainly not later, than 1692; the coffeepot represented being exactly of the lantern shape. It is an oblong signof glazed Delft tiles, decorated in blue, brown, and yellow, representing a youth pouring coffee. Upon a table, by his side, are agazette, two pipes, a bowl, a bottle, and a mug; above, on a scroll, is, "dish of coffee boy. " [Illustration: "DISH OF COFFEE BOY" DESIGN IN DELFT TILES 1692] Modifications of the lantern began to appear with great rapidity inEngland. In the coffee pot of Chinese porcelain, illustrated, probablymade in China from an English model a few years later than the 1692 pot, Mr. Ellis observes that "the spout has already lost its straightness, the extreme taper of the body is diminished, and the lid betrays thefirst tendency to depart from the straightness of the cone to the curvedoutline of the dome. " He adds: These variations rapidly intensified, and at the commencement of the eighteenth century we find the body still less tapering and the lid has become a perfect dome. As we approach the end of Queen Anne's reign the thumb piece disappears and the handle is no longer set on at right angles to the spout. Through the reign of George I but little modification took place, save that the taper of the body became less and less. In the Second George's time we find the taper has almost entirely disappeared, so that the sides are nearly parallel, while the dome of the lid has been flattened down to a very low elevation above the rim. In the second quarter of the eighteenth century the pear shaped coffee pot was the vogue. In the earlier years of George III, when many new and beautiful designs in silversmiths' work were created, a complete revolution in coffee-pots takes place, and the flowing outlines of the new pattern recall the form of the Turkish ewer, which had been discarded nearly one hundred years previously. [Illustration: CHINESE PORCELAIN COFFEE POT Late seventeenth century] The evolution is shown by illustrations of Lord Swaythling's pot of1731; the coffee jug of 1736; the Vincent pot of 1738; the ViscountessWolseley's coffee pot of copper plated with silver; the Irish coffee potof 1760; and the silver coffee pots of 1773-76 and of 1779-80 (seeillustrations on pages 604, 605 and 607). [Illustration: Vincent Pot, Hall-marked, London, 1738 Lord Swaythling's Pot, 1731 SILVER COFFEE POTS, EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY From Jackson's "Illustrated History of English Plate"] There are illustrated in this connection specimens of coffee pots instoneware by Elers (1700), and in salt glaze by Astbury, and another ofthe period about 1725. These are in the department of British andmedieval antiquities of the British Museum, where are to be seen alsosome beautiful specimens of coffee-service pots in Whieldon ware, and inWedgwood's jasper ware. [Illustration: IRISH COFFEE POT, 1760 Hall-marked Dublin; the property of Col. Moore-Brabazon] [Illustration: VISCOUNTESS WOLSELEY'S COFFEE POT] [Illustration: A SCOFIELD POT OF 1779-80] [Illustration: COFFEE JUG, 1736] [Illustration: SILVER COFFEE POTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY] [Illustration: SALT-GLAZE POT By John Astbury] [Illustration: ELERS WARE COFFEE POT Stoneware, about 1700] [Illustration: SALT-GLAZE POT About 1725] [Illustration: POTS IN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 18TH TO 20TH CENTURIES 1--Staffordshire; 2--English, eighteen to twentieth centuries;3--English, blue printed ware, eighteenth to nineteenth centuries;4--Leeds, 1760-1790; 5--Staffordshire, nineteenth to twentiethcenturies] Illustrated, too, are some beautiful examples of the art of the potter, applied to coffee service, as found in the Metropolitan Museum, wherethey have been brought from many countries. Included are Leeds andStaffordshire examples of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentiethcenturies; a Sino-Lowestoft pot of the eighteenth-nineteenth centuries;an Italian (_capodimonte_) pot of the eighteenth century; German pots ofthe eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; a Vienna coffee pot of theeighteenth century; a French (_La Seine_) coffee pot of 1774-1793, aSèvres pot of 1792-1804; and a Spanish eighteenth-century coffee potdecorated in copper luster. At the Metropolitan may be seen also Hatfield and Sheffield-plate potsof the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; and many examples of silvertea and coffee service and coffee pots by American silversmiths. [Illustration: SILVER COFFEE POTS, LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Left, 1776-77. Right, 1773-4. ] Silver tea pots and coffee pots were few in America before the middle ofthe eighteenth century. Early coffee-pot examples were tapering andcylindrical in form, and later matched the tea pots with swelling drums, molded bases, decorated spouts, and molded lids with finials. From notes by R. T. Haines Halsey and John H. Buck, collected by FlorenceN. Levy and woven into an introduction to the Metropolitan Museum's artexhibition catalog for the Hudson-Fulton celebration of 1909, we learnthat: The first silver made in New England was probably fashioned by English or Scotch emigrants who had served their time abroad. They were followed by craftsmen who were either born here, or, like John Hull, arriving at an early age, learned their trade on this side. In England it was required that every master goldsmith should have his mark and set it upon his work after it was assayed and marked with the king's mark (hall-mark) testifying to the fineness of the metal. [Illustration: Sino-Lowestoft, Eighteenth To Nineteenth Centuries] [Illustration: ITALIAN CAPODIMONTE, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY] [Illustration: LA SEINE, 1774 SÈVRES, 1792 GERMAN POTS, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY] [Illustration: PORCELAIN POTS IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK] The Colonial silversmiths marked their wares with their initials, with or without emblems, placed in shields, circles, etc. , without any guide as to place of manufacture or date. After about 1725 it was the custom to use the surname, with or without an initial, and sometimes the full name. Since the establishment of the United States the name of the town was often added and also the letters D or C in a circle, probably meaning dollar or coin, showing the standard or coin from which the wares were made. In the New York colony there were evolved silver tea pots of a uniquedesign, that was not used elsewhere in the colonies. Mr. Halsey saysthey were used indiscriminately for both tea and coffee. In style theyfollowed, to a certain extent, the squat pear-shaped tea pots of theperiod of 1717-18 in England, but had greater height and capacity. The colonial silversmiths wrought many beautiful designs in coffee, tea, and chocolate pots. Fine specimens are to be seen in the Halsey andClearwater loan collections in the Metropolitan Museum. Included in theClearwater collection is a coffee pot by Pygan Adams (1712-1776); andrecently, there was added a coffee pot by Ephraim Brasher, whose nameappears in the _New York City Directory_ from 1786 to 1805. He was amember of the Gold and Silversmiths' Society, and he made the die forthe famous gold doubloon, known by his name, a specimen of whichrecently sold in Philadelphia for $4, 000. His brother, Abraham Brasher, who was an officer in the continental army, wrote many popular balladsof the Revolutionary period, and was a constant contributor to thenewspapers. [Illustration: VIENNA COFFEE POT, 1830 In the Metropolitan Museum of Art] [Illustration: SPANISH COFFEE POT, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY In the Metropolitan Museum] Judge Clearwater's collection of colonial silver in the MetropolitanMuseum, to which he is constantly adding, is a magnificent one; and thecoffee pot is worthy of it. It is thirteen and one-half inches high, weighs forty-four ounces, exclusive of the ebony handle, has a curvedbody and splayed base, with a godrooned band to the base and a similaredge to the cover. The spout is elaborate and curved; the cover has anurn-shaped finial; and there is a decoration of an engraved medallionsurrounded by a wreath with a ribbon forming a true lover's knot. [Illustration: By Samuel Minott By Charles Hatfield By Pygan AdamsHalsey Collection Metropolitan Museum of Art Clearwater Collection ] [Illustration: London Pot, 1773-74 By Jacob Hurd By Paul RevereFROM FRANCIS HILL BIGELOW'S "HISTORIC SILVER OF THE COLONIES" ] [Illustration: ENGLISH SHEFFIELD PLATE COFFEE POTS AND COFFEE URN, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY] [Illustration: SILVER COFFEE POTS IN AMERICAN COLLECTIONS] [Illustration: COFFEE POT BY WM. SHAW AND WM. PRIEST Made for Peter Faneuil (about 1751-52), who gave to Boston Faneuil Hall, called the cradle of American liberty] [Illustration: POT OF SHEFFIELD PLATE, 18TH CENTURY In the Metropolitan Museum] [Illustration: SILVER POT BY EPHRAIM BRASHER In the Clearwater Collection, Metropolitan Museum] In the Halsey collection is shown a silver coffee pot by Samuel Minott, and several beautiful specimens of the handiwork of Paul Revere, whosename is more often connected with the famous "midnight ride" than withthe art of the silversmith. Of all the American silversmiths, PaulRevere was the most interesting. Not only was he a silversmith ofrenown, but a patriot, soldier, grand master Mason, confidential agentof the state of Massachusetts Bay, engraver, picture-frame designer, anddie-sinker. He was born in Boston in 1735, and died in 1818. He was themost famous of all the Boston silversmiths, although he is more widelyknown as a patriot. He was the third of a family of twelve children, andearly entered his father's shop. When only nineteen, his father died;but he was able to carry on the business. The engraving on his silverbears witness to his ability. He engraved also on copper, and made manypolitical cartoons. He joined the expedition against the French at CrownPoint, and in the war of the Revolution was a lieutenant-colonel ofartillery. After the close of the war, he resumed his business of agoldsmith and silversmith in 1783. Decidedly a man of action, he wellplayed many parts; and in all his manifold undertakings achievedbrilliant success. There clings, therefore, to the articles of silvermade by him an element of romantic and patriotic association whichendears them to those who possess them. [Illustration: FRENCH SILVER COFFEE POT Grand Prize, Union Centrale, 1886. ] Revere had a real talent that enabled him to impart an unwonted eleganceto his work, and he was famous as an engraver of the beautiful crests, armorial designs, and floral wreaths that adorn much of his work. Histea pots and coffee pots are unusually beautiful. Revere coffee pots are to be seen in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts aswell as in the Metropolitan Museum in New York. The Boston Museum ofFine Arts has also a coffee pot made by William Shaw and William Priestin 1751-52 for Peter Faneuil, the wealthiest Bostonian of his time, whogave to Boston Faneuil Hall, New England's cradle of American liberty. Among other American silversmiths who produced striking designs incoffee pots, mention should be made of G. Aiken (1815); Garrett Eoff(New York, 1785-1850); Charles Faris (who worked in Boston about 1790);Jacob Hurd (1702-1758, known in Boston as Captain Hurd); John McMullin(mentioned in the Philadelphia _Directory_ for 1796); James Musgrave(mentioned in Philadelphia directories of 1797, 1808, and 1811); MyerMyers (admitted as freeman, New York, 1746; active until 1790; presidentof the New York Silversmiths Society, 1786); and Anthony Rasch (who isknown to have worked in Philadelphia, 1815). In the museums of the many historical societies throughout the UnitedStates are to be seen interesting specimens of coffee pots in pewter, Britannia metal, and tin ware, as well as in pottery, porcelain, andsilver. Some of these are illustrated. [Illustration: THE GREEN DRAGON TAVERN COFFEE URN] As in other branches of art during the seventeenth and eighteenthcenturies, the United States were indebted to England, Holland, andFrance for much of the early pottery and porcelain. Elers, Astbury, Whieldon, Wedgwood, their imitators, and the later Staffordshirepotters, flooded the American market with their wares. Porcelain was notmade in this country previous to the nineteenth century. Decorativepottery was made here, however, from an early period. Britannia warebegan to take the place of pewter in 1825; and the introduction ofjapanned tin ware and pottery gradually caused the manufacture of pewterto be abandoned. [Illustration: By an unknown silversmith By Paul Revere By Paul Revere COFFEE POTS BY AMERICAN SILVERSMITHS] [Illustration: TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICAN COFFEE SERVICE The Portsmouth Pattern, by the Gorham Co. ] An interesting relic is in the collection of the Bostonian Society. Itis a coffee urn of Sheffield ware, formerly in the Green Dragon tavern, which stood on Union Street from 1697 to 1832, and was a famous meetingplace of the patriots of the Revolution. It is globular in form, andrests on a base; and inside is still to be seen the cylindrical piece ofiron which, when heated, kept the delectable liquid contents of the urnhot until imbibed by the frequenters of the tavern. The iron bar was setin a zinc or tin jacket to keep such fireplace ashes as still clung toit from coming in contact with the coffee, which was probably brewed ina stew kettle before being poured into the urn for serving. The GreenDragon tavern site, now occupied by a business structure, is owned bythe St. Andrew's Lodge of Freemasons of Boston; and at a recentgathering of the lodge on St. Andrew's Day, the urn was exhibited to theassembled brethren. When the contents of the tavern were sold, the urn was bought by Mrs. Elizabeth Harrington, who then kept a famous boarding-house on PearlStreet, in a building owned by the Quincy family. The house was razed in1847, and was replaced by the Quincy Block; and Mrs. Harrington removedto High Street, and from there to Chauncey Place. Some of the prominentmen of Boston boarded with her for many years. At her death, the urn wasgiven to her daughter, Mrs. John R. Bradford. It was presented to thesociety by Miss Phebe C. Bradford, of Boston, granddaughter of Mrs. Elizabeth Harrington. A somewhat similar urn, made of pewter, is in the Museum of the MaineHistorical Society of Portland, Me. ; another in the Museum of the EssexInstitute at Salem, Mass. Among the many treasured relics of Abraham Lincoln is an old Britanniacoffee pot from which he was regularly served while a boarder with theRutledge family at the Rutledge inn in New Salem (now Menard), Ill. Itwas a valued utensil, and Lincoln is said to have been very fond of it. It is illustrated on page 690. The pot is now the property of the Old Salem Lincoln League, ofPetersburg, Ill. , and was donated to it, with other relics, by Mrs. Saunders, of Sisquoc, Cal. , the only surviving child of James and MaryAnn Rutledge. Mrs. Rutledge carefully preserved this and other relics ofNew Salem days; and shortly before her death in 1878, she gave them intothe keeping of her daughter, Mrs. Saunders, advising her to preservethem until such time as a permanent home for them would be provided by agrateful people back at New Salem, where they were associated with theimmortal Lincoln and his tragic romance with her daughter Ann. [Illustration: TURKISH COFFEE SET, PETER COLLECTION, UNITED STATESNATIONAL MUSEUM, WASHINGTON] CHAPTER XXXIV THE EVOLUTION OF COFFEE APPARATUS _Showing the development of coffee-roasting, coffee-grinding, coffee-making, and coffee-serving devices from the earliest time to the present day--The original coffee grinder, the first coffee roaster, and the first coffee pot--The original French drip pot, the De Belloy percolator--Count Rumford's improvement--How the commercial coffee roaster was developed--The evolution of filtration devices--The old Carter "pull-out" roaster--Trade customs in New York and St. Louis in the sixties and seventies--The story of the evolution of the Burns roaster--How the gas roaster was developed in France, Great Britain, and the United States_ A book could be written on the subject of this chapter. We shall have tobe content to touch briefly upon the important developments in thedevices employed. The changes that have taken place in the preparationof the drink itself will be discussed in chapter XXXVI. In the beginning, that is, in Ethiopia, about 800 A. D. , coffee waslooked upon as a food. The whole ripe berries, beans and hulls, werecrushed, and molded into food balls held in shape with fat. Later, thedried berries were so treated. So the primitive stone mortar and pestlewere the original coffee grinder. The dried hulls and the green beans were first roasted, some timebetween 1200 and 1300, in crude burnt clay dishes or in stone vessels, over open fires. These were the original roasting utensils. Next, the coffee beans were ground between little mill-stones, oneturning above the other. Then came the mill used by the Greeks andRomans for grain. This mill consisted of two conical mill stones, onehollow and fitted over the other, specimens of which have been found inPompeii. The idea is the same as that employed in the most modern metalgrinder. Between 1400 and 1500, individual earthenware and metal coffee-roastingplates appeared. These were circular, from four to six inches indiameter, about 1/16 inch thick, slightly concave and pierced with smallholes, something like the modern kitchen skimmer. They were used inTurkey and Persia for roasting a few beans at a time over braziers (openpans, or basins, for holding live coals). The braziers were usuallymounted on feet and richly ornamented. About the same time we notice the first appearance of the familiarTurkish pocket cylinder coffee mill and the original Turkish _ibrik_, orcoffee boiler, made of metal. Little drinking cups of Chinese porcelaincompleted the service. The original coffee boiler was not unlike the English ale mug with nocover, smaller at the top than at the bottom, fitted with a grooved lipfor pouring, and a long straight handle. They were made of brass, and insizes to hold from one to six tiny cupfuls. A later improvement was ofthe ewer design, with bulbous body, collar top, and cover. The Turkish coffee grinder seems to have suggested the individualcylinder roaster which later (1650) became common, and from whichdeveloped the huge modern cylinder commercial roasting machines. [Illustration: THE OLDEST COFFEE GRINDER Ancient Egyptian mortar and pestle, probably used for pounding coffee] The individual coffee service of early civilization first employed crudeclay bowls or dishes for drinking; but as early as 1350, Persian, Egyptian, and Turkish ewers, made of pottery, were used for serving. Inthe seventeenth century, ewers of similar pattern, but made of metal, were the favorite coffee-serving devices in oriental countries and inwestern Europe. Between 1428 and 1448, a spice grinder standing on four legs wasinvented; and this was later used for grinding coffee. The drawer toreceive the ground coffee was added in the eighteenth century. Between 1500 and 1600, shallow iron dippers with long handles andfoot-rests, designed to stand in open fires, were used in Bagdad, and bythe Arabs in Mesopotamia, for roasting coffee. These roasters hadhandles about thirty-four inches long, and the bowls were eight inchesin diameter. They were accompanied by a metal stirrer (spatula) forturning the beans. [Illustration: GRAIN MILL OF GREEKS AND ROMANS Also used for grinding coffee] Another type of roaster was developed about 1600. It was in the shape ofan iron spider on legs, and was designed, like that just described, tosit in open fires. At this period pewter serving pots were first used. Between 1600 and 1632, mortars and pestles of wood, iron, brass, andbronze came into common use in Europe for braying the roasted beans. Forseveral centuries, coffee connoisseurs held that pounding the beans in amortar was superior to grinding in the most efficient mill. PeregrineWhite's parents brought to America on the _Mayflower_, in 1620, a woodenmortar and pestle that were used for braying coffee to make coffee"powder. " [Illustration: THE FIRST COFFEE ROASTER, ABOUT 1400] When La Roque speaks of his father bringing back to Marseilles fromConstantinople in 1644 the instruments for making coffee, he undoubtedlyrefers to the individual devices which at that time in the Orientincluded the roaster plate, the cylinder grinder, the small long-handledboiler, and _fenjeyns_ (findjans), the little porcelain drinking cups. [Illustration: THE FIRST CYLINDER ROASTER, ABOUT 1650] When Bernier visited Grand Cairo about the middle of the seventeenthcentury, in all the city's thousand-odd coffee houses he found but twopersons who understood the art of roasting the bean. About 1650, there was developed the individual cylinder coffee roastermade of metal, usually tin plate or tinned copper, suggested by theoriginal Turkish pocket grinder. This was designed for use over openfires in braziers. There appeared about this time also a combinedmaking-and-serving metal pot which was undoubtedly the original of thecommon type of pot that we know today. There appeared in England about 1660, Elford's white iron machine (sheetiron coated with tin) which was "turned on a spit by a jack. [362]" Thiswas simply a larger size of the individual cylinder roaster, and wasdesigned for family or commercial use. Modifications were developed bythe French and Dutch. In the seventeenth century the Italians producedsome beautiful designs in wrought-iron coffee roasters. [Illustration: HISTORICAL RELICS IN THE PETER COLLECTION, UNITED STATESNATIONAL MUSEUM 1--Bagdad coffee-roasting pan and stirrer. 2--Iron mortar and pestleused for pounding coffee. 3--Coffee mill used by General and Mrs. Washington. 4--Coffee-roasting pan used at Mt. Vernon. 5--Bagdad coffeepot with crow-bill spout] Before the advent of the Elford machine, and indeed, for two centuriesthereafter, it was the common practise in the home to roast coffee inuncovered earthenware tart dishes, old pudding pans, and fry pans. Before the time of the modern kitchen stove, it was usually done overcharcoal fires without flame. The improved Turkish combination coffee grinder with folding handle andcup receptacle for the beans, used for grinding, boiling, and drinking, was first made in Damascus in 1665. About this period, the Turkishcoffee set, including the long-handled boiler and the porcelain drinkingcups in brass holders, also came into vogue. In 1665, Nicholas Book, "living at the Sign of the Frying Pan in St. Tulies street, " London, advertised that he was "the only known man formaking of mills for grinding of coffee powder, which mills are sold byhim from forty to forty-five shillings the mill. " By combining the long-handle idea contained in the Bagdad roaster withthat of the original cylinder roaster, the Dutch perfected a small, closed, sheet-iron cylinder-roaster with a long handle that permittedits being held and turned in open fire places. From 1670, and well intothe middle of the nineteenth century, this type of family roasterenjoyed great favor in Holland, France, England, and the United States, more especially in the country districts. The museums of Europe and theUnited States contain many specimens. The iron cylinder measured aboutfive inches in diameter, and was from six to eight inches long, beingattached to a three or four foot iron rod provided with a wooden handle. The green coffee was put into the cylinder through a sliding door. Balancing the roaster over the blaze by resting the end of the iron rodprojecting from the far end of the roasting cylinder in a hook of theusual fireplace crane, the housekeeper was wont slowly to revolve thecylinder until the beans had turned the proper color. [Illustration: TURKISH COFFEE MILL A fine specimen in the Peter collection, United States National Museum] Portable coffee-making outfits to fit the pocket were much in vogue inFrance in 1691. These included a roaster, a grinder, a lamp, the oil, cups, saucers, spoons, coffee, and sugar. The roaster was first made oftin plate or tinned copper; but for the aristocracy silver and gold wereused. In 1754, a white-silver coffee roaster eight inches long and fourinches in diameter was mentioned among the deliveries made to the armyof the king at Versailles. [Illustration: EARLY FRENCH WALL AND TABLE GRINDERS Left, seventeenth-century coffee grinder in the Musée de la Porte deHal--Center, wall mill, eighteenth century--Right, iron mill, eighteenthcentury] Humphrey Broadbent, "the London coffee man" wrote in 1722: I hold it best to roast coffee berries in an iron vessel full of little holes, made to turn on a spit over a charcoal fire, keeping them continually turning, and sometimes shaking them that they do not burn, and when they are taken out of the vessel, spread 'em on some tin or iron plate 'till the vehemency of the heat is vanished; I would recommend to every family to roast their own coffee, for then they will be almost secure from having any damaged berries, or any art to increase the weight, which is very injurious to the drinkers of coffee. Most persons of distinction in Holland roast their own berries. [Illustration: BRONZE AND BRASS MORTARS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY USEDFOR MAKING COFFEE POWDER Left, bronze (Germany)--Center, brass (England)--Right, bronze (Holland, 1632)] Between 1700 and 1800, there was developed a type of small portablehousehold stove to burn coke or charcoal, made of iron and fitted withhorizontal revolving cylinders for coffee roasting. These were providedwith iron handles for turning. A modification of this type of roasterunder a three-sided hood, and standing on three legs, was designed tosit on the hearth of open fireplaces, close to the fire or in thesmoldering ashes. Because of its greater capacity, it was probably usedin the inns and coffee houses for roasting large batches. Still anothertype, which made its appearance late in the eighteenth century, was thesheet-iron roaster suspended at the top of a tall, iron, box-likecompartment, or stove, in which the fire was built. This, too, wasdesigned to roast coffee in comparatively large quantities. In someexamples it was provided with legs. Great silver coffee pots ("with all the utensils belonging to them ofthe same metal") were first used by Pascal at St. -Germain's fair inParis in 1672. It remained for the English and American silversmiths toproduce the most beautiful forms of silver coffee pots; and there aresome notable collections of these in England and the United States. The oriental serving pot was nearly always of metal, tall, and, in oldmodels, of graceful curve, with a slightly twisted ornamental beak inthe form of an S, attached below the middle of the vessel. A handleornamented in the same way formed a decorative balance. In 1692, the lantern straight-line coffee serving pot with true conelid, thumb-piece, and handle fixed at right angle to the spout, wasintroduced into England, succeeding the curved oriental serving pot. In1700, coffee pots made of cheaper metals, like tin and Britannia ware, began to appear on the home tables of the people. In 1701, silver coffeepots appeared in England having perfect domes and bodies less tapering. Between 1700 and 1800, silver, gold, and delicate porcelain serving potswere the vogue among European royalty. [Illustration: EARLY AMERICAN COFFEE ROASTERS Both the cast-iron spiders and the long-handled roasters were used inopen fireplaces previous to 1770] In 1704, Bull's machine for roasting coffee was patented in England. This probably marks the first use of coal for commercial roasting. In 1710, the popular coffee roaster in French homes was a dish ofvarnished earthenware. This same year a novelty was introduced in Francein the shape of a fustian (linen) bag for infusing ground coffee. By 1714, the thumb-piece on English serving pots had disappeared, andthe handle was no longer set at a right angle to the spout. Englishcoffee-pot bodies showed a further modification in 1725, the taperbecoming less and less. Coffee grinders were so common in France in 1720 that they were to behad for a dollar and twenty cents each. Their development by the Frenchhad been rapid from the original spice grinder. At first, they wereknown as coffee mills; but in the eighteenth century, roasters came tobe known by that name. They were made of iron, retaining the sameprinciple of the horizontal mill-stones--one of which is fixed while theother moves--that the ancients employed for grinding wheat. They weresquat, box-shaped affairs, having in the center a shank of iron thatrevolved upon a fixed, corrugated iron plate. There was also the stylethat fastened to the wall. At first, the drawer to receive ground coffeewas missing, but this was supplied in later types. Before its invention, the ground coffee was received in a sack of greased leather, or in onetreated on the outside with beeswax--probably the original of the duplexpaper bag for conserving the flavor. [Illustration: ROASTER WITH THREE-SIDED HOOD It succeeded the cast-iron spider, and was suspended from a crane, orstood in the embers] [Illustration: ROASTING, MAKING, AND SERVING DEVICES Early seventeenth century, as pictured by Dufour] The French brought their innate artistic talents to bear upon coffeegrinders, just as they did upon roasters and serving pots. In manyinstances they made the outer parts of silver and of gold. By 1750, the straight-line serving pot in England had begun to yield tothe reactionary movement in art favoring bulbous bodies and serpentinespouts. About 1760, French inventors began to devote themselves to improvementsin coffee-making devices. Donmartin, a Paris tinsmith, in 1763, inventedan urn pot that employed a flannel sack for infusing. Another infusiondevice, produced the same year by L'Ainé, also a tinsmith of Paris, wasknown as a _diligence_. A complete revolution in the style of English serving pots took place in1770, with a return to the flowing lines of the Turkish ewer; andbetween 1800 and 1900, there was a gradual return to the style ofserving pot having the handle at a right angle to the spout. [Illustration: ENGLISH AND FRENCH COFFEE GRINDERS Nineteenth century] In 1779, Richard Dearman was granted an English patent on a new methodof making mills for grinding coffee. In 1798, the first American patenton an improved coffee grinding mill was granted to Thomas Bruff, Sr. Itwas a wall mill, fitted with iron plates, in which the coffee was groundbetween two circular nuts, three inches broad and having coarse teetharound their centers and fine shallow teeth at the edges. De Belloy's (or Du Belloy's) coffee pot appeared in Paris about 1800. Itwas first made of tin; but later, of porcelain and silver--the originalFrench drip pot. This device was never patented; but it appears to havefurnished the inspiration for many inventors in France, England, and theUnited States. The first French patent on a coffee maker was granted toDenobe, Henrion, and Rouch in 1802. It was for a"pharmacological-chemical coffee-making device by infusion. " CharlesWyatt obtained a patent the same year in London on an apparatus fordistilling coffee. The De Belloy pot is illustrated on page 622. In 1806, Hadrot was granted a French patent on a device "for filteringcoffee without boiling and bathed in air. " This use of the wordfiltering was misleading, as it was many times after in French, English, and American patent nomenclature, where it often meant percolation orsomething quite different from filtration. True percolation means todrip through fine interstices of china or metal. Filtration means todrip through a porous substance, usually cloth or paper. De Belloy's potwas a percolator. So was Hadrot's. The improvement on which Hadrot gothis patent was to "replace the white iron filter (sic) used in ordinaryfiltering pots by a filter composed of hard tin and bismuth" and to use"a rammer of the same metal, pierced with holes. " The rammer wasdesigned to press down and to smooth out the powdered coffee in an evenand uniform fashion. "It also, " says Hadrot in his specification, "stopsthe derangement which boiling water poured from a height can produce. Itis held by its stem a half inch from the surface of the powder so thatit receives only the action of the water which it divides andfacilitates thus the extraction which it must produce in each of theparticles. " [Illustration: EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY ROASTER Essex Institute, Salem, Mass. ] A coffee percolator was invented in Paris about 1806 by BenjaminThompson, F. R. S. , an American-British scientist, philanthropist, andadministrator. He was known as Count Rumford, a title bestowed on him bythe Pope. Rumford's invention was first given to the public in London in1812. He has gained great credit for his device, because of an elaborateessay that he wrote on it in Paris under the title of _The excellentqualities of coffee and the art of making it in the highest perfection_, and that he caused to be published in London in 1812. It was a simplepercolator pot provided with a hot-water jacket, and was a realimprovement on the French drip or percolator coffee pot invented by DeBelloy, but not at all unlike Hadrot's patented device. Count Rumford, however, was a picturesque character, and a good advertiser. He isgenerally credited with the invention of the coffee percolator; butexamination of his device shows that, strictly speaking, the De Belloypot was just as much a percolator, and apparently antedated it by aboutsix years. [Illustration: THE ORIGINAL FRENCH DRIP POT _Cafetière à la_ De Belloy] De Belloy employed the principle of having the boiling water dripthrough the ground coffee when held in suspension by a perforated metalor porcelain grid. This is true percolation. Hadrot did the same thingwith the improvements noted above. Count Rumford in his essay admitsthat this method of making coffee was not new, but claims hisimprovement was. This was to provide a rammer for compressing the groundcoffee in the upper or percolating device into a definite thickness, this being accomplished by providing the perforated circular tin diskwater-spreader that rested on the ground coffee with four projections, or feet, that kept the spreader within half an inch of the grid holdingthe powder in suspension and free from "agitation. " His argument was that two-thirds of an inch of ground coffee should beleveled and compressed into a half-inch thickness before the boilingwater was introduced. Practically the same result was achieved in the DeBelloy and Hadrot pots, also provided with water-spreaders and pluggers, but the same mathematical exactitude in the matter of the depth of theground coffee before the percolation started was not assured. DeBelloy's spreader did not have the projections on the under side uponwhich Count Rumford laid such stress. Then there was the hot-waterjacket, which was an improvement on Hadrot's hot air bath. Inventorsthat followed Rumford have made light of the importance that he attachedto scientific accuracy in coffee-making; but it is interesting to notehow many of the features of the De Belloy, Hadrot, and Rumford pots havebeen retained in the modern complex coffee machines, and in most of thefiltration devices. [Illustration: BELGIAN, RUSSIAN, AND FRENCH PEWTER SERVING POTS These are in the Metropolitan Museum and are of nineteenth centurydesign] French inventors continued to apply themselves to coffee-roasting andcoffee-making problems, and many new ideas were evolved. Some of thesewere improved upon by the Dutch, the Germans, and the Italians; but thebest work in the line of improvements that have survived the test oftime was done in England and the United States. In 1815, Sené was granted a French patent on "a device to make coffeewithout boiling. " In 1819, Laurens produced the original of thepercolation device in which the boiling water is raised by a tube andsprayed over the ground coffee. The same year Morize, a Paris tinsmithand lamp-maker, followed with a reversible, double drip pot which wasthe pioneer of all the reversible filtration pots of Europe and America. Gaudet, another tinsmith, in 1820, patented an improvement on thepercolator idea, that employed a cloth filter. By 1825, the pumpingpercolator, working by steam pressure and by partial vacuum, was muchused in France, Holland, Germany, and Austria. Meanwhile, it was common practise to roast coffee in England in "an ironpan or in hollow cylinders made of sheet iron"; while in Italy, thepractise was to roast it in glass flasks, which were fitted with loosecorks. The flasks were "held over clear fires of burning coals andcontinually agitated. " Anthony Schick was granted an English patent in1812, on a method, or process, for roasting coffee; but as he neverfiled his specifications, we shall probably never know what the processwas. The custom of the day in England was to pound the roasted beans ina mortar, or to grind them in a French mill. [Illustration: COUNT RUMFORD'S PERCOLATOR] In 1822, Louis Bernard Rabaut was granted an English patent in which theFrench drip process was reversed by using steam pressure to force theboiling water upward through the coffee mass. Casseneuve, a Paristinsmith, seems to have patented practically the same idea in France in1824. Casseneuve employed a paper filter in his machine. In America, a United States patent was granted in 1813 to AlexanderDuncan Moore of New Haven on a mill "for grinding and pounding coffee. "This was followed by a patent granted to Increase Wilson, of New London, in 1818, on a steel mill for grinding coffee. [Illustration: PEWTER POTS OF THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES Left to right, they are German, Flemish, English, and Dutch specimens inthe Metropolitan Museum] [Illustration: PATENT DRAWINGS OF EARLY FRENCH COFFEE MAKERS Left, drip pot of 1806--Next two, Durant's inner-tube pot, 1827--Next(fourth), Gandais' first practicable percolator, 1827--Right, Grandin &Crepeaux' percolator, 1832] In 1815, Archibald Kenrich was granted a patent in England on "mills forgrinding coffee. " The coffee biggin, said to have been invented by a Mr. Biggin, came intocommon use in England for making coffee about 1817. It was usually anearthenware pot. At first it had in the upper part a metal strainer likethe French drip pots. Suspended from the rim in later models there was aflannel or muslin bag to hold the ground coffee, through which theboiling water was poured, the bag serving as a filter. The idea was anadaptation of the French fustian infusion bag of 1711, and of otherearly French drip and filtration devices, and it attained greatpopularity. Any coffee pot with such a bag fitted into its mouth came tobe spoken of as a coffee biggin. Later, there was evolved the metal potwith a wire strainer substituted for the cloth bag. The coffee bigginstill retains its popularity in England. [Illustration: EARLY FRENCH FILTRATION DEVICES Left, Casseneuve's filter-paper machine, 1824--Center, Gaudet'scloth-filter pot, 1820--Right, Raparlier's percolator] While French inventors were busy with coffee makers, English andAmerican inventors were studying means to improve the roasting of thebeans. Peregrine Williamson, of Baltimore, was granted the first patentin the United States for an improvement on a coffee roaster in 1820. In1824, Richard Evans was granted a patent in England for a commercialmethod of roasting coffee, comprising a cylindrical sheet-iron roasterfitted with improved flanges for mixing; a hollow tube and trier forsampling coffee while roasting; and a means for turning the roastercompletely over to empty it. The next year, 1825, the first coffee-pot patent in the United Stateswas granted to Lewis Martelley of New York. It marked the first Americanattempt to perfect an arrangement to condense the steam and theessential oils and to return them to the infusion. In 1838, AntoniBencini, of Milton, N. C. , was granted a similar patent in the UnitedStates. Rowland, in 1844, and Waite and Sener, in their Old Dominion potof 1856, tried for the same result, namely, the condensation of thesteam in upper chambers. [Illustration: EARLY AMERICAN COFFEE-MAKER PATENTS Left, Waite & Sener's Old Dominion pot--Right, Bencini's steamcondenser] The French meantime focused on coffee makers; and in 1827, JacquesAugustin Gandais, a manufacturer of plated jewelry in Paris, produced areally practicable pumping percolator. This machine had the ascendingsteam tube on the exterior. The same year, 1827, Nicholas Felix Durant, a manufacturer in Chalons-sur-Marne, was granted a French patent on apercolator employing for the first time an inner tube for spraying theboiling water over the ground coffee. In 1828, Charles Parker, of Meriden, Conn. , began work on the originalParker coffee mill, which later was to bring him fame and fortune. The next year, 1829, the first French patent on a coffee mill was issuedto Colaux & Cie. Of Molsheim. That same year, 1829, the Établissements Lauzaune, Paris, began to makehand-turned iron-cylinder coffee-roasting machines. In 1831, David Selden was granted a patent in England for acoffee-grinding mill having cones of cast-iron. The first Parker coffee-grinder patent for a household coffee and spicemill was issued in the United States in 1832 to Edmund Parker and HermanM. White of Meriden, Conn. The Charles Parker Company's business wasfounded the same year. In 1832 and 1833, United States patents wereissued to Ammi Clark, of Berlin, Conn. , also on improved coffee andspice mills for home use. Amos Ransom, Hartford, Conn. , was granted a United States patent on acoffee roaster in 1833. The English began exporting coffee-roasting and coffee-grindingmachinery to the United States in 1833-34. [Illustration: FRENCH COFFEE MAKERS, NINETEENTH CENTURY 1, 2--Improved French drip pots. 3--Persian design. 4--De Belloy pot. 5--Russian reversible pot. 6--New filter machine. 7--Glass filter pot. 8--Syphon machine. 9--Vienna Incomparable. 10--Double glass "balloon"device] [Illustration: FIRST ENGLISH COMMERCIAL COFFEE-ROASTER PATENT, 1824 Fig. 1--End elevation. Fig. 2--Front sectional view. Fig. 3--Frontelevation, showing how the roasting cylinder was turned completely overto empty. Fig. 4--The examiner, or trier. Fig. 5--Tube (J) to beinserted in H of Fig. 6 to prevent escape of aroma] It was not until 1836 that the first French patent was issued on acombined coffee-roaster-and-grinder to François Réné Lacoux of Paris. The roaster was made of porcelain, because the inventor believed thatmetal imparted a bad taste to the beans while roasting. [Illustration: EARLY FRENCH COFFEE-ROASTING MACHINES 1--Delephine's coke machine. 2--Bernard's machine, 1841. 3--Circlet forsame. 4--Postulart's gas machine] In 1839, James Vardy and Moritz Platow were granted an English patent ona kind of urn percolator employing the vacuum process of coffee making, the upper vessel being made of glass. The first French patent on a glasscoffee-making device, using the same principle, was granted to MadameVassieux, of Lyons, in 1842. These were the forerunners of the doubleglass "balloons" for making coffee which later on, in the early part ofthe twentieth century, attained much vogue in the United States. Theywere very popular in Europe until the latter part of the nineteenthcentury. In 1839, John Rittenhouse, of Philadelphia, was granted a United Statespatent on a cast-iron mill designed to handle the problem of nails andstones in grinding coffee. His improvement was intended to preventinjury to the grinding teeth by stopping the machine. In 1840, Abel Stillman, Poland, N. Y. , was granted a United States patenton a family coffee roaster having a mica window to enable the operatorto observe the coffee while roasting. (See 10, page 630. ) In 1841, William Ward Andrews was granted an English patent on animproved coffee pot employing a pump to force the boiling water upwardthrough the coffee, which was contained in a perforated cylinder screwedto the bottom of the pot. This was Rabaut's idea of nineteen yearsbefore. We find it again repeated in the United States in a machinewhich appeared on the New York market in 1906. [Illustration: BATTERY OF CARTER PULL-OUT MACHINES IN AN EARLY AMERICANPLANT] In 1841, Claude Marie Victor Bernard, of Paris, was granted a Frenchpatent on a coffee roaster, which was an improvement designed to bringthe roasting cylinder and the fire in closer contact. This wasaccomplished, to quote the quaint language of the inventor, by applyingmovable legs and "by superimposing a sheet iron circlet around the edgeof the furnace to get double the quantity of heat and it presents somuch advantage that it has seemed to me worthy of being patented. " (See4, page 627. ) But the French were only toying with the roaster, because roasting inFrance was not yet a separate branch of business, as it had become inEngland and the United States, where keen minds were already at work onthe purely commercial coffee-roasting machine. The application ofintensive thought in this direction was destined to bear fruit inAmerica in 1846, and in England in 1847. French inventive genius continued to occupy itself with coffee making, and in the invention of Edward Loysel de Santais, of Paris, in 1843, produced the first of the ideas that were later incorporated in thehydrostatic percolator for making "two thousand cups of coffee anhour"[363] at the exposition of 1855, and that has since been improvedupon by the Italians in their rapid-filter machines. It should be notedthat Loysel's 2, 000 cups were probably demi-tasses. The modern Italianrapid-filter machine produces about 1, 000 large coffee cups per hour. James W. Carter, of Boston, was granted a United States patent in 1846on his "pull-out" roaster; and this was the machine most generallyemployed for trade roasting in America for the next twenty years. Carterdid not claim to have invented the combination of cylindrical roasterand furnace; but he did claim priority for the combination, with thefurnace and roasting vessel, of the air space, or chamber, surroundingit, "the same being for the purpose of preventing the too rapid escapeof heat from the furnace when the air chamber's induction and eductionair openings or passages are closed. " The Carter "pull-out, " was so called because the roasting cylinder ofsheet iron was pulled out from the furnace on a shaft supported bystandards, to be emptied or to be refilled from sliding doors in its"sides. " It was in use for many years in such old-time plants as that ofDwinell-Wright Company, 25 Haverhill Street. Boston; by James H. Forbesand William Schotten in St. Louis; and by D. Y. Harrison in Cincinnati. The picture of a roasting room with Carter machines in operation, reproduced here, recalled to George S. Wright, the present head of theDwinell-Wright Company's business, the scene as he saw it so many timeswhen, as a boy of ten or twelve, he occasionally spent a day in hisfather's factory. "The only difference I notice, " he wrote the author, "is that, according to my recollection, there was no cooler box toreceive the roasted coffee, which was dumped on the floor where it wasspread out three or four inches deep with iron rakes and sprinkled witha watering pot. The contact of water and hot coffee caused so much steamthat the roasting room was in a dense fog for several minutes after eachbatch of coffee was drawn from the fire. " A. E. Forbes also thus recalled the Carter machine in his father'sfactory in St. Louis in 1853, when he used to help after school; andsometimes ran the roasters, after 1857: It was barrel shaped, having a slide the full length of one side to fill and empty. A heavy shaft ran through the centre, resting on the wall of the furnace at the rear end and on an upright about eight feet from the front wall. The fire was about sixteen to eighteen inches below the cylinder and of soft coal. The cylinder was not perforated, the theory being to keep the vapors from escaping. [364] This of course was erroneous. The color of the smoke bursting from the edge of the slide was our medium of telling when the roasting process was nearing completion, and often the cylinder was pulled out and opened for inspection several times before that point was reached. When just right, the belt was shifted to a loose pulley, stopping the cylinder, which, was pulled off the fire. A handle was attached to the shaft, the slide drawn, and the coffee was dumped into a wooden tray which had to be shoved under the cylinder. The coffee was stirred around in the tray until cool enough to sack. The roaster man had to be a husky in those days to pick up a sack of Rio weighing about one hundred, sixty to one hundred, seventy-five pounds (not a hundred, thirty-two pounds, as now) and to empty it in the cylinder. We had no overhead hoppers. [Illustration: EARLY ENGLISH AND AMERICAN COFFEE ROASTERS 1, 2--English charcoal machines. 3, 5, 8--American coal-stove roasters. 4--Remington's wheel-of-buckets (American) roaster, 1841. 6--Wood's roaster. 7--Hyde's stove roaster. 9--Reversible stove roaster. 10--Abel Stillman's stove roaster] Later we built in the rear and put in two cylinders of the Chris Abele type, having stationary fronts and filling and emptying from the front end. We still used soft coal, with the fire sixteen to eighteen inches under the cylinder. We had other machines made locally from the Carter pattern. The idea of the tight cylinder was to keep out smoke, as well as to keep in the aroma. I think we were the first to use perforations, because I remember old Jabez Burns coming along after we put in one of his machines and remarking on it.... We had a kind of mechanical genius for engineer at that time (he also did the roasting) and he conceived the idea that we ought to get rid of the moisture in the roasting coffee because it would cook quicker. When the holes clogged up, he put in loose pieces of wire bent at the ends which shook as the cylinder revolved and kept the holes open. Another thing, he put a hole in the cylinder head and a stopper with a string on it so he could get out a few grains at a time to note the progress of the roasting--but he judged mostly by the smoke. The cooling box was as I have described it, but later we put in a perforated false bottom which let out some chaff and small stones. On our first watering, we pulled out the slide and dashed in a bucket of water, then closed the slide and let it revolve outside the furnace. This was hard on the cylinder, so later we used the sprinkling can and put on water sparingly. Once we had a party that wanted to put in a soapstone lined roaster, and another near us named Salzgerber patented a superheated-steam roaster which was shaped like our modern milk bottle. This was covered with asbestos and worked on a central bearing so it could be depressed for emptying and elevated for filling. It did good work. Mr. Forbes' recollections of the early days of roasting and sellingcoffee at retail in St. Louis are so illuminating, and paint sointeresting a picture of the period that they are printed here toillustrate the conditions that prevailed generally at the time when thecommercial roasting machine of the United States was being developedinto the modern type. He says further: Selling roasted coffee was uphill work, as every one roasted coffee in the kitchen oven. People were buying, say, at twenty cents. Our asking twenty-five cents "roasted" called for a lot of explanation about shrinkage, tight cylinders so the strength and flavor could not get away, etc. ; while, when they roasted a pound in the oven the flavor scented the whole house, thus losing so much strength to say nothing of the unevenness of their roasts--part raw, part roasted, producing an unpleasant taste. An occasional burned roast at home helped some. They tell of a man who, going out in the back yard and kicking over a clod by accident, uncovered some burned coffee. He called to his wife and wanted an explanation. She acknowledged she had burnt it, and hid it so he would not scold. He said, "We had better buy it roasted in the future and avoid such accidents. " We roasted in the cellar. We had an elaborately polished Reed & Mann engine in one window, two brass hoppered mills in the other, and our boiler was under the sidewalk. We had a mahogany-top counter, oil paintings on the wall, and bin fronts of Chinamen, etc. , done by the celebrated artist, Mat Hastings (now dead); so you see we started right. The fight we had to introduce roasted coffee was fierce. Our argument was on the saving of fuel, labor, temper, scorched faces, and anything we could think of. We talked only three coffees, Rio, Java, and Mocha. When Santos began to come, it was hard to change them over from the rank Rio flavor to the more mild Santos. The latter they claimed did not have the rough taste. They missed it and longed for the wild tang of the Rio. We did not import, but bought in New Orleans and from several local wholesale grocers. No one delivered. Shipments were f. O. B. St. Louis. Draying and packages were extra. Coffee was not cleaned or stoned, but was sold as it came from the sack. However, we did not use any very low grades then. If any one complained of the stones hurting their mills, we advised them to buy ground coffee, showing how it kept better ground as it was packed tight, whereas the roasted was looser and the air could get through it. It was fully a year or more before we began to sell in quantities to make it profitable. In roasting for others, we got a cent per pound; and after awhile, that became so much a business it paid all our expenses. We were the first to roast coffee by steam power west of the Mississippi and east of the Rocky Mountains. The tea department helped us to hold out until coffee got its hold on the public; for in those days every one used tea and insisted on having it good. Price was no object. How different now! Five years later (1862) J. Nevison, an Englishman, drifted into town and opened at 85 North Fourth Street. He got out a very bombastic circular which caused us to put out the one I enclose (illustration, page 436). Then came a party named Childs; and after him, Hugh Menown, grand-uncle of the present Menown, of Menown & Gregory; and Mat Hunt; all passed over to the Great Majority. After the Civil War they multiplied pretty fast, coming and going until now we have nineteen roasting establishments in the city. The late Julius J. Schotten also wrote the author as follows concerningthe days of the Carter roaster and of the wholesale coffee-roastingbusiness founded by William Schotten in 1862: In the early days, every wholesale grocer was selling coffee; the wholesale grocer controlled ninety percent of the trade in the country. It did not pay the coffee roaster to have men on the road selling coffee in those days. Such being the case, seventy-five percent of the roasting done by the coffee roasters was job roasting, at one cent a pound. In the beginning there were only two kinds of roasted coffee known to the trade in this section of the country (St. Louis) and of course one of these brands was "Rio"--the other; "Java". The former was a genuine Rio, but the Java was mostly Jamaica coffee. Roasted coffee then was packed (for city trade) in five and ten pound packages, and this size package seemed to supply the wants of the ordinary grocer for a week. Occasionally a twenty-five pound package, and in a few instances as much as fifty pounds of one grade was sold at a time. The class of customers the coffee roasters sold in those days were the smaller merchants; the larger stores, having their ideas as to quality, bought their coffees green. As they had very little sale for the roasted, they would send a half-sack, and sometimes a whole sack to have it roasted. It took a number of years to induce the larger grocers, and even the average grocers, to purchase their coffee already roasted. Coffees were roasted in the old style, "pull-out" roaster cylinder. That is to say, it was necessary to stop the roaster and to pull out the cylinder to sample the coffee in order to know when to take the coffee off the fire. When the coffee was ready to take off, the cylinder was pulled out its entire length. It was then turned over and a slide nine inches wide, running the full length of the cylinder, was opened and the contents were dumped in the cooling box. When the coffee reached the cooling box, it took two men with hoes or wooden shovels to stir and turn it until it was properly cooled, there being no cooling arrangements then as we have nowadays. At that time there were no stoning or separating machines; and as a bag of the ordinary green Jamaica coffee contained from three to five pounds of stones and sticks, it was necessary to hand-pick the coffee after it was roasted. [Illustration: EARLY FOREIGN AND AMERICAN COFFEE-MAKING DEVICES 1--English adaptation of French boiler. 2--English coffee biggin. 3--Improved Rumford percolator. 4--Jones's exterior-tube percolator. 5--Parker's steam-fountain coffee maker. 6--Platow's filterer. 7--Brain's Vacuum, or pneumatic filter. 8--Beart's percolator. 9--American coffee biggin. 10--cloth-bag drip pot. 11--Vienna coffeepot. 12--Le Brun's cafetière. 13--Reversible Potsdam cafetière. 14, 15--Gen. Hutchinson's percolator and urn. 16--Etruscan biggin] After Carter, the next United States coffee-roaster patent was grantedto J. R. Remington, of Baltimore, on a roaster employing a wheel ofbuckets to move the green coffee beans singly through a charcoal heatedtrough. It never became a commercial success. (See 4, page 630. ) In 1847-48, William and Elizabeth Dakin were granted patents in Englandon an apparatus for "cleaning and roasting coffee and for makingdecoctions. " The roaster specification covered a gold, silver, platinum, or alloy-lined roasting cylinder and traversing carriage on an overheadrailway to move the roaster in and out of the roasting oven; and the"decoction" specification covered an arrangement for twisting acloth-bag ground-coffee-container in a coffee biggin, or applied a screwmotion to a disk within a perforated cylinder containing the groundcoffee, so as to squeeze the liquid out of the grounds after infusionhad taken place. The roaster has survived, but the coffee maker was not so fortunate. TheDakin idea was that coffee was injuriously affected by coming in contactwith iron during the roasting process. The roasting cylinder wasenclosed in an oven instead of being directly exposed to the furnaceheat. The apparatus was provided also with a "taster, " or sampler, thefirst of its kind, to enable the operator to examine the roastingberries without stopping the machine. As will be seen by referring tothe picture of the model shown, the apparatus was ingenious and notwithout considerable merit. Dakin & Co. Are still in existence inLondon, operating a machine very like the original model. In 1848, Thomas John Knowlys was granted a patent in England on aperforated roasting cylinder coated with enamel. It is to be noted in passing that this idea of handling the green beanwith extreme delicacy, evidently obtained from the French, was nevertaken seriously in the United States, whose inventors chose to handle itwith rough courage. [Illustration: THE DAKIN ROASTING MACHINE OF 1848] The first English patent on a coffee grinder was granted to LukeHerbert in 1848. In 1849, Apoleoni Pierre Preterre, of Havre, was granted an Englishpatent on a coffee roaster mounted on a weighing apparatus to indicateloss of weight in roasting and automatically stop the roasting process. At the same time he secured an English patent on a vacuum percolator, not unlike Durant's of 1827. In 1849 also, Thomas R. Wood, of Cincinnati, was granted a United Statespatent on a spherical coffee roaster for use on kitchen stoves. Itattained considerable popularity among housewives who preferred to dotheir own roasting. (See 6, page 630. ) In 1852, Edward Gee secured a patent in England on a coffee roasterfitted with inclined flanges for turning the beans while roasting. C. W. Van Vliet, of Fishkill Landing, N. Y. , was granted a United Statespatent in 1855 on a household coffee mill employing upper breaking andlower grinding cones. He assigned it to Charles Parker of Meriden, Conn. In 1860-61 several United States patents were granted John and EdmundParker on coffee grinders for home use. In 1862, E. J. Hyde, of Philadelphia, was granted a United States patenton a combined coffee-roaster and stove fitted with a crane on which theroasting cylinder was revolved and swung out horizontally for emptyingand refilling. This machine proved to be a commercial success. BenedicktFischer used one in his first roasting plant in New York. It is stillbeing manufactured by the Bramhall Deane Company of New York. [Illustration: A GLOBULAR STOVE ROASTER OF 1860] [Illustration: HYDE'S COMBINED ROASTER AND STOVE] In 1864, Jabez Burns, of New York, was granted a United States patent onthe original Burns coffee roaster, the first machine which did not haveto be moved away from the fire for discharging the roasted coffee, andone that marked a distinct advance in the manufacture of coffee-roastingapparatus. It was a closed iron cylinder set in brickwork. (Seeillustration, page 635. ) Jabez Burns had been a student of coffee roasting in New York for twentyyears before he produced the machine that was to revolutionize thecoffee business of the United States. He had brought with him fromEngland a knowledge of the trade in that country, where he first beganhis business training by selling Java coffee at fourteen cents andSumatra at eleven cents to hotels, boarding-houses, and privatefamilies. Up to the time of the Civil War, the contrivances employed for roastingcoffee in every case necessitated the removal of the roastingapparatus--whether pan, globe, or cylinder--from the fire. The processof causing coffee to discharge from the end of the roasting cylinder atthe pleasure of the operator while the cylinder was still in motion wasnew; and the double set of flanges to produce this effect, and at thesame time, during the process of roasting, to keep the coffee equallydistributed from end to end of the cylinder, was new. Some one suggestedthis last improvement was simply an Archimedean screw placed in acylinder, but Mr. Burns replied: "It is a double screw, a thing neversuggested by the Archimedean screw. It is, in fact, a double right andleft augur, one within the other, firmly secured together and also tothe shell or cylinder, and when the cylinder revolves the desiredresult is obtained--the idea being entirely original. " Mr. Burns had watched the development of the coffee business from thetime when the preparation of coffee was largely confined to the home, where the approved roasting implements were hot stones, or tiles, ironplates, skillets, and frying pans. Some of these were still in usetwenty years after he produced his first machine; and he often said thatcoffee evenly roasted by such methods was just as good as if done by thebest mechanical device ever invented. He also said: "Coffee can beroasted in very simple machinery. Some of the best we ever saw was donein a corn popper. Patent portable roasters are almost as numerous as rattraps or churns. " [Illustration: THE ORIGINAL BURNS ROASTER, 1864] He early saw the practise of domestic roasting falling into disuse, asit was becoming possible to supply the consumer with roasted coffee foronly a trifle more than in the green state, with all the labor andannoyance of roasting done away with--a talking point that John Arbucklewas quick to seize upon in his first Ariosa advertising. In almost every town of any size there were concerns engaged in theroasting business. Within a few years, Burns machines were placed in allthe principal roasting centers. Pupke & Reid in New York; Flint, Evans &Co. , and James H. Forbes in St. Louis; Arbuckles & Co. , in Pittsburgh;the Weikel & Smith Spice Co. In Philadelphia; Theodore F. Johnson & Co. , in Newark; Evans & Walker in Detroit; W. & J. G. Flint in Milwaukee; andParker & Harrison in Cincinnati, were among his first customers. It is said that in 1845 there were facilities in and around New York toroast as much coffee as was then consumed in Great Britain. Steam powerwas being extensively used, and the roasting was done here for a largepart of the country. The habit was to buy roasted coffee from the coffeeand spice mills by the bag or larger quantity for country consumption;and the grocers and small tea stores, for local consumption, bought fromtwenty-five pounds upward at a time. This method cheapened the roastingof coffee to half a cent a pound; and then good profits could be made, for everything was cheap in those days. Even at that, it would have beenimpossible for each tea dealer to have roasted his own coffee forseveral times the amount, so the practise was generally adhered to allover the country. Jabez Burns wrote in 1874: It is preposterous to suppose that household roasting will be continued long in any part of this country, if coffee properly prepared can be had. This is demonstrated by the remarkable advances made in Pittsburgh and other places, where only a few years ago the sales were chiefly in green coffee. Now the amount roasted in Pittsburgh alone by those who make a business of it, exceeds the entire consumption of coffee of any kind in the United States fifty years ago. It will never pay for small stores to roast if the large manufactories will do the work well, and if they will not, small dealers will add proper machinery, and will eventually become strong competing dealers. By doing the work with proper care they will not only secure a reputation with large sales for themselves, but will command the roasting for other parties. Until the Burns roaster appeared, coffee roasters were usually cylindersthat revolved upon an axis; the other devices that were tried were notsuccessful. Jabez Burns thus describes the first roaster he ever saw atHull, England: It consisted of a furnace, open at the top, and a perforated cylinder with a slide door. The axis, or shaft, of the cylinder had bearings on a frame which passed outside the furnace, while the cylinder went down into the fire pit, the top of which could be covered over. In this position it could be turned by means of a crank on the end of a shaft The only means of testing was by the escape of the steam or aroma, whichever predominated, passing out through the perforations at the top; but so expert was the operator and so quick to detect the aroma, that he seldom had to return the cylinder to the fire to produce a satisfactory roast. This man roasted fifty pounds or less in a batch for a number of retail stores. Globes, consisting of two hemispheres, made of cast-iron and so arranged that they opened to fill and discharge, but operated substantially as above, only with the method of lowering into the fire changed somewhat, I have seen in use in Scotland in 1840. They were called French roasters. In this country a few years ago the use of the long sheet-iron cylinder was almost universal, varying only in the method of placing the cylinder over the fire--some sideways on a track, others endwise, sliding on a long shaft or by turning on a crane, in either case causing considerable labor and loss of time, which often resulted in the hands of the inexperienced in more or less spoiling the batch of coffee. From his expert knowledge of coffee and coffee-roasting problems, JabezBurns quickly rose to a commanding position in the industry. He was atrade teacher and a trade builder. He had very definite ideas onroasting. He said: The object of roasting is not attained until all the moisture (water of vegetation) is driven off. Roast properly--uniformly and sufficiently--and you will get all the aroma there is in the bean. Coffees of various kinds can not be roasted to a uniform color. Some will be of a light shade when sufficiently roasted while others will have to be roasted dark to develop the aroma. Therefore, appearance alone is not a proper test. Aroma-saving devices have had their day. Coffee is of no use unless the aroma is fully developed, and the more it is developed by roasting the better it is. What passes off in the roasting process can not be saved and is so small that if all of it in the country could be collected and freed of all foreign matter, it would not weigh an ounce. Roast coffee over a slow fire so that it will be an hour before it has the color of roasted coffee, and, in contrast, produce in another batch of like quantity the same color in thirty minutes, and it will be found for all intended purposes, either to grind, sell or drink, that the latter will be, beyond all comparison, the best. Coffee should be roasted uniform and as quickly as possible, only it must not be scorched or spotted, otherwise it will have a bitter burned taste. If roasted properly it will very considerably increase its bulk and will be plump, swelled out and crisp; easily crushed in the hand or between the fingers. In his _Spice Mill Companion_, published in 1879, Jabez Burns saidfurther in regard to roasting: All coffees do not roast alike; some will be a bright light color when done, and others will be dark before done. There are two infallible rules, which if properly appreciated and tried will prove to be practically useful. One is, when the aroma is sufficiently developed to produce a sharp, cutting, but aromatic sensation in the nose. Those who practice that way do not need to see the roast. The other rule is that when a berry is broken it is crisp and uniform in color inside and out. Those who are accustomed to this method may be good coffee roasters, albeit they may not have any nose at all. But we must state in this connection, that a man who has no smell and is color blind is not a fit candidate for the coffee roasting profession; and, moreover, we affirm that any person who can not roast coffee, so far as judgment is concerned, after a few trials, will never make a good operator. [Illustration: BURNS GRANULATING MILL, 1872-74] In 1867, Jabez Burns was granted a United States patent on an improvedcoffee cooler, mixer, and grinding mill, or granulator. Anothergranulator patent was issued to him in 1872. Mr. Burns had also giventhe subject of cooling coffees considerable study, and his cooler wasthe result. He argued that it was necessary to cool quickly. Before hisday, various methods had been employed, such as placing the coffee inrevolving drums covered with wire cloth. Sometimes a draft of cold airwas applied to the cooling drums, and the dirt and chaff blown throughthe wire cloth. It was also customary in wholesale establishments toblow cold air up through a perforated bottom, and this had been foundeffective when properly applied. The Burns idea was to cool by means ofsuction, causing a downward draft through the coffee and wire-clothbottomed box, which was found to be more uniform and efficient forcooling purposes, as well as in controlling smoke, heat, and dust, whichby this means could be blown out of the roasting room by any convenientoutlet. On the subject of grinding, likewise, Mr. Burns had reached somedefinite conclusions. The French and English lap and wall mills, theEnglish steel mills, and the Swift mills were all used in the UnitedStates. Troemner's, the Enterprise, and others--to be mentioned later inchronological order--were extending their use in a retail way; but JabezBurns confined his attention to a practicable mill for wholesalegrinding establishments. For manufacturing purposes, burstone mills were for many yearsexclusively employed, especially one first known as the Prentiss & Page, and later as the Page mill. There was a time when all the coffeeestablishments in New York sent their coffee to Prentiss & Page to beground. Some of the places roasted by hand, others by horse power; andif by steam, it was limited, and they did not have enough to spare forgrinding. With the march of improvement, burstone mills went into the discard. Thedifficulty lay in finding men experienced in stone dressing to run them;and the demand grew for a better style of grinding than could be done ina mill out of face and balance. This demand was met in an altogetherdifferent style of machine, which for twenty-five years was well knownas the Barbor mill. It was for improvements on this mill that JabezBurns in 1867, 1872, and 1874 obtained his granulator patents. The mill comprised cutters in the form of an iron roller running in nearcontact with a concave, also of iron, and a revolving cylinder providedwith sieves, or screens, that received the ground material, rolled itover the wire surface, sifting out the fine and discharging the coarseautomatically into the cutter, to be again manipulated until it was fineenough to pass through the meshes of the screen. Jabez Burns patented an improved form of his roaster in 1881, and asample-coffee roaster in 1883, before he died in 1888; and since thattime his sons, who continue the business, have perfected a number ofimprovements and brought out new machines which will be referred to inchronological order. James H. Nason, of Franklin, Mass. , was granted a United States patentin 1865 on a percolator with fluid joints. P. H. Vanderweyde, of Philadelphia, was granted United States patents in1866 on a percolator and a continuous coffee-filtering machine. Raparlier was granted a French patent on a pocket coffee-making devicein 1867. In later years, his invention became very popular among Frenchcoffee drinkers. It was one of the early practicable forms ofdouble-glass-globe filtration devices. E. B. Manning of Middletown, Conn. , was granted his first patent on a teaand coffee pot in 1868. Others followed in 1870 and 1876. In the latteryear, John Bowman brought out the valve-type percolator whichsubsequently attained great favor in American households. Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Company, Ltd. , successors) began tomanufacture at Glasgow, Scotland, about 1870, the Napierian vacuumcoffee machine which had been invented in 1840--but never patented--byRobert Napier of the celebrated firm of Clyde shipbuilders. This machinemakes coffee by distillation and filtration. It employs a metal globe, and a brewer from which the coffee is syphoned over into the globethrough a tube, around the strainer-end of which, as it rests in thecoffee liquid in the brewer, there is tied a filter cloth. It is stillbeing manufactured by Elkington & Company. [Illustration: NAPIER'S VACUUM MACHINE, 1840] Thomas Page, a New York millwright, began the manufacture of a pull-outcoffee roaster similar to the old Carter machine, in 1868. Later, ChrisAbele, who was foreman in the Page shop, succeeded to the business; andin 1882, he was granted a United States patent on an improvement on acoffee roaster similar to the original Burns machine (the patent hadthen expired) which he marketed under the name of Knickerbocker. _German Coffee Machinery_ The Germans first began to show an active interest in coffee machineryin 1860. In that year, Alexius Van Gulpen, of Emmerich, produced agreen-coffee grader; and later (1868), in partnership with J. H. Lensingand Theodore von Gimborn, began the manufacture of coffee-roastingmachines. From this start there developed in Emmerich quite an industryin coffee-machinery building. In 1870, Alexius Van Gulpen introduced tothe German trade a globular coffee roaster employing wood and coke asfuel and having perforations and an exhauster. Van Gulpen and vonGimborn are the two names most often met with in the development ofGerman coffee-roasting machinery. The first recorded German patent on a coffee roaster was issued to G. Tubermann's Son in 1877, for "a coffee burner with vertically adjustedstirring works. " German patents were issued in 1878 to R. Muhlberg, ofTaucha, for coffee roasters with movable partitions and "screw-shapeddeclining walls. " Six roaster patents were issued to other inventors in1878-79. Peter Pearson, of Manchester, took out a German patent on acoffee-roasting apparatus in 1880. Fleury & Barker, of London, weregranted a coffee-roaster patent in Germany in 1881. After 1870, Van Gulpen devoted himself to the cylinder type of roaster, on which he obtained several patents. The partnership between Messrs. Van Gulpen, Lensing and von Gimborn was dissolved in 1906. They weresucceeded by the Emmericher Maschinenfabrik und Eissengiesserei, and VanGulpen & Co. Van Gulpen died in 1920. Among his inventions were acircular air fan to supply fresh air to the beans while roasting; afire-dampening device; roasting and cooling exhausters; and a"withdrawable" mixer remaining inside the cylinder during the roastingprocess, but designed to be withdrawn at the end, discharging thecontents with a jerk into a circular cooler. These improvements arefeatured in Van Gulpen & Co. 's latest Meteor machine. They make also theTyphoon and Comet machines, and a line of globular roasters. A dozen coffee-roaster patents were issued in Germany in 1880-82. Amongthem was one to the Emmerich Machine Factory and Iron Foundry, VanGulpen, Lensing & von Gimborn, Emmerich, in 1882. [Illustration: GERMAN GAS AND COAL ROASTING MACHINES Left, Perfekt gas roaster--Right, Probat coal roaster] Numerous coffee-cooling, coffee-grinding, and coffee-making devices werepatented in Germany from 1877 to 1885; among them Newstadt'scoffee-extract machine in 1882, safety attachments, rapid filters, Vienna coffee makers, etc. The first Vienna coffee maker seems to havebeen patented in Germany in 1879. The Emmerich Machine Factory and Iron Foundry acquired certain Danishand Austrian coffee-roaster patents in 1881, and in 1892 it was granteda German patent on a ball roaster. In the eighties this concern beganthe manufacture of a closed ball, or globular, roaster with gas-heaterattachment. It acquired, in 1889, the rights for Germany to manufacturegas roasters under the Dutch Henneman patents of 1888. In 1892, Theodorevon Gimborn was granted French and English patents on a coffee roasteremploying a naked gas flame in a rotary cylinder. In 1897, theEmmericher concern was granted a German patent on an automatic circulartipping cooler with power drive. Today, this factory features the Probatand Perfekt roasters, but manufactures a general line of cylinder andball machines for coal, coke, and gas. Among others engaged in the manufacture of coffee machines in Germanyare G. W. Barth, Ludwigsburg, and Ferd. Gothot, Mulheim on Rhur. Thelatter manufactures a coke or gas heated quick-roaster known as theIdeal-Rapid, and a smaller hand-power machine, of the same type, calledFavour. [Illustration: OTHER GERMAN COFFEE ROASTERS Left, globular machine--Right, Meteor quick-roasting outfit] _American, French, and British Machines_ In 1869, Élie Moneuse and L. Duparquet, of New York, were granted threeUnited States patents on a coffee pot or urn made of sheet copper andlined with pure sheet block tin. These patents were the foundation ofthe successful coffee-urn business afterward built up under the name ofthe Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co. Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Co. , Ltd. , successors) began, in 1870, the manufacture of the Napierian coffee-making machine at Glasgow, Scotland. This was a device for making coffee by distillation, employinga metal globe syphon and brewer with filter cloth. The principle wassubsequently used in the Napier-List steam coffee machine for ships andinstitutions, patented in England in 1891. John Gulick Baker, of Philadelphia, one of the founders of theEnterprise Manufacturing Co. Of Pennsylvania, was granted a UnitedStates patent in 1870, on a coffee grinder introduced to the trade asthe Enterprise Champion No. 1 store mill. Another Baker patent wasgranted in 1873, and this became known as the Enterprise Champion GlobeNo. 0. These mills were the pioneer machines for store use. In 1870, Delphine, Sr. , of Marourme, France, was granted a French patenton a tubular coffee roaster which turned over a flame. In the sixties and seventies, French inventors became quite active oncoffee-roaster improvements. Many patents were granted, and quite a fewwere for practical small-capacity machines that have survived, and arein use today in France and on the continent. Some supplied inspirationfor inventors in neighboring countries. Among the more notable names, mention should be made of Martin, of St. Quentin, who produced asheet-iron cylinder roaster with "interior gatherer" in 1860; Marchand, of Paris, "fan roaster with movable fire box, " 1866 and 1869; Lauzaune, Paris, "rocking system of roasting coffee in a round stove, " 1873;Ittel's glass sphere, Lyons, 1874; and Marchand and Hignette, Paris, 1877, a ball coffee roaster. _Evolution of the Gas Roaster_ According to the patent records, Roure, of Marseilles, appears to haveproduced the original gas coffee roaster in 1877. The evolution of thegas roasting-machine was as follows: In 1879, H. Faulder, of Stockport, England, obtained an English patenton an external air-blast burner applied to a cylinder gas machine, whichis still being manufactured by the Grocers Engineering and Whitmee, Ltd. , of London. Fleury and Barker, of London, followed with anotherEnglish gas machine in 1880, the heat being supplied from gas jets overthe roasting cylinder. In 1881, Peter Pearson, of Manchester, produced agas roaster which consisted of a wire-gauze cylinder revolving under ametal plate heated by gas. [Illustration: ORIGINAL ENTERPRISE MILL] Beeston Tupholme, of London, was granted an English patent in 1887, on adirect-flame gas roaster which he assigned to Joseph Baker & Sons. Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Netherlands, took out his first patent onthe Henneman direct-flame gas roaster in Spain in 1888; and thefollowing year, he obtained patents in Belgium, France, and England. HisUnited States patents were granted in 1893-95. Postulart secured a patent in France for a gas coffee roaster in 1888. The Germans also began, in the eighties, to take the quick gas coffeeroaster seriously. In 1889, Carl Alexander Otto, of Dresden, secured aGerman patent on a spiral tubular machine to roast coffee in three and ahalf minutes. It was first manufactured and sold by Max Thurmer, ofDresden, in 1891-93. [Illustration: MAX THURMER'S QUICK GAS ROASTER] [Illustration: LOADING COFFEE ON ZAMBOEKS AT HODEIDA These boats then transfer their cargoes to steamships lying in theroads] [Illustration: PICTURESQUE CAMEL AND BULLOCK CARTS Used for local coffee transport in Aden and Hodeida] [Illustration: PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION METHODS IN ARABIA] The subject of quick roasting has greatly agitated German and Frenchcoffee men. Otto found that coffee roasted in small quantities (sayfifty grams) on a sample-roaster produced a finer flavor and aroma thanthat roasted in the big machines. He set out to produce a machine thatwould roast continuous small quantities in the shortest time. He builtthe first commercial machine under his patent in 1893. It was shown atthe International Food Exhibition in Dresden in 1894. The latest typemanufactured by Max Thurmer, Dresden, in which firm Otto is a partner, has a spiral five meters long and an hourly production of about 450pounds. The Thurmer machine, as it is called, has been sold to the tradesince 1914. Quick roasting is gone in for quite extensively in Germany, even in thebig trade-roasting plants, where machines to roast in ten to seventeenminutes are common. Natural, slow cooling is most necessary with quickroasting, according to Thurmer. On the other hand, A. Mottant, of Paris, who also manufactures a line of quick gas-roasting machines, calledMagic, argues that quick cooling is essential after quick roasting. Three of the Mottant machines are illustrated on pages 642 and 644. Other quick-roasting machines of German make are the Combinator, Tornado, and Rekord. In a lecture before the Society of Medical Officers of Health, London, October 24, 1912, William Lawton demonstrated to the satisfaction of hisaudience that coffee could be roasted in 3 minutes, using a perforatedgas-roaster of his own invention. [365] The first direct-flame gas coffee roaster in America was installed inthe plant of the Potter-Parlin Co. , New York, by F. T. Holmes, in 1893. This was Tupholme's machine, patented in England in 1887, and in theUnited States in 1896-97. The Potter-Parlin Co. Subsequently placed theTupholme machines throughout the United States on a daily rental basis, limiting its leases to one firm in a city, having obtained the exclusiveAmerican rights from the Waygood, Tupholme Co. , now the GrocersEngineering and Whitmee, Ltd. [Illustration: AN ENGLISH GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT The machines are the Morewood (Improved Faulder) sliding-burner indirecttype] Natural gas was first used in the United States as fuel for roastingcoffee in 1896, when it was introduced under coal roasting cylinders inPennsylvania and Indiana by improvised gas burners. [Illustration: FRENCH GLOBULAR ROASTER] Edwin Crawley and W. T. Johnston, Newport, Ky. , assignors to thePotter-Parlin Co. , New York, were granted four United States patents ongas coffee-roasting machines. In 1897, a special gas burner, not to be confused with the direct-flamemachine, was first attached to a regular Burns roaster in the UnitedStates, and was made the basis of application for a patent. In 1897-99, David B. Fraser, of New York, began to market in the UnitedStates a central-heated gas-fuel machine with an inner wire-clothcylinder to keep the coffee from dropping into the flame, developedunder United States patents granted to Carl H. Duehring, of Hoboken, in1897, and to D. B. Fraser in 1899. M. F. Hamsley, of Brooklyn, was granted a United States patent on animproved direct-flame gas roaster in 1898. Ellis M. Potter, New York, was granted in 1899, a United States patenton an improved direct-flame gas roaster in which the flame was spreadover a large area to avoid scorching and to insure a more thorough anduniform roast. In the Tupholme machine, the gas flame entered at oneend, and the smoke and flame went out through a stack on top. In thePotter machine, the stack was put on the end opposite the gas intake, with a fan to pull the flame all the way through. The Burns direct-flame gas roaster, with patented swing-gate head forfeeding and discharging, was introduced to the trade in 1900. The Burnsgas sample-roaster followed. In 1901, Joseph Lambert, of Marshall, Mich. , introduced to the trade oneof the earliest indirect gas roasting machines. In 1901, also, T. C. Morewood, of Brentford, England, was granted anEnglish patent on a gas roaster fitted with a sliding burner and aremovable sampling tube. This machine is now being made by the GrocersEngineering and Whitmee, Ltd. In the same year, 1901, F. T. Holmes, formerly with the Potter-ParlinCo. , joined the Huntley Manufacturing Co. , Silver Creek, N. Y. , whichthen began to build the Monitor direct-flame gas coffee roaster. Mr. Holmes still further improved the Tupholme idea by putting gas burnersin both ends of the roasting cylinder, with the pipes bent down so as tocause the gas flame to go first to the bottom and then up to the stackon top. This improvement was never patented. [Illustration: SIROCCO MACHINE (FRENCH)] The Henneman direct-flame gas roaster was introduced to the UnitedStates trade in 1905, by C. A. Cross & Co. , wholesale grocers, ofFitchburg, Mass. It was marketed here seven years, but was never agreat success. [Illustration: ENGLISH ROASTING AND GRINDING EQUIPMENT Showing one 168-pound Simplex gas roaster, with a Rapid disk grindingmachine having a capacity of 300 to 400 pounds per hour] In 1906, F. T. Holmes was granted a United States patent on a coffeeroaster which he assigned to the Huntley Manufacturing Co. J. C. Prims, of Battle Creek, Mich. , was granted a United States patentin 1908, on a corrugated cylinder improvement for a gas and coal roasterdesigned for retail stores. The A. J. Deer Co. , Hornell, N. Y. , acquiredthis machine in 1909, and began to market it as the Royal coffeeroaster. An improvement patented in 1915 by J. C. Prims was assigned tothe A. J. Deer Co. In 1915, and again in 1919, Jabez Burns & Sons, New York, patented theirJubilee roaster, an inner-heated machine in which the gas is burnedinside a revolving cylinder in a combustion chamber protected fromdirect coffee contact. The heat is deflected downward and then passesupward through the coffee. In 1919, William Fullard (_d. _ 1921), of Philadelphia, was granted aUnited States patent on a "heated fresh air system" roaster, in whichthe fresh air is forced by an electric fan through a pipe to a set ofcoils over gas, coal, or oil flame. At the top of the coils is amanifold, the hot air being forced through small holes to circulate inand around a regulation perforated roasting cylinder; the vapors andspent air are then drawn into an overhead exhaust pipe that connectswith a pipe provided with a fresh-air intake, the idea being to returnthem to the roasting cylinder after being mixed with fresh air andheated in the coils as before. This patent has not been successfullymarketed at the time of writing. The purpose is to roast by heated airnot mixed with any furnace gases. Whether this can be done withsufficient fuel economy, and whether coffee thus roasted would have anygreater value, are questions that are raised by the coffee experts. _Coffee-Grinding and Coffee-Making Chronology_ To return to our coffee-grinding and coffee-making chronology, it is tobe noted that in 1875-76-78, Turner Strowbridge, of New Brighton, Pa. , was granted three United States patents on a box coffee mill, first madeby Logan & Strowbridge, later the Logan & Strowbridge Iron Company, thelatter being succeeded by the Wrightsville Hardware Co. In 1906. [Illustration: MAGIC GAS MACHINE (FRENCH)] In 1878, a United States patent was issued to Rudolphus L. Webb, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain, Conn. , on an improvedbox coffee grinder for home use. In 1878, and in 1880, United States patents were issued to John C. Dellof Philadelphia on a store coffee mill. In 1879, and in 1880, United States patents were issued to Orson W. Stowe, of the Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Co. , Southington, Conn. , on ahousehold coffee mill. In 1879, Charles Halstead, of New York, was granted the first UnitedStates patent on a metal coffee pot having a china interior. It was aninfuser for home use. In 1880, coffee pots, with tops having muslin bottoms for clarifying andstraining, were first made in the United States by the Duparquet, Huot &Moneuse Co. , of New York. The name Hungerford first appears in the United States patent records in1880-81, in connection with patents granted to G. W. And G. S. Hungerfordon machines for cleaning, scouring, and polishing coffee. In 1882, theHungerfords, father and son, brought out a roaster. This machine and theone patented by Chris Abele, of New York, already referred to, wereconstructions resulting from the expiration of the original Burns patentof 1864. In 1881, Jabez Burns patented the improved Burns roaster, comprising a turn-over front head serving for both feeding anddischarging. Additional United States coffee-roaster patents were issuedto G. W. Hungerford in 1887-89. In the latter year, David Fraser, whocame to the United States from Glasgow in 1886, established theHungerford Co. , succeeding the business of the Hungerfords, and laterbeing granted certain United States patents, already mentioned. In 1910, the Hungerford Co. Business was discontinued in New York; and David B. Fraser moved to Jersey City, where he continued to operate as the FraserManufacturing Co. This business was discontinued in 1918. Chris Abele was an active competitor of the Hungerfords and of theFraser Manufacturing Co. ; and his Knickerbocker roaster was sold over awide territory. He died in 1910; and his son-in-law, Gottfried Bay, succeeded to the business. [Illustration: BURNS JUBILEE GAS MACHINE] In 1881, the Morgan Brothers, Edgar H. And Charles, began themanufacture of household coffee mills, the business being acquired in1885 by the Arcade Manufacturing Co. , of Freeport, Ill. The latterconcern brought out the first pound coffee mill in 1889. Its millsbecame very popular in the United States. In 1900, Charles Morgan wasgranted a United States patent on a glass-jar coffee mill, withremovable glass measuring cup. [Illustration: DOUBLE AROMATIC GAS ROASTING OUTFIT (FRENCH)] In 1881, Harvey Ricker, of Brooklyn, later of Minneapolis, introduced tothe trade in the United States a "minute coffee pot" and urn known asthe Boss, the name being subsequently changed to Minute. He improved andpatented the device in 1901 as the Half-Minute coffee pot. It is afiltration device employing a cotton sack with a thickened bottom. In 1882, Chris Abele, of New York, patented an improvement on theold-style Burns roaster, with openings cut in the front plate. It wasknown as the Knickerbocker. As already noted, the machine was acompetitor of the Hungerford machine patented the same year. In 1882, a German patent was granted to Emil Newstadt, of Berlin, on oneof the earliest coffee-extract machines. In 1883, Jabez Burns was granted a United States patent on his improvedsample-coffee roaster. In 1884, the Star coffee pot, later known as the Marion Harland, wasintroduced to the trade. It employed a wire-gauze drip device, called a"filter, " which was fitted to a metal pot. It was extensively advertisedand attained considerable popularity. The same year, Finley Acker, ofPhiladelphia, brought out an improved coffee pot for family trade. Later, he produced his Mo-Kof-Fee pot and an individual porcelain drippot for testing-table use. In 1885, F. A. Cauchois, New York, brought out an improvedporcelain-lined urn. In 1887-88, the Etruscan coffee pot was invented and put on the marketby the Etruscan Coffee Pot Co. , of Philadelphia. It employed a muslincylinder with metal ends and a mechanism for combining "agitation, distillation and infusion. " It was not unlike the Dakin device of 1848, previously mentioned. In 1890, A. Mottant, Bar-le-Duc, France, began to manufacture a line ofcoffee-roasting machinery which included vertical ball-and-cylindermachines, using wood, coal, coke, or gas for fuel. His best known makesare Magic and Sirocco (see page 642). Before 1895, the commercial roaster was little used in France. Sincethen, the industry has developed, but without displacing the smallerroaster for family use. Ball roasters are popular with shop-keepers, especially the variety manufactured by the Établissements Lauzaune atParis, and known as Aromatic, being equipped with electric motors. Thisfirm builds also a larger machine known as Moderne. Other makes of roasters that have attained prominence in France are theLambert, equipped with a steam condenser; Van den Brouck's, having theroasting cylinder lined with wire gauze; and Resson's machine forwholesale plants. The French led off with glass-cylinder roasters for home use in theearly seventies. They are still popular. One of the developments of thelast decade was known as the Bijou, and was operated by clock work. Asimilar automatic machine, made of glass, was manufactured and sold inNew York in 1908 under the name of the Home roaster. As late as 1914, anAmerican inventor produced a home roaster for use in a stove hole. Thisdevice had a stirrer in the cover to be rotated by hand. A similardevice was sold in 1917 under the name Savo. Home roasting, however, hasbecome a lost art in America. [Illustration: LAMBERT'S VICTORY GAS MACHINE] In 1897, Joseph Lambert, of Vermont, began the manufacture and sale inBattle Creek, Mich. , of the Lambert self-contained coffee roasterwithout the brick setting then required for coffee-roasting machines. In1900, he was joined by A. P. Grohens. In 1901, the Lambert Food andMachinery Co. Was organized. In 1904, the company was reorganized. Sincethen, many improvements have been made under Mr. Grohens' direction. TheLambert gas roaster, one of the first machines employing gas as fuel forindirect roasting, dates back to 1901, as previously mentioned. TheEconomic roaster is Mr. Grohens' latest development for coal or cokefuel. It is a compact self-contained equipment operating in connectionwith a new-type rotary cooler. He has also recently (1922) brought out agas-fired, electrically operated 600-pound Victory roaster and afifty-pound miniature coffee-roasting plant designed for retail stores. In 1897, the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. Of Pennsylvania was the firstregularly to employ electric motors for driving commercial coffee millsby means of belt-and-pulley attachments. In 1898, the Hobart Manufacturing Co. , of Troy, Ohio, introduced to thetrade another early coffee grinder connected with an electric motor anddriven by belt-and-pulley attachment. In 1900, the first gear-driven electric coffee grinder was put on themarket by the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. Of Pennsylvania. In 1902, the Coles Manufacturing Co. , (Braun Co. , successor) and HenryTroemner, of Philadelphia, began the manufacture and sale of gear-drivenelectric coffee grinders. In 1905, the A. J. Deer Co. , Buffalo, N. Y. , (now at Hornell, N. Y. ) beganto sell its Royal electric coffee mills direct to dealers on theinstalment plan, revolutionizing the former practise of selling coffeemills through hardware jobbers. In 1905, H. L. Johnston was granted a United States patent on a coffeemill. He assigned the patent to the Hobart Manufacturing Co. In 1900, Charles Lewis was granted a United States patent on an improvedreversible filtration coffee pot known as the Kin-Hee. This pot hassince been further improved, and the patent rights sold in severalforeign countries. It employs a filter cloth in place of the metal orchina strainer used in the French drip pot. In 1901, Landers, Frary & Clark's improved Universal percolator waspatented in the United States. This pot has proved to be one of the mostpopular percolators on the American market. This firm brought out theUniversal Cafenoira, a double glass filtration device, in 1916. It iscovered by design and structural patents issued in 1916 and 1917. In 1900, the Burns swing-gate sample-roasting outfit was patented in theUnited States. In 1901, Robert Burns, of New York, was granted two United Statespatents on a coffee roaster and cooler. In 1901, Freidrich Kuchelmeister, Brux, Austria-Hungary, was granted aUnited States patent on a coffee roaster having a double-walled drum, the inner being of wire gauze, and the outer of solid iron, designed toprevent scorching of the beans. In 1902, W. M. Still & Sons, London, were granted an English patent on asteam coffee-making machine employing twelve ounces of coffee to thegallon. In 1902, T. K. Baker, of Minneapolis, was granted two United Statespatents on a cloth-filter coffee-making device. In 1903, A. E. Bronson, Jr. , assignor to the Bronson-Walton Company, Cleveland, Ohio, was granted a United States patent on a coffee mill. In 1903, John Arbuckle was granted a United States patent on acoffee-roasting apparatus employing a fan to force the hot fire gasesinto the roasting cylinder. From this was developed the Jumbo roaster, now used in the Arbuckle plant, which roasts ten thousand pounds anhour. _Electric Coffee-Roasting_ In 1903, George C. Lester, of New York, was granted a United Statespatent on an electric coffee roaster, that is, a machine to roast byelectric heat. There were two cylinders, the inner being of wire gauze, and the outer of copper and asbestos. Between the two, four electricheaters were placed. There was demonstrated in Germany, in 1906, an electric coffee roasteremploying a number of resistance coils, consisting of strips of Kruppmetal two and one-half mm. Thick, five mm. Broad, and thirteen andone-half mm. Long, wound on porcelain tubes, which transmitted the heatto the air within the roasting cylinder. Analysis showed that coffeeelectrically roasted contained more substances soluble in water thanthat roasted by coke, as well as considerably more material soluble inether. This machine was invented by Captain Carl Moegling about 1900. [Illustration: ONE OF THE FIRST ELECTRIC COFFEE MILLS] Another electric-fuel-machine patent was granted in the United States toRobert H. Talbutt, of Baltimore, in 1911. This machine had the electricheater in the center of the roasting cylinder. An electrically heatedmachine called the Ben Franklin was demonstrated in New York in 1918. In 1919, Everett T. Shortt, Dallas, Tex. , was granted a United Statespatent on an electrical roaster. Up to the present writing, no great progress has been made in the UnitedStates with the roasting of coffee by electric heat. The Phoenix Electrical Heating Co. Manufactured, and the Uno Company, Ltd. , of London, marketed an electrically heated roaster as far back as1909. The machine was not altogether satisfactory, even to the makers;and the Uno Company is now (1922) experimenting with a new type ofelectric roaster which it expects will remedy the defects of the earlymachine. The 1909 roaster was made of two concentric cylinders revolvingaround a set of fixed heating elements, consisting of a series ofspiral wires held in position on fireproof clay insulators, these wiresbeing assembled, insulated, and brought out through the fixed center toa terminal, or a set of terminals, at one end. In this way, no contactbrushes or rings were needed. The machine had a sampling device at oneend which threw out a few berries each time it was operated. It was notpossible to return these sample berries. Such an arrangement appearednecessary, however, unless one was prepared to have the heating elementon the outside of the machine and to pick up the current by means ofrings or brushes. When the operator became accustomed to the coffee hewas roasting, this was not a matter of great moment, because in England, at least, the average coffee roaster does not require a testing sampleuntil he is about ready to turn out and to cool the roast. [Illustration: ENGLISH ELECTRIC-FUEL ROASTER] The Uno machine had a capacity of seven pounds, and the time occupied inroasting was from eight to ten minutes, depending on whether the roasterhad been freshly switched on or had been running for a few minutes. Thewattage was 5, 520. The consumption per hundred-weight was under thirteenunits. The makers gave, as the most economical pressure on which towork, 220 to 240 volts. The machine was operated for eighteen months inthe show window of a London retail grocer. In 1921, a United States patent was granted to Mark T. Seymour, Stowe, N. Y. , on an electric coffee and peanut roaster, which has the heatingelement embedded in a cement-lined cylinder that contains a roastingcage. In 1921, Fred J. Kuhlemeir and Ralph J. Quelle, of Burlington, Ia. , weregranted a United States patent on a small household coffee roasterelectrically equipped, and roasting by electric heat. _Other Machinery Patents_ In 1903, Luigi Giacomini, of Florence, Italy, was granted a UnitedStates patent on a process for roasting coffee. [Illustration: BEN FRANKLIN ELECTRIC COFFEE ROASTER] In 1905, A. A. Warner, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain, Conn. , was granted two United States patents on a coffee mill. In 1906, Ludwig Schmidt, assignor to the Essmueller Mill FurnishingCo. , St. Louis, was granted a United States patent on a coffee roaster. This company and the Reuter-Jones Manufacturing Co. , also of St. Louis, were making machines similar to the original Burns model. TheReuter-Jones Manufacturing Co. , in 1910, brought out a self-containedgas roaster called the St. Louis, Jr. In 1913, at a receiver's sale, A. P. Grohens, of the Lambert Machine Co. , acquired all the machinery andpatent rights of the Reuter-Jones Manufacturing Company. In 1904, J. W. Chapman and G. W. Kooman, assignors to Manning, Bowman &Co. , Meriden, Conn. , were granted a United States patent on a coffee ortea pot. The same year, George E. Savage and G. W. Hope were granted twoUnited States patents on coffee or tea pots, also assigned to Manning, Bowman & Co. In 1904, Sigmund Sternau, J. P. Steppe, and L. Strassberger, assignors toS. Sternau & Co. , New York, were granted a United States patent on apercolator. Six others were granted to Charles Nelson, and assigned toS. Sternau & Co. , in 1912 and 1913, for a percolator, the manufactureand sale of which were discontinued in 1915. In 1905, a celebrated case was decided in Kansas City involvinglitigation between William E. Baker, of Baker & Co. , Minneapolis, andthe F. A. Duncombe Manufacturing Co. , of St. Joseph, Mo. , over Mr. Baker's patent rights in a machine to produce steel-cut coffee. The suitwas brought in 1903, and Mr. Baker contended that his patent gave himthe exclusive right to the "uniformity of granules by means of thesharply dressed mechanism" and by the use of a fan for blowing away thesilver skins, produced by his machine; while the defendant said heobtained the same result (steel-cut coffee) by grading the granulesthrough screens or sieves. The defense was that Mr. Baker's process wasnot a discovery; because, grinding coffee was as old as the world'sknowledge, and winnowing the chaff was equally ancient. The lower courtdismissed the bill, because the "patents sued upon are devoid ofpatentable invention"; and the United States Court of Appeals confirmedthe decision. [Illustration: ENTERPRISE HAND STORE MILL] In 1905, Frederick A. Cauchois, of New York, brought out his PrivateEstate coffee maker, a clever combination of the French drip and filterprocesses, employing a thin layer of Japanese paper as a filteringagent. The same year, Finley Acker, of Philadelphia, was granted aUnited States patent on a percolator employing two cylinders, perforatedon the sides, with a sheet of percolator paper placed between them toact as a filtering medium. In 1906, George Savage and J. W. Chapman, assignors to Manning, Bowman &Co. Of Meriden, Conn. , were granted a United States patent on a coffeepercolator. In 1906, Alonzo A. Warner, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, NewBritain, Conn. , was granted a United States patent on a coffeepercolator. In 1906, H. D. Kelly, Kansas City, was granted a United States patent onthe Kellum Automatic coffee urn, employing a coffee extractor in whichground coffee is continually agitated before percolation by a vacuumprocess. Sixteen patents followed. [Illustration: LATEST TYPES OF ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN STORE MILLS] In 1907, Desiderio Pavoni, of Milan, Italy, was granted a patent inItaly for an improvement on the Bezzara system for preparing and servingcoffee as a rapid infusion of a single cup, first introduced in1903-1904. It is known as the Ideale urn, and makes 150 cups per hour. Among other Italian rapid coffee-making machines which, with this one, have attained considerable prominence in Europe and South America, mention should be made of La Victoria Arduino made by Pier TeresioArduino, of Turin, Italy, introduced in 1909, that makes 1000 cups perhour. It was patented in the United States in 1920. There are, also, L'Italiana Sovereign Filter Machine (1440 cups per hour) made by Bossi, Vernetti & Bartolini, Turin, (subsequently merged with La VictoriaArduino-Societa Anonima); and José Baro's Express, Buenos Aires, making600 cups an hour. [Illustration: THE IDEALE MACHINE (CENTER) MAKES 150 CUPS OF COFFEE ANHOUR. THE MACHINE AT THE LEFT MAKES 1, 000 CUPS AN HOUR A MACHINE OF THE TYPE OF THE ONE AT THE RIGHT WILL PRODUCE FROM 1, 440 TO1, 800 CUPS OF COFFEE AN HOUR TYPES OF ITALIAN RAPID COFFEE-MAKING MACHINES] In 1908, A. E. White, Chicago, was granted a United States patent on acoffee urn. He assigned it to the James Heekin Co. , of Cincinnati. In 1908, I. D. Richheimer, Chicago, introduced his Tricolator to thetrade and the consumer. This is an aluminum device to fit any coffeepot, combining French drip and filtration ideas, with Japanese paper asthe filtration medium. In 1908, an improved type of Burns roaster was patented in the UnitedStates. The improvement consisted of an open perforated cylinder withflexible back-head and balanced front bearing. The following year, theBurns tilting sample-roaster for gas or electric heating units waspatented. In 1909, Frederick A. Cauchois, of New York, was granted a United Statespatent on a coffee urn fitted with a centrifugal pump for repouring. In 1909, C. F. Blanke, of St. Louis, was granted two United Statespatents on a china coffee pot with a cloth filter, the sides tightly, and the bottom loosely, woven. In 1911, Edward Aborn, of New York, was granted a United States patenton his Make-Right coffee-filter device. This was later incorporated withimprovements in a Tru-Bru coffee pot, on which he was granted anotherpatent in 1920. In 1912, John E. King, of Detroit, was granted a United States patent onan improved coffee percolator for restaurants, employing a sheet offilter paper on a ring in a metal basket; the ring to be removed oncethe filter paper was in position on the perforated bottom plate of thepercolator basket. In 1913, F. F. Wear, Los Angeles, perfected a coffee-making device inwhich a metal perforated clamp was employed to apply a filter paper tothe under-side of an English earthenware adaptation of the French drippot. In 1912, William Lawton demonstrated in London a gas coffee roaster ofhis own invention, by means of which he roasted coffee "in suspension"to a light brown color in three minutes. [Illustration: SHOWING HOW THE ITALIAN RAPID COFFEE MACHINE WORKS Left, putting coffee in the filter--Center, applying filter tofaucet--Right, turning on water and steam to make the drink] Herbert L. Johnston, assignor to the Hobart Electric Manufacturing Co. , Troy, Ohio, was granted a United States patent on a machine for refiningcoffee in 1913. In 1914, the Phylax coffee maker, embodying an improvement on the Frenchdrip principle, was introduced to the trade. The process wasdemonstrated by Benjamin H. Calkin, of Detroit, in 1921, as "an art ofbrewing coffee. " [Illustration: LA VICTORIA ARDUINO MIGNONNE An electric rapid coffee maker] In 1914, Robert Burns, assignor to Jabez Burns & Sons, New York, wasgranted a United States patent on a coffee-granulating mill. In 1914-15, Herbert Galt, of Chicago, was granted three United Statespatents on the Gait coffee pot, made of aluminum, and having two parts, a removable cylinder employing the French drip principle, and thecontaining pot. In 1915, the Burns Jubilee (inner-heated) gas coffee roaster waspatented in the United States and put on the market. In 1915, the National Coffee Roasters Association Home coffee mill, employing an improved set screw operating on a cog-and ratchetprinciple, was introduced to the trade. In 1916, a United States patent was granted to I. D. Richheimer, Chicago, for an infuser improvement on his Tricolator. In 1916, Saul Blickman, assignor to S. Blickman, New York, was granted aUnited States patent on an apparatus for making and dispensing coffee. In 1916, Orville W. Chamberlain, New Orleans, was granted a UnitedStates patent on an automatic drip coffee pot. In 1916, Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind. , obtained two United Statespatents on cutting rolls to cut--and not to grind or crush--corn, wheat, or coffee. These were subsequently incorporated in the Ideal steel-cutcoffee mill and marketed to the trade by the B. F. Gump Co. , Chicago. In 1917, Richard A. Greene and William G. Burns, assignors to JabezBurns & Sons, New York, were granted patents in the United States onthe Burns flexible-arm cooler (for roasted batches) providing fullfan-suction to a cooler box at all points in its track travel. In 1919, Joseph F. Smart, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, NewBritain, Conn. , was granted a United States patent on a percolator. In 1919, Charles Morgan, assignor to the Arcade Manufacturing Co. , Freeport, Ill. , was granted a United States patent on an improvedgrinding mill. In 1919, Edward F. Schnuck, assignor to Jabez Burns & Sons, New York, was granted a United States patent on an improvement for a gas coffeeroaster. In 1920, he was granted a United States patent on an improvedprocess of twice cutting coffee and removing the chaff after eachcutting. In 1920, Natale de Mattei, of Turin, Italy, was granted a United Statespatent on a rapid coffee-filtering machine. In 1920, Frederick H. Muller, of Chicago, was granted a United Statespatent on "an art of making coffee, " and on an improved apparatus forhotels and restaurants, which comprised a series of superposed metalcontainers, or cartridges, of ground coffee placed in a perforatedbucket designed to rest in a coffee urn, the cartridges being lifted outas the boiling water poured on them sinks with the drawing off of the"decoction" at the faucet. [Illustration: THE N. C. R. A. HOME COFFEE MILL] [Illustration: THE MANTHEY-ZORN RAPID COFFEE INFUSER AND DISPENSER] In 1920, Alfredo M. Salazar, of New York, was granted a United Statespatent on a coffee urn in which the coffee is made at the time ofserving by using steam pressure to force the boiling water throughground coffee held in a cloth sack attached to the faucet. In 1920, William H. Bruning, Evansville, Ind. , was granted a UnitedStates patent on an improved French drip pot made of aluminum andprovided with a vacuum jacket in the dripper section, and a hot-waterjacket in the serving portion, to keep the beverage hot. In 1921, the Manthey-Zorn Laboratories Co. , of Cleveland, brought out arapid coffee-infuser and dispenser employing in the infuser acentrifugal to make an extract in thirty-eight seconds, and designed todeliver a gallon of concentrated liquid, or coffee base, every threeminutes. The dispenser automatically combines the coffee base withboiling water in a differential faucet in the proportion desired, usually one of base to four of water. The dispenser serves 600 cups perhour. An additional faucet may be added which will double the capacity. [Illustration: THE TRICOLETTE, A PAPER-FILTER DEVICE FOR A SINGLE CUP Above; In position on cup--Below; opened, showing parts] Among foreign coffee makers applying the French drip principle, theVienna coffee-making machine, known in the United States as the Bohemiancoffee pot, has met with much favor in this country. Elsewhere it isknown as the Carlsbad. It is made of china, and the Europeanmanufacturer has a patent on the porcelain strainer, or grid, which isprovided with slits that are very fine on the inner side but that widenon the outer side to permit careful straining and to facilitatecleaning. Some of the latest developments in coffee apparatus were shown at theindustrial exposition at the National Coffee Roasters Association, heldin New York, November 1-3, 1921. Among items of distinction notheretofore included in this work, mention should be made of: anAmerican-French coffee biggin, being a French drip pot made of Americanporcelain and fitted with a muslin strainer; a glass urn-liner, intendedto supplant the porcelain liner; and an electric repouring pump, designed to be attached to any type of coffee urn. Careful research of the records of the United States patent officediscloses that the number of patents relating to coffee apparatus andcoffee preparations, issued from 1789 to 1921, is as follows: UNITED STATES COFFEE PATENTS _Devices_ _Patents_Coffee Mills 185Coffee-roasting devices, and improvements thereon 312Coffee-making devices 835Coffee-cleaning, hulling, drying, polishing, and plantation machinery in general 175Miscellaneous patents (for coating, glazing, treated coffees, substitutes, etc. ) 300 ________ Total 1, 807 It must be borne in mind that there was a number of patents granted onmachines that were intended for, and used for, coffee, but that did notmention coffee in the specifications. Many coffee driers were listed as"grain driers, " for instance. Also, many excellent devices have beenmade that were never patented. [Illustration] CHAPTER XXXV WORLD'S COFFEE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS _How coffee is roasted, prepared, and served in all the leading civilized countries--The Arabian coffee ceremony--The present-day coffee houses of Turkey--Twentieth-century improvements in Europe and the United States_ Coffee manners and customs have shown little change in the Orient in thesix hundred-odd years since the coffee drink was discovered by SheikOmar in Arabia. As a beverage for western peoples, however, and moreparticularly in America, there have been many improvements in making andserving it. A brief survey of the coffee conventions and coffee service in theprincipal countries where coffee has become a fixed item in the dietaryis presented here, with a view to show how different peoples haveadapted the universal drink to their national needs and preferences. To proceed in alphabetical order, and beginning with Africa, coffeedrinking is indulged in largely in Abyssinia, Algeria, Egypt, PortugueseEast Africa, and the Union of South Africa. _Coffee Manners and Customs in Africa_ In Abyssinia and Somaliland, among the native population, the mostprimitive methods of coffee making still obtain. Here the wanderingGalla still mix their pulverized coffee beans with fats as a foodration, and others of the native tribes favor the _kisher_, or beveragemade from the toasted coffee hulls. An hour's boiling produces astraw-colored decoction, of a slightly sweetish taste. Where the Arabiancustoms have taken root, the drink is prepared from the roasted beansafter the Arabian and Turkish method. The white inhabitants usuallyprepare and serve the beverage as in the homeland; so that it ispossible to obtain it after the English, French, German, Greek, orItalian styles. Adaptations of the French sidewalk café, and of theTurkish coffee house, may be seen in the larger towns. In the equatorial provinces of Egypt, and in Uganda, the natives eat theraw berries; or first cook them in boiling water, dry them in the sun, and then eat them. It is a custom to exchange coffee beans in friendlygreeting. Individual earthen vessels for making coffee, painted red and yellow, are made by some of the native tribes in Abyssinia, and usuallyaccompany disciples of Islam when they journey to Mecca, where thevessels find a ready sale among the pilgrims, most of whom arecoffee-devotees. Turkish and Arabian coffee customs prevail in Algeria and Egypt, modified to some extent by European contact. The Moorish cafés of Cairo, Tunis, and Algiers have furnished inspiration and copy for writers, artists, and travelers for several centuries. They change little withthe years. The _mazagran_--sweetened cold coffee to which water or icehas been added--originated in Algeria. It probably took its name fromthe fortress of the same name reserved to France by the treaty of theTafna in 1837. It is said that the French colonial troops were firstserved with a drink made from coffee syrup and cold water on marchesnear Mazagran, formerly spelled Masagran. Upon their return to theFrench capital, they introduced the idea, with the added fillip ofservice in tall glasses, in their favorite cafés, where it became knownas _café mazagran_. Variants are coffee syrup with seltzer, and withhot water. "This fashion of serving coffee in glasses", says Jardin, "has no _raison d'être_, and nothing can justify abandoning the cup forcoffee. " [Illustration: MOORISH COFFEE HOUSE IN ALGIERS] In the principal streets and public squares of any town in Algeria it isa common sight to find a group of Arabs squatting about a portablestove, and a table on which cups are in readiness to receive the boilingcoffee. The thirsty Arab approaches the dealer, and for a modest sum hegets his drink and goes his way; unless he prefers to go inside thecafé, where he may get several drinks and linger over them, sitting on amat with his legs crossed and smoking his _chibouque_. Indeed, this is atypical scene throughout the Near East, where sheds or coffeetents--sketches of the more pretentious coffee houses--coffee shops, anditinerant coffee-venders are to be met at almost every turn. In an unpublished work, Baron Antoine Rousseau and Th. Roland de Bussyhave the following description of a typical Moorish café at Algiers: We entered without ceremony into a narrow deep cave, decorated with the name of the café. On the right and on the left, along its length, were two benches covered with mats; notched cups, tongs, a box of brown sugar, all placed near a small stove, completed the furniture of the place. In the evening, the dim light from a lamp hanging from the ceiling shows the indistinct figures of a double row of natives listening to the nasal cadences of a band who play a pizzicato accompaniment on small three-stringed violins. Here, as in Europe, the cafés are the providential rendezvous for idlers and gossips, exchanges for real-estate brokers and players at cards. Europeans recently arrived frequent them particularly. Some go only to satisfy their curiosity; others out of an inborn scorn for the customs of civilization. They go to sleep as Frenchmen, they awake Mohammedans! Their love for "Turkish art" only leads them to haunt the native shops and to affect oriental poses. If we quit for a moment the interior of the city to follow between two hedgerows of mastics or aloes, one of those capricious paths which lead one, now up to the summit of a hill, now to the depths of some ravine, very soon the tones of a rustic flute, the modulations of the _Djou-wak_, will betray some cool and peaceful retreat, some rustic café, easily recognized by its facade, pierced with large openings. To my eyes, nothing equals the charm of these little buildings scattered here and there along the edges of a stream, sheltered under the thick foliage, and constantly enlivened by the coming and going of the husbandmen of the neighborhood. Certain old Moors from the neighboring districts, fleeing the noises of the city, are the faithful habitués of these agreeable retreats. Here they instal themselves at dawn, and know how to enjoy every moment of their day with tales of their travels and youthful adventures, and many a legend for which their imagination takes all the responsibility. [Illustration: COFFEE HOUSE IN CAIRO] [Illustration: HULLING COFFEE IN ADEN, ARABIA] Gérôme's painting of the "Coffee House at Cairo, " which hangs in theMetropolitan Museum of Art, New York, gives one a good idea of theatmosphere of the Egyptian café. The preparation and service is modifiedTurkish-Arabian. The coffee is ground to a powder, boiled in an _ibrik_with the addition of sugar, and served frothing in small cups. Story-tellers, singers, and dancers furnish amusement as of yore. TheOriental customs have not changed much in this respect. Trolley cars, victorias, and taxis may have replaced the donkeys in the new sectionsof the larger Egyptian cities; but in old Alexandria and Cairo, theapproach to the native coffee house is as dirty and as odorous as ever. Coffee is always served in all business transactions. Nowadays, theEgyptian women chew gum and the men smoke cigarettes, French departmentstores offer bargain sales, and the hotels advertise tea dances; but theEgyptian coffee drink is still the tiny cup of coffee grounds and sugarthat it was three hundred years ago, when sugar was first used tosweeten coffee in Cairo. [Illustration: COFFEE SERVICE AT A BARBER SHOP IN CAIRO] In Portuguese East Africa, the natives prepare and drink coffee afterthe approved African native fashion, but the white population followsEuropean customs. In the Union of South Africa, Dutch and Englishcustoms prevail in making and serving the beverage. _Manners and Customs in Asia_ "Arabia the Happy" deserves to be called "the Blest", if only for itsgift of coffee to the world. Here it was that the virtues of the drinkwere first made known; here the plant first received intensivecultivation. After centuries of habitual use of the beverage, we findthe Arabs, now as then, one of the strongest and noblest races of theworld, mentally superior to most of them, generally healthy, and growingold so gracefully that the faculties of the mind seldom give way soonerthan those of the body. They are an ever living earnest of thehealthfulness of coffee. The Arabs are proverbially hospitable; and the symbol of theirhospitality for a thousand years has been the great drink ofdemocracy--coffee. Their very houses are built around the cup of humanbrotherhood. William Wallace, [366] writing on Arabian philosophy, manners, and customs, says: The principal feature of an Arab house is the _kahwah_ or coffee room. It is a large apartment spread with mats, and sometimes furnished with carpets and a few cushions. At one end is a small furnace or fireplace for preparing coffee. In this room the men congregate; here guests are received, and even lodged; women rarely enter it, except at times when strangers are unlikely to be present. Some of these apartments are very spacious and supported by pillars; one wall is usually built transversely to the compass direction of the _Ka'ba_ (sacred shrine of Mecca). It serves to facilitate the performance of prayer by those who may happen to be in the _kahwah_ at the appointed times. Several rounds of coffee, without milk or sugar, but sometimes flavoredwith cardamom seeds, are served to the guest at first welcome; andcoffee may be had at all hours between meals, or whenever the occasiondemands it. Always the beans are freshly roasted, pounded, and boiled. The Arabs average twenty-five to thirty cups (findjans) a day. Everywhere in Arabia there are to be found cafés where the beverage maybe bought. [Illustration: SHIPS OF THE DESERT LADEN WITH COFFEE, ARABIA] Those of the lower classes are thronged throughout the day. In front, there is generally a porch or bench where one may sit. The rooms, benches, and little chairs lack the cleanliness and elegance of theone-time luxurious "_caffinets_" of cities like Damascus andConstantinople, but the drink is the same. There is not in all Yemen asingle market town or hamlet where one does not find upon some simplehut the legend, "Shed for drinking coffee". The Arab drinks water before taking coffee, but never after it. "Once inSyria", says a traveler, "I was recognized as a foreigner because Iasked for water just after I had taken my coffee. 'If you belongedhere', said the waiter, 'you would not spoil the taste of coffee in yourmouth by washing it away with water. '" It is an adventure to partake of coffee prepared in the open, at aroadside inn, or khan, in Arabia by an _araba_, or diligence driver. Hetakes from his saddle-bag the ever-present coffee kit, containing hissupply of green beans, of which he roasts just sufficient on a littleperforated iron plate over an open fire, deftly taking off the beans, one at a time, as they turn the right color. Then he pounds them in amortar, boils his water in the long, straight-handled open boiler, or_ibrik_ (a sort of brass mug or _jezveh_), tosses in the coffee powder, moving the vessel back and forth from the fire as it boils up to therim; and, after repeating this maneuver three times, pours the contentsfoaming merrily into the little egg-like serving cups. _Cafée sultan_, or _kisher_, the original decoction, made from dried andtoasted coffee hulls, is still being drunk in parts of Arabia andTurkey. Coffee in Arabia is part of the ritual of business, as in other Orientalcountries. Shop-keepers serve it to the customer before the argumentstarts. Recently, a New York barber got some valuable publicity becausehe regaled his customers with tea and music. It was "old stuff". TheArabian and Turkish barber shops have been serving coffee, tobacco, andsweetmeats to their customers for centuries. [Illustration: AN ARABIAN COFFEE HOUSE] For a faithful description of the ancient coffee ceremony of the Arabs, which, with slight modification, is still observed in Arabian homes, weturn to Palgrave. First he describes the dwelling and then the ceremony: The K'hawah was a large oblong hall, about twenty feet in height, fifty in length, and sixteen, or thereabouts, in breadth; the walls were coloured in a rudely decorative manner with brown and white wash, and sunk here and there into small triangular recesses, destined to the reception of books, though of these Ghafil at least had no over-abundance, lamps, and other such like objects. The roof of timber, and flat; the floor was strewed with fine clean sand, and garnished all round alongside of the walls with long strips of carpet, upon which cushions, covered with faded silk, were disposed at suitable intervals. In poorer houses felt rugs usually take the place of carpets. In one corner, namely, that furthest removed from the door, stood a small fireplace, or, to speak more exactly, furnace, formed of a large square block of granite, or some other hard stone, about twenty inches each way; this is hollowed inwardly into a deep funnel, open above, and communicating below with a small horizontal tube or pipe-hole, through which the air passes, bellows-driven, to the lighted charcoal piled up on a grating about half-way inside the cone. In this manner the fuel is soon brought to a white heat, and the water in the coffee-pot placed upon the funnel's mouth is readily brought to boil. The system of coffee furnaces is universal in Djowf and Djebel Shomer, but in Nejed itself, and indeed in whatever other yet more distant regions of Arabia I visited to the south and east, the furnace is replaced by an open fireplace hollowed in the ground floor, with a raised stone border, and dog-irons for the fuel, and so forth, like what may be yet seen in Spain. This diversity of arrangement, so far as Arabia is concerned, is due to the greater abundance of firewood in the south, whereby the inhabitants are enabled to light up on a larger scale; whereas throughout the Djowf and Djebel Shomer wood is very scarce, and the only fuel at hand is bad charcoal, often brought from a considerable distance, and carefully husbanded. [Illustration: BREWING THE GUEST'S COFFEE IN A MOHAMMEDAN HOME] This corner of the K'hawah is also the place of distinction whence honour and coffee radiate by progressive degrees round the apartment, and hereabouts accordingly sits the master of the house himself, or the guests whom he more especially delighteth to honour. On the broad edge of the furnace or fireplace, as the case may be, stands an ostentatious range of copper coffee-pots, varying in size and form. Here in the Djowf their make resembles that in vogue at Damascus; but in Nejed and the eastern districts they are of a different and much more ornamental fashioning, very tall and slender, with several ornamental circles and mouldings in elegant relief, besides boasting long beak-shaped spouts and high steeples for covers. The number of these utensils is often extravagantly great. I have seen a dozen at a time in a row by one fireside, though coffee-making requires, in fact, only three at most. Here in the Djowf five or six are considered to be the thing; for the south this number must be doubled; all this to indicate the riches and munificence of their owner, by implying the frequency of his guests and the large amount of coffee that he is in consequence obliged to have made for them. Behind this stove sits, at least in wealthy houses, a black slave, whose name is generally a diminutive in token of familiarity or affection; in the present case it was Soweylim, the diminutive of Salim. His occupation is to make and pour out the coffee; where there is no slave in the family, the master of the premises himself, or perhaps one of his sons, performs that hospitable duty; rather a tedious one, as we shall soon see. We enter. On passing the threshold it is proper to say, "_Bismillah_, _i. E. _, in the name of God;" not to do so would be looked on as a bad augury alike for him who enters and for those within. The visitor next advances in silence, till on coming about half-way across the room, he gives to all present, but looking specially at the master of the house, the customary "_Es-salamu'aleykum_, " or "Peace be with you, " literally, "on you. " All this while every one else in the room has kept his place, motionless, and without saying a word. But on receiving the salaam of etiquette, the master of the house rises, and if a strict Wahhabee, or at any rate desirous of seeming such, replies with the full-length traditionary formula. "_W' 'aleykumu-s-salamu, w'rahmat' Ullahi w'barakátuh_, " which is, as every one knows, "And with (or, on) you be peace, and the mercy of God, and his blessings. " But should he happen to be of anti-Wahhabee tendencies the odds are that he will say "_Marhaba_, " or "_Ahlan w' sahlan_, " _i. E. _, "welcome" or "worthy, and pleasurable, " or the like; for of such phrases there is an infinite, but elegant variety. All present follow the example thus given, by rising and saluting. The guest then goes up to the master of the house, who has also made a step or two forwards, and places his open hand in the palm of his host's, but without grasping or shaking, which would hardly pass for decorous, and at the same time each repeats once more his greeting, followed by the set phrases of polite enquiry, "How are you?" "How goes the world with you?" and so forth, all in a tone of great interest, and to be gone over three or four times, till one or other has the discretion to say "_El hamdu l'illah_, " "Praise be to God", or, in equivalent value, "all right, " and this is a signal for a seasonable diversion to the ceremonious interrogatory. The guest then, after a little contest of courtesy, takes his seat in the honoured post by the fireplace, after an apologetical salutation to the black slave on the one side, and to his nearest neighbour on the other. The best cushions and newest looking carpets have been of course prepared for his honoured weight. Shoes or sandals, for in truth the latter alone are used in Arabia, are slipped off on the sand just before reaching the carpet, and there they remain on the floor close by. But the riding stick or wand, the inseparable companion of every true Arab, whether Bedouin or townsman, rich or poor, gentle or simple, is to be retained in the hand, and will serve for playing with during the pauses of conversation, like the fan of our great-grandmothers in their days of conquest. Without delay Soweylim begins his preparations for coffee. These open by about five minutes of blowing with the bellows and arranging the charcoal till a sufficient heat has been produced. Next he places the largest of the coffee-pots, a huge machine, and about two-thirds full of clear water, close by the edge of the glowing coal-pit, that its contents may become gradually warm while other operations are in progress. He then takes a dirty knotted rag out of a niche in the wall close by, and having untied it, empties out of it three or four handfuls of unroasted coffee, the which he places on a little trencher of platted grass, and picks carefully out any blackened grains, or other non-homologous substances, commonly to be found intermixed with the berries when purchased in gross; then, after much cleansing and shaking, he pours the grain so cleansed into a large open iron ladle, and places it over the mouth of the funnel, at the same time blowing the bellows and stirring the grains gently round and round till they crackle, redden, and smoke a little, but carefully withdrawing them from the heat long before they turn black or charred, after the erroneous fashion of Turkey and Europe; after which he puts them to cool a moment on the grass platter. He then sets the warm water in the large coffee-pot over the fire aperture, that it may be ready boiling at the right moment, and draws in close between his own trouserless legs a large stone mortar, with a narrow pit in the middle, just enough to admit the large stone pestle of a foot long and an inch and a half thick, which he now takes in hand. Next, pouring the half-roasted berries into the mortar, he proceeds to pound them, striking right into the narrow hollow with wonderful dexterity, nor ever missing his blow till the beans are smashed, but not reduced into powder. He then scoops them out, now reduced to a sort of coarse reddish grit, very unlike the fine charcoal dust which passes in some countries for coffee, and out of which every particle of real aroma has long since been burnt or ground. After all these operations, each performed with as intense a seriousness and deliberate nicety as if the welfare of the entire Djowf depended on it, he takes a smaller coffee-pot in hand, fills it more than half with hot water from the larger vessel, and then shaking the pounded coffee into it, sets it on the fire to boil, occasionally stirring it with a small stick as the water rises to check the ebullition and prevent overflowing. Nor is the boiling stage to be long or vehement: on the contrary, it is and should be as light as possible. In the interim he takes out of another rag-knot a few aromatic seeds called heyl, an Indian product, but of whose scientific name I regret to be wholly ignorant, or a little saffron, and after slightly pounding these ingredients, throws them into the simmering coffee to improve its flavour, for such an additional spicing is held indispensable in Arabia though often omitted elsewhere in the East. Sugar would be a totally unheard of profanation. Last of all, he strains off the liquor through some fibres of the inner palm-bark placed for that purpose in the jug-spout, and gets ready the tray of delicate parti-coloured grass, and the small coffee cups ready for pouring out. All these preliminaries have taken up a good half-hour. Meantime we have become engaged in active conversation with our host and his friends. But our Sherarat guide, Suleyman, like a true Bedouin, feels too awkward when among townsfolk to venture on the upper places, though repeatedly invited, and accordingly has squatted down on the sand near the entrance. Many of Ghafil's relations are present; their silver-decorated swords proclaim the importance of the family. Others, too, have come to receive us, for our arrival, announced beforehand by those we had met at the entrance pass, is a sort of event in the town; the dress of some betokens poverty, others are better clad, but all have a very polite and decorous manner. Many a question is asked about our native land and town, that is to say, Syria and Damascus, conformably to the disguise already adopted, and which it was highly important to keep well up; then follow enquiries regarding our journey, our business, what we have brought with us, about our medicines, our goods and wares, etc. , etc. From the very first it is easy for us to perceive that patients and purchasers are likely to abound. Very few travelling merchants, if any, visit the Djowf at this time of year, for one must be mad, or next door to it, to rush into the vast desert around during the heats of June and July; I for one have certainly no intention of doing it again. Hence we had small danger of competitors, and found the market almost at our absolute disposal. But before a quarter of an hour has passed, and while blacky is still roasting or pounding his coffee, a tall thin lad, Ghafil's eldest son, appears, charged with a large circular dish, grass-platted like the rest, and throws it with a graceful jerk on the sandy floor close before us. He then produces a large wooden bowl full of dates, bearing in the midst of the heap a cup full of melted butter; all this he places on the circular mat, and says, "_Semmoo_, " literally, "pronounce the Name", of God, understood; this means "set to work at it. " Hereon the master of the house quits his place by the fireside and seats himself on the sand opposite to us; we draw nearer to the dish, and four or five others, after some respectful coyness, join the circle. Every one then picks out a date or two from the juicy half-amalgamated mass, dips them into the butter, and thus goes on eating till he has had enough, when he rises and washes his hands. By this time the coffee is ready, and Soweylim begins his round, the coffee-pot in one hand; the tray and cups on the other. The first pouring out he must in etiquette drink himself, by way of a practical assurance that there is no "death in the pot;" the guests are next served, beginning with those next the honourable fireside; the master of the house receives his cup last of all. To refuse would be a positive and unpardonable insult; but one has not much to swallow at a time, for the coffee-cups, or finjans, are about the size of a large egg-shell at most, and are never more than half-filled. This is considered essential to good breeding, and a brimmer would here imply exactly the reverse of what it does in Europe; why it should be so I hardly know, unless perhaps the rareness of cup-stands or "zarfs" (see Lane's "Modern Egyptians") in Arabia, though these implements are universal in Egypt and Syria, might render an over-full cup inconveniently hot for the fingers that must grasp it without medium. Be that as it may, "fill the cup for your enemy" is an adage common to all, Bedouins or townsmen, throughout the Peninsula. The beverage itself is singularly aromatic and refreshing, a real tonic, and very different from the black mud sucked by the Levantine, or the watery roast-bean preparations of France. When the slave or freeman, according to circumstances, presents you with a cup, he never fails to accompany it with a "_Semm'_, " "say the name of God, " nor must you take it without answering "_Bismillah_. " When all have been thus served, a second round is poured out, but in inverse order, for the host this time drinks first, and the guests last. On special occasions, a first reception, for instance, the ruddy liquor is a third time handed round; nay, a fourth cup is sometimes added. But all these put together do not come up to one-fourth of what a European imbibes in a single draught at breakfast. [Illustration: NATIVE CAFÉ, HARAR, ABYSSINIA] [Illustration: EARLY MANNER OF SERVING COFFEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE From a drawing in Dufour's _Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, du Theet du Chocolat_] For a more recent pen picture of coffee manners and customs in Arabia, we turn to Charles M. Daughty's "_Travels in Arabia Deserta_"[367]: Hirfa ever demanded of her husband towards which part should "the house" be built. "Dress the face". Zeyd would answer, "to this part", showing her with his hands the south, for if his booth's face be all day turned to the hot sun there will come in fewer young loitering and parasitical fellows that would be his coffee-drinkers. Since the _sheukh_, or heads, alone receive their tribes' _surra_, it is not much that they should be to the arms [of his] coffee-hosts. I have seen Zeyd avoid [them] as he saw them approach, or even rise ungraciously upon such men's presenting themselves (the half of every booth, namely the men's side, is at all times open, and any enter there that will, in the free desert), and they murmuring he tells them, _wellah_, his affairs do call him forth, adieu; he must away to the _mejlis_; go they and seek the coffee elsewhere. But were there any _sheykh_ with them, a coffee lord, Zeyd could not honestly choose but abide and serve them with coffee; and if he be absent himself, yet any _sheykhly_ man coming to a _sheykh's_ tent, coffee must be made for him, except he gently protest "_billah_, he would not drink. " Hirfa, a _sheykh's_ daughter and his nigh kinswoman, was a faithful mate to Zeyd in all his sparing policy. Our _menzil_ now standing, the men step over to Zeyd's coffee-fire, if the _sheykh_ be not gone forth to the _mejlis_ to drink his mid-day cup there. A few gathered sticks are flung down beside the hearth; with flint and steel one stoops and strikes fire in tinder, he blows and cherishes those seeds of the cheerful flame in some dry camel-dung, sets the burning shred under dry straws, and powders over more dry camel-dung. As the fire kindles, the _sheykh_ reaches for his _dellàl_, coffee pots, which are carried in the _fatya_, coffee-gear basket; this people of a nomad life bestow each thing of theirs in a proper _beyt_; it would otherwise be lost in their daily removings. One rises to go to fill up the pots at the water-skins, or a bowl of water is handed over the curtain from the woman's side; the pot at the fire, Hirfa reaches over her little palm-ful of green coffee berries.... These are roasted and brayed; as all is boiling he sets out his little cups, _fenjeyl_ (for fenjeyn). When, with a pleasant gravity, he has unbuckled his _gutia_ or cup-box, we see the nomad has not above three or four fenjeyns, wrapt in a rusty clout, with which he scours them busily, as if this should make his cups clean. The roasted beans are pounded amongst Arabs with a magnanimous rattle--and (as all their labor) rhythmical--in brass of the town, or an old wooden mortar, gaily studded with nails, the work of some nomad smith. The water bubbling in the small _dellàl_, he casts in his fine coffee powder, _el-bunn_, and withdraws the pot to simmer a moment. From a knot in his kerchief he takes then a head of cloves, a piece of cinnamon or other spice, _bahar_, and braying these he casts their dust in after. Soon he pours out some hot drops to essay his coffee; if the taste be to his liking, making dexterously a nest of all the cups in his hand, with pleasant clattering, he is ready to pour out for all the company, and begins upon his right hand; and first, if such be present, to any considerable _sheykh_ and principal persons. The _fenjeyn kahwah_ is but four sips; to fill it up to a guest, as in the northern towns, were among Bedouins an injury, and of such bitter meaning, "This drink thou and depart. " [Illustration: NUBIAN SLAVE GIRL WITH COFFEE SERVICE, PERSIA] Then is often seen a contention in courtesy amongst them, especially in any greater assemblies, who shall drink first. Some man that receives the _fenjeyn_ in his turn will not drink yet--he proffers it to one sitting in order under him, as to the more honourable; but the other putting off with his hand will answer _ebbeden_, "Nay, it shall never be, by Ullah! but do thou drink. " Thus licensed, the humble man is despatched in three sips, and hands up his empty _fenjeyn_. But if he have much insisted, by this he opens his willingness to be reconciled with one not his friend. That neighbor, seeing the company of coffee-drinkers watching him, may with an honest grace receive the cup, and let it seem not willingly; but an hard man will sometimes rebut the other's gentle proffer. Some may have taken lower seats than becoming their _sheykhly_ blood, of which the nomads are jealous; entering untimely, they sat down out of order, sooner than trouble all the company. A _sheykh_, coming late and any business going forward, will often sit far out in the assembly; and show himself a popular person in this kind of honourable humility. The more inward in the booth is the higher place; where also is, with the _sheykhs_, the seat of a stranger. To sit in the loose circuit without and before the tent, is for the common sort. A tribesman arriving presents himself at that part or a little lower, where in the eyes of all men his pretension will be well allowed; and in such observances of good nurture, is a nomad man's honour among his tribesmen. And this is nigh all that serves the nomad for a conscience, namely, that which men will hold of him. A poor person, approaching from behind, stands obscurely, wrapped in his tattered mantle, with grave ceremonial, until those sitting indolently before him in the sand shall vouchsafe to take notice of him; then they rise unwillingly, and giving back enlarge the coffee-circle to receive him. But if there arrive a _sheykh_, a coffee-host, a richard amongst them of a few cattle, all the coxcomb companions within will hail him with their pleasant adulation _taad henneyi_, "Step thou up hither. " The astute Fukara _sheukh_ surpass all men in their coffee-drinking courtesy, and Zeyd himself was more than any large of this gentlemen-like imposture: he was full of swaggering complacence and compliments to an humbler person. With what suavity could he encourage, and gently too compel a man, and rising himself yield him parcel of another man's room! In such fashions Zeyd showed himself a bountiful great man, who indeed was the greatest niggard. The cups are drunk twice about, each one sipping after other's lips without misliking; to the great coffee _sheykhs_ the cup may be filled more times, but this is an adulation of the coffee-server. There are some of the Fukara _sheukh_ so delicate Sybarites that of those three bitter sips, to draw out all their joyance, twisting, turning, and tossing again the cup, they could make ten. The coffee-service ended, the grounds are poured out from the small into the great store-pot that is reserved full of warm water; with the bitter lye the nomads will make their next bever, and think they spare coffee. Here is an Arabian recipe[368] for making coffee as given by KadhiHodhat, the best informed man of his time: Tadj-Eddin-Aid-Almaknab-ben-Yacoub-Mekki Molki, chief of all the cantons of Hedjaz, (May God have mercy on him!) I learned it when once in his company at the time of the Holy Feasts.... He informed me that nothing is more beneficial than to drink cold water before coffee, because it lessens the dryness of the coffee and thus taken it does not cause insomnia to the same degree. The poet did not forget to explain this manner of taking coffee: As with art 'tis prepared, one should drink it with art. The mere commonplace drinks one absorbs with free heart;But this--once with care from the bright flame removed, And the lime set aside that its value has proved--Take it first in deep draughts, meditative and slow, Quit it now, now resume, thus imbibe with gusto;While charming the palate it burns yet enchants, In the hour of its triumph the virtue it grantsPenetrates every tissue; its powers condense. Circulate cheering warmths, bring new life to each sense. From the cauldron profound spiced aromas unseenMount to tease and delight your olfactories keen, The while you inhale with felicity fraught, The enchanting perfume that a zephyr has brought. [Illustration: PERSIAN COFFEE SERVICE, 1737] Gone are the "luxurious and magnificent" coffee houses of Constantinople(if they ever existed--at least as we understand luxury andmagnificence) which first brought the beverage world-wide fame; such_caffinets_ as the one pictured by Thomas Allom and described by theRev. Robert Walsh, in _Constantinople, Illustrated_: The caffinet, or coffee-house, is something more splendid, and the Turk expends all his notions of finery and elegance on this, his favorite place of indulgence. The edifice is generally decorated in a very gorgeous manner, supported on pillars, and open in front. It is surrounded on the inside by a raised platform, covered with mats or cushions, on which the Turks sit cross-legged. On one side are musicians, generally Greeks, with mandolins and tambourines, accompanying singers, whose melody consists in vociferation; and the loud and obstreperous concert forms a strong contrast to the stillness and taciturnity of Turkish meetings. On the opposite side are men, generally of a respectable class, some of whom are found here every day, and all day long, dozing under the double influence of coffee and tobacco. The coffee is served in very small cups, not larger than egg-cups, grounds and all, without cream or sugar, and so black, thick, and bitter that it has been aptly compared to "stewed soot". Besides the ordinary chibouk for tobacco, there is another implement, called narghillai, used for smoking in a caffinet, of a more elaborate construction. It consists of a glass vase, filled with water, and often scented with distilled rose or other flowers. This is surmounted with a silver or brazen head, from which issues a long flexible tube; a pipe-bowl is placed on the top, and so constructed that the smoke is drawn, and comes bubbling up through the water, cool and fragrant to the mouth. A peculiar kind of tobacco, grown at Shiraz in Persia, and resembling small pieces of cut leather, is used with this instrument. [Illustration: IN A TURKISH COFFEE HOUSE] Certainly there never was any such thing as a coffee-house architecture. It may be that up to the time of Abdul Hamid, when money was moreplentiful than it has been for the past fifty years, there were coffeehouses more comfortably appointed than now exist. The coffee house in a modernized form is, however, quite as numerous inTurkey as in the days of Amurath III and the notorious Kuprili. H. G. Dwight[369] writing on the present day Turkish coffee house, says: [Illustration: ROASTING COFFEE BEFORE A CAFÉ, TURKEY] There are thoroughfares in any Turkish city that carry on almost no other form of traffic. There is no quarter so miserable or so remote as to be without one or two. They are the clubs of the poorer classes. Men of a street, a trade, a province, or a nationality--for a Turkish coffee-house may also be Albanian, Armenian, Greek, Hebrew, Kurd, almost anything you please--meet regularly when their work is done, at coffee-houses kept by their own people. So much are the humbler coffee-houses frequented by a fixed clientèle that a student of types or dialects may realize for himself how truly they used to be called Schools of Knowledge. The arrangement of a Turkish coffee-house is of the simplest. The essential is that the place should provide the beverage for which it exists and room for enjoying the same. A sketch of a coffee-shop may often be seen on the street, in a scrap of shade or sunshine according to the season, where a stool or two invite the passer-by to a moment of contemplation. Larger establishments, though they are rarely very large, are most often installed in a room longer than it is wide, having as many windows as possible at the street end and what we would call the bar at the other. It is a bar that always makes me regret I do not etch, with its pleasing curves, its high lights of brass and porcelain striking out of deep shadow, and its usually picturesque _kahvehji_. You do not stand at it. You sit on one of the benches running down the sides of the room. They are more or less comfortably cushioned, though sometimes higher and broader than a foreigner finds to his taste. In that case you slip off your shoes, if you would do as the Romans do, and tuck your feet up under you. A table stands in front of you to hold your coffee--and often in summer an aromatic pot of basil to keep the flies away. Chairs or stools are scattered about. Decorative Arabic texts, sometimes wonderful prints, adorn the walls. There may even be hanging rugs and china to entertain your eyes. And there you are. The habit of the coffee-house is one that requires a certain leisure. You must not bolt coffee as you bolt the fire-waters of the West, without ceremony, in retreats withdrawn from the public eye. Being a less violent and a less shameful passion, I suppose, it is indulged in with more of the humanities. The etiquette of the coffee-house, of those coffee-houses which have not been too much infected by Europe, is one of their most characteristic features. Something like it prevails in Italy, where you tip your hat on entering and leaving a _caffè_. In Turkey, however, I have seen a new-comer salute one after another each person in a crowded coffee-room, once on entering the door and again after taking his seat, and be so saluted in return--either by putting the right hand to the heart and uttering the greeting _Merhabah_, or by making the _temennah_, that triple sweep of the hand which is the most graceful of salutes. I have also seen an entire company rise upon the entrance of an old man, and yield him the corner of honor. Such courtesies take time. Then you must wait for your coffee to be made. To this end coffee, roasted fresh as required by turning in an iron cylinder over a fire of sticks and ground to the fineness of powder in a brass mill, is put into a small uncovered brass pot with a long handle. There it is boiled to a froth three times on a charcoal brazier, with or without sugar as you prefer. But to desecrate it by the admixture of milk is an unheard of sacrilege. Some _kahvehjis_ replace the pot in the embers with a smart rap in order to settle the grounds. You in the meanwhile smoke. That also takes time, particularly if you "drink" a _narguileh_, as the Turks say. This is familiar enough in the West to require no great description. It is a big carafe with a metal top for holding tobacco and a long coil of leather tube for inhaling the water-cooled fumes thereof. The effect is wonderfully soothing and innocent at first, though wonderfully deadly in the end to the novice. The tobacco used is not the ordinary weed, but a much coarser and stronger one called _tunbeki_, which comes from Persia. The same sort of tobacco used to be smoked a great deal in shallow red earthenware pipes with long mouthpieces. They are now chiefly seen in antiquity shops. [Illustration: INTERIOR OF A TURKISH CAFFINET, EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY--AFTER ALLAN] When your coffee is ready it is poured into an after-dinner coffee-cup or into a miniature bowl, and brought to you on a tray with a glass of water. A foreigner can almost always be spotted by the manner in which he finally partakes of these refreshments. A Turk sips his water first, partly to prepare the way for the coffee, but also because he is a connoisseur of the former liquid as other men are of stronger ones. And he lifts his coffee-cup by the saucer, whether it possess a handle or no, managing the two together in a dexterous way of his own. The current price for all this, not including the water-pipe, is ten paras--a trifle over a cent--for which the _kahvehji_ will cry you "Blessing". More pretentious establishments charge twenty paras, while a giddy few rise to a piaster--not quite five cents--or a piaster and a half. That, however, begins to look like extortion. And mark that you do not tip the waiter. I have often been surprised to be charged no more than the tariff, although I gave a larger piece to be changed and it was perfectly evident that I was a foreigner. That is an experience which rarely befalls a traveller among his own coreligionaries. It has even happened to me, which is rarer still, to be charged nothing at all, nay, to be steadfastly refused when I persisted in attempting to pay, simply because I was a foreigner, and therefore a guest. There is no reason, however, why you should go away when you have had your coffee--or your glass of tea--and your smoke. On the contrary, there are reasons why you should stay, particularly if you happen into the coffee-house not too long after sunset. Then coffee-houses of the most local color are at their best. Earlier in the day their clients are likely to be at work. Later they will have disappeared altogether. For Constantinople has not quite forgotten the habits of the tent. Stamboul, except during the holy month of Ramazan, is a deserted city at night. But just after dark it is full of a life which an outsider is often content simply to watch through the lighted windows of coffee-rooms. These are also barber-shops, where men have shaved not only their chins, but different parts of their heads according to their "countries". In them likewise checkers, the Persian backgammon, and various games of long narrow cards are played. They say that Bridge came from Constantinople. Indeed, I believe a club of Pera claims the honor of having communicated that passion to the Western World. But I must confess that I have yet to see an open hand in a coffee-house of the people. [Illustration: COFFEE MAKING IN TURKEY] One of the pleasantest forms of amusement to be obtained in coffee-houses is unfortunately getting to be one of the rarest. It is that afforded by itinerant story-tellers, who still carry on in the East the tradition of the troubadours. The stories they tell are more or less on the order of the Arabian Nights, though perhaps even less suitable for mixed companies--which for the rest are never found in coffee-shops. These men are sometimes wonderfully clever at character monologue or dialogue. They collect their pay at a crucial moment of the action, refusing to continue until the audience has testified to the sincerity of its interest by some token more substantial. Music is much more common. There are those, to be sure, who find no music in the sounds poured forth oftenest by a gramophone, often by a pair of gypsies with a flaring pipe and two small gourd drums, and sometimes by an orchestra so-called of the fine lute--a company of musicians on a railed dais who sing long songs while they play on stringed instruments of strange curves. For myself I know too little of music to tell what relation the recurrent cadences of those songs and their broken rhythms may bear to the antique modes. But I can listen, as long as musicians will perform, to those infinite repetitions, that insistent sounding of the minor key. It pleases me to fancy there a music come from far away--from unknown river gorges, from camp-fires glimmering on great plains. Does not such darkness breathe through it, such melancholy, such haunting of elusive airs? There are flashes too of light, of song, the playing of shepherd's pipes, the swoop of horsemen and sudden outcries of savagery. But the note to which it all comes back is the monotone of a primitive life, like the day-long beat of camel bells. And more than all, it is the mood of Asia, so rarely penetrated, which is neither lightness or despair. [Illustration: STREET COFFEE VENDER IN THE LEVANT, 1714] There are seasons in the year when these various forms of entertainment abound more than at others, as Ramazan and the two Bairams. Throughout the month of Ramazan the purely Turkish coffee-houses are closed in the daytime, since the pleasures which they minister may not then be indulged in; but they are open all night. It is during that one month of the year that Karaghieuz, the Turkish shadow-show, may be seen in a few of the larger coffee-shops. The Bairams are two festivals of three and four days respectively, the former of which celebrates the close of Ramazan, while the latter corresponds in certain respects to the Jewish Passover. Dancing is a particular feature of the coffee-houses in Bairam. The Kurds, who carry the burdens of Constantinople on their backs, are above all other men given to this form of exercise--though the Lazzes, the boatmen, vie with them. One of these dark tribesmen plays a little violin like a pochelle, or two of them perform on a pipe and a big drum, while the others dance round them in a circle, sometimes till they drop from fatigue. The weird music and the picturesque costumes and movements of the dancers make the spectacle one to be remembered. Christian coffee-houses also have their own festal seasons. These coincide in general with the festivals of the church. But every quarter has its patron saint, the saint of the local church or of the local holy well, whose feast is celebrated by a three-day _panayiri_. The street is dressed with flags and strings of colored paper, tables and chairs line the sidewalk, and libations are poured forth in honor of the holy person commemorated. For this reason, and because of the more volatile character of the Greek, the general note of his merrymaking is louder than that of the Turk. One may even see the scandalous spectacle of men and women dancing together at a Greek _panayiri_. The instrument which sets the key of these orgies is the _lanterna_, a species of hand-organ peculiar to Constantinople. It is a hand-piano rather, of a loud and cheerful voice, whose Eurasian harmonies are enlivened by a frequent clash of bells. What first made coffee-houses suspicious to those in authority, however, is their true resource--the advantages they offer for meeting one's kind, for social converse and the contemplation of life. Hence it must be that they have so happy a tact for locality. They seek shade, pleasant corners, open squares, the prospect of water or wide landscapes. In Constantinople they enjoy an infinite choice of site, so huge is the extent of that city, so broken by hill and sea, so varied in its spectacle of life. The commonest type of city coffee-room looks out upon the passing world from under a grape-vine or a climbing wistaria. [Illustration: A COFFEE HOUSE IN SYRIA--AFTER JARDIN] Coffee-houses of distinction are to be found also in the Place of thePines overlooking the Marble Sea, on Giant's Mountain, in the LandingPlace of the Man-slayer, and along the rivers that flow into the GoldenHorn. Originally the Turkish method of preparing coffee was the Arabianmethod, and it is so described by Mr. Fellows in his _Excursions throughAsia Minor_: Each cup is made separately, the little saucepan or ladle in which it is prepared being about an inch wide and two deep; this is more than half filled with coffee, finely pounded with a pestle and mortar, and then filled up with water; after being placed for a few seconds on the fire, the contents are poured, or rather shaken, out (being much thicker than chocolate) without the addition of cream or sugar, into a china cup of the size and shape of half an egg-shell, which is inclosed in one of ornamented metal for convenience of holding in the hand. Later, the Turks sought to improve the method by adding sugar (aconcession to the European sweet tooth) during the boiling process. Theimproved Turkish recipe is as follows: First boil the water. For two cups of the beverage add three lumps of sugar and return the boiler to the fire. Add two teaspoonfuls of powdered coffee, stirring well and let the pot boil up four times. Between each boiling the pot is to be removed from the fire and the bottom tapped gently until the froth on the top subsides. After the last boiling pour the coffee first into one cup and then the other, so as to evenly divide the froth. In Syria and Palestine the Turkish-Arabian methods are followed. Thebrazen dippers, or _ibriks_, are used for boiling. [Illustration: CAFETAN Oriental coffee-house keeper's costume] In the Near East, coffee manners and customs are much the same today asthey were fifty or even one hundred years ago. Witness Damascus. Thefollowing pen picture of the cafés in this ancient city was written in1836 to accompany the drawing by Bartlett and Purser, which isreproduced here; but it might have been written in 1922, so slight havebeen the changes in the setting or the spirit of the original coffeehouse that Shemsi first brought to Constantinople from Damascus in1554. [370] [Illustration: STREET COFFEE SERVICE IN CONSTANTINOPLE] The Cafés of the kind represented in the plate are, perhaps, the greatest luxury that a stranger finds in Damascus. Gardens, kiosques, fountains, and groves are abundant around every Eastern capital: but Cafés on the very bosom of a rapid river, and bathed by its waves, are peculiar to this ancient city: they are formed so as to exclude the rays of the sun, while they admit the breeze; the light roof is supported by slender rows of pillars, and the building is quite open on every side. A few of these houses are situated in the skirts of the town, on one of the streams, where the eye rests on the luxuriant vegetation of garden and wood: others are in the heart of the city: a flight of steps conducts to them from the sultry street, and it is delightful to pass in a few moments from the noisy, shadeless thoroughfare, where you see only mean gateways and the gable-ends of edifices, to a cool, grateful, calm place of rest and refreshment, where you can muse and meditate in ease and luxury, and feel at every moment the rich breeze from the river. In two or three instances, a light wooden bridge leads to the platform, close to which, and almost out of it, one or two large and noble trees lift the canopy of their spreading branches and leaves, more welcome at noonday than the roofs of fretted gold in the "Arabian Nights. " The high pavilion roof and the pillars are all constructed of wood: the floor is of wood, and sometimes of earth, and is regularly watered, and raised only a few inches above the level of the stream, which rushes by at the feet of the customer, which it almost bathes, as he sips his coffee or sherbet. Innumerable small seats cover the floor, and you take one of these, and place it in the position you like best. Perhaps you wish to sit apart from the crowd, just under the shadow of the tree, or in some favourite corner where you can smoke, and contemplate the motley guests, formed into calm and solemn groups, who wish to hold no communion with the Giaour. There is ample food here for the observer of character, costume and pretension: the tradesman, the mechanic, the soldier, the gentleman, the dandy, the grave old man, looking wise on the past and dimly on the future: the hadge, in his green turban, vain of his journey to Mecca, and drawing a long bow in his tales and adventures: the long straight pipe, the hookah with its soft curling tube and glass vase, are in request: but the poorer argille is most commonly used. From sunrise to set, these houses are never empty: we were accustomed to visit one of them early every morning, before breakfast, and very many persons were already there: yet this "balmy hour of prime" was the most silent and solitary of the whole day; it was the coolest also: the rising sun was glancing redly on the waters: there was as yet no heat in the air, and the little cup of Mocha coffee and the pipe were handed by an attendant as soon as the stranger was seated. His favourite Café was the one represented in the plate: the river is the Barrada, the ancient Pharpar. Never was the sound of many waters so pleasant to the ear as in Damascus: the air is filled with the sound, with which no clash of tongues, rolling of wheels, march of footman or horsemen, mingle: the numerous groups who love to resort here are silent half the time; and when they do converse, their voice is often "low, like that of a familiar spirit, " or in short grave sentences that pass quickly from the ear. [Illustration: A RIVERSIDE CAFÉ IN DAMASCUS, NINETEENTH CENTURY After Bartlett and Purser] Yet much, very much of the excitement of the life of the Turk in this city, is absorbed in these coffee-houses: they are his opera, his theatre, his conversazione: soon after his eyes are unclosed from sleep, he thinks of his Café, and forthwith bends his way there: during the day he looks forward to pass the evening on the loved floor, to look on the waters, on the stars above, and on the faces of his friends; and at the moonlight falling on all. Mahomet committed a grievous error in the omission of coffee-houses, in a future state: had he ever seen those of Damascus, he would surely have given them a place on his rivers of Paradise, persuaded that true believers must feel a melancholy void without them. There is no ornament or richness about these houses: no sofas, mirrors, or drapery, save that afforded by a few evergreens and creepers: the famous silks and damasks of Damascus have no place here; all is plain and homely; yet no Parisian Café, with its beautiful mirrors, gilding, and luxuriousness, is so welcome to the imagination and senses of the traveller. After wandering many days over dry, and stony, and desert places, where the lip thirsted for the stream, is it not delicious to sit at the brink of a wild, impetuous torrent, to gaze on its white foam and breaking waves, till you can almost feel their gush in every nerve and fibre, and can bathe your very soul in them. And while you slowly smoke your pipe of purest tobacco, the sands of the desert, and their burning sun, rise again before you, when you prayed for even the shadow of a cloud on your way. The banks are in some parts covered with wood, whose soft green verdure contrasts beautifully with the clear torrent, and almost droops into its bosom. Near the coffee-houses are one or two cataracts several feet high, and the perpetual sound of their fall, and the coolness they spread around, are exquisite luxuries--in the heat of day, or in the dimness of evening. There are two or three Cafés constructed somewhat differently from those just described: a low gallery divides the platform from the tide; fountains play on the floor, which is furnished with very plain sofas and cushions; and music and dancing always abound, of the most unrefined description. The only intellectual gratification in these places is afforded by the Arab story-tellers, among whom are a few eminent and clever men: soon after his entrance, a group begins to form around the gifted man, who, after a suitable pause, to collect hearers or whet their expectations, begins his story. It is a picturesque sight--of the Arab with his wild and graceful gestures, and his auditory, hushed into deep and child-like attention, seated at the edge of the rushing tide, while the narrator moves from side to side, and each accent of his distinct and musical voice is heard throughout the Café. The building directly opposite is another house, of a similar kind in every respect There are a few small Cafés, more select as to company, where the Turkish gentlemen often go, form dinner parties, and spend the day. Night is the propitious season to visit these places: the glare of the sun, glancing on the waters, is passed away; the company is then most numerous, for it is their favourite hour; the lamps, suspended from the slender pillars, are lighted; the Turks, in the various and brilliant colours of their costume, crowd the platform, some standing moveless as the pillars beside them, their long pipe in their hand--noble specimens of humanity, if intellect breathed within: some reclining against the rails, others seated in groups, or solitary as if buried in "lonely thoughts sublime"; while the rush of the falling waters is sweeter music than that of the pipe and the guitar, that faintly strive to be heard. The cataract in the plate is a very fine one; on its foam the moonlight was lovely: we passed many an hour here on such a night, the clear waters of the Pharpar, as they rolled on, reflecting each pillar, each Damascene slowly moving by in his waving garments. The glare of the lamps mingled strangely with the moonlight, that rested with a soft and vivid glory on the waters, and fell beneath pillar and roof on the picturesque groups within. The slender brass coffee grinders sometimes serve as a combinationutensil in the equipment of the Turkish officer. Frequently they aremade of silver. They might be called collapsible, convertible coffeekits, as they are made to serve as a combination coffee pot, mill, can, and cup. The green or roasted beans are kept in the lower section. Ittakes but a minute to unscrew the apparatus. To make a cup of coffee, the beans are dumped out and three or four of them are put in the middlesection. The steel crank is fitted over the squared rod projecting fromthe middle section, which revolves, setting in motion the grindingapparatus inside. The ground coffee falls into the bottom section, andwater is added. The pot is placed on the fire, and the contents broughtto a boil. The coffee pot serves as a cup. The process requires but afew minutes. The cup is rinsed out, the beans replaced, the utensils puttogether, the whole thing is slipped into the officer's tunic, and hegoes on, refreshed. In Persia, where tea is mostly drunk, the Turkish-Arabian methods ofmaking coffee are followed. In Ceylon and India, the same applies to thenative population, but the whites follow the European practise. InIndia, many people look upon coffee as just a _bonne bouche_--a"chaser. " A well known English tea firm has had some success in Indiawith a tinned "French coffee", which is a blend of Indian coffee andchicory. European methods obtain in making coffee in China and Japan, and in theFrench and Dutch colonies. When traveling in the Far East one of thegreatest hardships the coffee lover is called upon to endure is theEuropean bottled coffee extract, which so often supplies lazy chefs withthe makings of a most forbidding cup of coffee. In Java, a favorite method is to make a strong extract by the Frenchdrip process and then to use a spoonful of the extract to a cup of hotmilk--a good drink when the extract is freshly made for each service. _Coffee Making in Europe_ In Europe, the coffee drink was first sold by lemonade venders. InFlorence those who sold coffee, chocolate, and other beverages were notcalled _caffetiéri_ (coffee sellers) but _limonáji_ (lemonade venders). Pascal's first Paris coffee shop served other drinks as well as coffee;and Procope's café began as a lemonade shop. It was only when coffee, which was an afterthought, began to lead the other beverages, that hegave the name café to his whole refreshment place. Today, nearly every country in Europe can supply the two extremes ofcoffee making. In Paris and Vienna, one may find it brewed and served inits highest perfection; but here too it is frequently found as badlydone as in England, and that is saying a good deal. The principaldifficulty seems to be in the chicory flavor, for which long years ofuse has cultivated a taste, with most people. Now coffee-and-chicory isnot at all a bad drink; indeed the author confesses to have developed acertain liking for it after a time in France--but it is not coffee. InEurope, chicory is not regarded as an adulterant--it is an addition, ormodifier, if you please. And so many people have acquired acoffee-and-chicory taste, that it is doubtful if they would appreciate areal cup of coffee should they ever meet it. This, of course, is ageneralization; and like all generalizations, is dangerous, for it _is_possible to obtain good coffee, properly made, in any European country, even England, in the homes of the people, but seldom in the hotels orrestaurants. [Illustration: COFFEE AL FRESCO IN JERUSALEM] AUSTRIA. Coffee is made in Austria after the French style, usually bythe drip method or in the pumping percolator device, commonly called theVienna coffee machine. The restaurants employ a large-size urn fittedwith a combination metal sieve and cloth sack. After the ground coffeehas infused for about six minutes, a screw device raises the metalsieve, the pressure forcing the liquid through the cloth sack containingthe ground coffee. Vienna cafés are famous, but the World War has dimmed their glory. Itused to be said that their equal could not be found for generalexcellence and moderate prices. From half-past eight to ten in themorning, large numbers of people were wont to breakfast in them on a cupof coffee or tea, with a roll and butter. _Mélangé_ is with milk;"brown" coffee is darker, and a _schwarzer_ is without milk. In all thecafés the visitor may obtain coffee, tea, liqueurs, ices, bottled beer, ham, eggs, etc. The Café Schrangl in the Graben is typical. Then thereare the dairies, with coffee, a unique institution. In the _Prater_(public park) there are many interesting cafés. Charles J. Rosebault says in the _New York Times_: The café of Vienna has been imitated all over the world--but the result has never failed to be an imitation. The nearest approach to the genuine in my experience was the upstairs room of the old Fleischman Café in New York. That was because the average New Yorker knew it not and it remained sacred to the internationalists: the musicians, artists, writers, and other Bohemians to whom had been intrusted the secret of its existence. It is the spirit that counts, and it was the spirit of its frequenters that made the Vienna café. It was everyman's club, and everywoman's, too, where one went to relax and forget all the worries of existence, to look over papers and magazines from all parts of the world and printed in every known language, to play chess or skat or taracq, to chat with friends and to drink the inimitable Viennese coffee, the fragrance of which can no more be described than the perfume of last year's violets. The café was filled after the noon meal, when busy men took their coffee and smoked; again around five o'clock, when all the world and his wife paraded along the Graben and the Karntner Strasse, and then dropped into a favorite café for coffee or chocolate and cakes--horns and crescents of delicious dough filled with jam or, possibly, the wonderful Kugelhupf, in comparison with which our sponge is like unto lead; finally in the evening, when there were family parties and those returning from theatres and concerts and opera. [Illustration: Photograph by Burton Holmes THE CAFÉ SCHRANGL IN THE GRABEN, VIENNA, THE CITY THAT COFFEE MADEFAMOUS] While the café life of Vienna has been nearly killed by the World War, it is to be hoped that time will restore at least something of itsformer glory. In spite of the stories of plundering bands of Bolsheviststhat in the latter part of 1921 wrecked some of the better known places, we read that Oscar Straus, composer of _The Chocolate Soldier_, isliving in comparative luxury in Vienna, and spends most of his time inthe cafés, where he is to be found usually from two until five in theafternoon and from eleven o'clock at night until some early hour of themorning "surrounded by musicians of lesser note and wealth, whom, to adegree, he supports; also with him being many of the leading composers, librettists, actors, actresses, and singers of Vienna. " For Vienna coffee, the liquor is usually made in a pumping percolator orby the drip process. In normal times it is served two parts coffee toone of hot milk topped with whipped cream. During 1914-18 and the recentpost-war period, however, the sparkling crown of delicious whipped creamgave way to condensed milk, and saccharine took the place of sugar. BELGIUM. In Belgium, the French drip method is most generally employed. Chicory is freely used as a modifier. The greatest coffee drinker amongreigning monarchs is said to be the King of the Belgians. His majestytakes a cup of coffee before breakfast, after breakfast, at his noondaymeal, in the afternoon, after dinner, and again in the evening. BRITISH ISLES. In the British Isles coffee is still being boiled;although the infusion, true percolation (drip), and filtration methodshave many advocates. A favorite device is the earthenware jug with orwithout the cotton sack that makes it a coffee biggin. When used withoutthe sack, the best practise is first to warm the jug. For each pint ofliquor, one ounce (three dessert-spoonfuls) of freshly ground coffee isput in the pot. Upon it is poured freshly boiling water--three-fourthsof the amount required. After stirring with a wooden spoon, theremainder of the water is poured in, and the pot is returned to the"hob" to infuse, and to settle for from three to five minutes. Some stirit a second time before the final settling. The best trade authorities stress home-grinding, and are opposed toboiling the beverage. They advocate also its use as a breakfastbeverage, after lunch, and after the evening meal. From an American point of view, the principal defects in the Englishmethod of making coffee lie in the roasting, handling, and brewing. Ithas been charged that the beans are not properly cooked in the firstplace, and that they are too often stale before being ground. TheEnglish run to a light or cinnamon roast, whereas the best Americanpractise requires a medium, high, or city roast. A fairly high shade ofbrown is favored on the South Downs with a light shade for Lancashire, the West Riding of Yorkshire, and the south of Scotland. The tradedemands, for the most part, a ripe chestnut brown. Wholesale roasting isdone by gas and coke machines; while retail dealers use mostly a smalltype of inner-heated gas machine. The large gas machines (withcapacities running from twenty-five to seven hundred pounds) haveexternal air-blast burners, direct and indirect burners, slidingburners, etc. The best known are the Faulder and Moorewood machines. Inthe Uno, a popular retail machine, roasting seven to fourteen pounds ata time, the coffee beans are placed in the space between outer and innerconcentric cylinders, one made of perforated steel, and the other ofwire gauze, revolving together. A gas flame of the Bunsen type burnsinside the inner cylinder, its heat traversing the outer, or coffeecylinder, while the fumes are driven off through the open ends. Theroasting coffee may be viewed through a mica or wire-gauze panelinserted in the wall of the outer cylinder. The Faulder machine has anexternal flame, a capacity of from seven to fourteen pounds; and thereare quick gas machines, with capacities ranging from three pounds to twohundred and twenty-four pounds, for the retail trade. [Illustration: FAVORITE ENGLISH COFFEE-MAKING METHOD] [Illustration: A CAFÉ OF YE MECCA COMPANY, LONDON] In recent years there has been a marked improvement in English coffeeroasting, due to the intelligent study brought to bear upon the subjectby leaders of the trade's thought, and by the retail distributer, who, in the person of the retail grocer, is, generally speaking, bettereducated to his business than the retail grocer in any other country. Years ago, it was the practise to use butter or lard to improve theappearance of the bean in roasting; but this is not so common asformerly. The British consumer, however, will need much instruction before thenational character of the beverage shows a uniform improvement. Whilethe coffee may be more carefully roasted, better "cooked" than it wasformerly, it is still remaining too long unsold after roasting, or elseit is being ground too long a time before making. These abuses are, however, being corrected; and the consumer is everywhere being urged tobuy his coffee freshly roasted and to have it freshly ground. Anotherfactor has undoubtedly contributed to give England a bad name amonglovers of good coffee, and that is certain tinned "coffees, " composed ofground coffee and chicory, mixtures that attained some vogue for a timeas "French" coffee. They found favor, perhaps, because they were easilyhandled. Package coffees have not been developed in England as inAmerica; but there is a more or less limited field for them, and thereare several good brands of absolutely pure coffee on the market. The demi-tasse is a popular drink after luncheon, after dinner, andeven during the day, especially in the cities. In London, there arecafés that make a specialty of it; places like Peel's, Groom's, and theCafé Nero in the city; also the shops of the London Café Co. , and YeMecca Co. While, in the home, it is customary to steep the coffee; in hotels andrestaurants some form of percolating apparatus, extractor, or steammachine is employed. There are the Criterion (employing a drip tray formaking coffee in the Etzenberger style); Fountain; Platow; Syphon(Napier); and Verithing extractors, put out by Sumerling & Co. OfLondon; and the well-known J. & S. Rapid coffee-making machine, havingan infuser, and producing coffee by steam pressure, manufactured by W. M. Still & Sons, Ltd. , London. American visitors complain that coffee in England is too thick andsyrupy for their liking. Coffee in restaurants is served "white" (withmilk), or black, in earthen, stoneware, or silver pots. In chainrestaurants, like Lyons' or the A. B. C. , there is to be found on thetariff, "hot milk with a dash of coffee. " [Illustration: GROOM'S COFFEE HOUSE, FLEET STREET, LONDON] [Illustration: CAFÉ MONICO, PICCADILLY CIRCUS, LONDON] As to the boiling method, this is already generally discredited in thecountries of western Europe. The steeping method so much favored inEngland may be responsible for some of the unkind things said aboutEnglish coffee; because it undoubtedly leads to the abuse ofover-infusion, so that the net result is as bad as boiling. The vast majority of the English people are, however, confirmed teadrinkers, and it is extremely doubtful if this national habit, ingrainedthrough centuries of use of "the cup that cheers" at breakfast and attea time in the afternoon can ever be changed. As already mentioned in this work, the London coffee houses of theseventeenth and eighteenth centuries gave way to a type of coffee housewhose mainstay was its food rather than its drink. In time, these toobegan to yield to the changing influences of a civilization thatdemanded modern hotels, luxurious tea lounges, smart restaurants, chainshops, tea rooms, and cafés with and without coffee. A certain type of"coffee shop, " with rough boarded stalls, sanded floors and "privaterooms, " frequented by lower class workingmen, were to be found inEngland for a time; but because of their doubtful character, they wereclosed up by the police. Among other places in London where coffee may be had in English orcontinental style, mention should be made of the Café Monico, a goodplace to drop in for a coffee and liqueur, and one of the pioneers ofthe modern restaurant; Gatti's, where _café filtré_, or coffee producedby the filtration method, is a specialty; the cosmopolitan Savoy withits popular tea lounge (teas, sixty cents); the Piccadilly Hotel, withits Louis XIV restaurant catering to refined and luxurious tastes; theWaldorf Hotel, with its American clientèle and its palm court (teas, thirty-six cents); the Cecil, with its palm court and tea balcony, alsohaving a special attraction for Americans; Lyons' Popular Café (icedcoffee, twelve cents); the Trocadero with its special Indian curriesprepared by native cooks once each week; the Temple Bar restaurant, anattractive refectory owned by the semi-philanthropic Trust-Houses, Ltd. , which runs some two hundred similar establishments throughout thecountry, serving alcoholic drinks but stressing non-intoxicatingbeverages, among them special Mocha at six and eight cents a cup;Slater's, Ltd. , catering mostly to business folk in the city, therebeing about a score of restaurants and tea rooms under this name withretail shops attached; the British Tea Table Association, like Slater's, a grown-up sister of the olden bun shop of Queen Victoria's day; and theKardomah chain of cafés, where one is reasonably sure to get asatisfying cup of coffee and a cake. [Illustration: GATTI'S, IN THE STRAND, LONDON] [Illustration: TEA LOUNGE OF HOTEL SAVOY, LONDON] Supplementing the above, Charles Cooper, some time editor of the_Epicure_ and _The Table_, has prepared for this work some notes on theevolution of the old-time London coffee houses into the present-day tearooms, tea lounges, cafés, and restaurants for all comers. Mr. Coopersays of the transformation: The old-fashioned London coffee-house that flourished forty to fifty years ago has within the past thirty years been completely extinguished by the modern tea rooms. These old-fashioned establishments were mainly situated in and about the Strand and Fleet Street, the neighborhood of the Inns of Court, etc. They did not sacrifice much to outside show and decoration. They were divided into boxes or pews, and were generally speaking clean and well ordered; the prices were moderate, and the fare simple but superlatively good. There is nothing to equal it now. Chops were cooked in the grill. The tea and coffee were of the best; the hams were York hams and the bacon the best Wiltshire; they were the last places where real buttered toast was made. The art is now lost. They catered exclusively to men; and their clientèle consisted of journalists, artists, actors, men from the Inns of Court, students, _et al. _ A man living in chambers could breakfast comfortably at one of these places, and read all the morning papers at his ease. The most westerly perhaps of the old houses was Stone's in Panton Street, Haymarket, which has recently been sold. Groom's in Fleet Street, where a good cup of coffee may still be had, is principally frequented by barristers about the luncheon hour. They are usually men who lunch lightly. The tea rooms, as I have said, have killed the coffee houses. At the time the latter flourished, there were no facilities in London for a woman, unattended by a man, to obtain refreshment beyond a weak cup of tea at a few confectioners'. It mattered the less in the days when the girl clerk had not come into being. When the field of women's employment widened, fresh requirements were created which the coffee shops did not meet. [Illustration: LYONS' "POPULAR CAFÉ, " PICCADILLY--ONE OF MANY OPERATEDUNDER THAT NAME] [Illustration: PALM COURT IN THE WALDORF HOTEL--A POPULAR RESORT FORAMERICAN TRAVELERS] [Illustration: TWO POPULAR PLACES FOR COFFEE IN LONDON] The tea room pioneers in London were the Aërated Bread Company, familiarly known as the A. B. C. I think that coffee palaces in provincial industrial centers had been started; but as part of a temperance propaganda, to counteract the attractions of the public house. The Aërated Bread Company was founded about the middle of the past century for the manufacture and sale of bread made under the patent aërated process of Dr. Daugleish. The shops were opened for the sale of bread to the public for home consumption; but to give people an opportunity of testing it, facilities were provided for obtaining a cup of tea, and bread and butter, on the premises. This subsidiary object became in a short time the most important part of the company's business. It multiplied its shops, enlarged its bill of fare to include cooked foods; and while, nowadays, the A. B. C. And its rivals cater to many thousands daily, I doubt if anybody ever buys a loaf to take home. The A. B. C. Has many competitors, similar shops having been started by Lyons, Lipton, Slaters. Express Dairy Company, Cabin, Pioneer Cafés, and others. _Ex uno disce omnes. _ [Illustration: TEMPLE BAR RESTAURANT, LONDON] The fare in all these places is much alike, as are the general equipment, prices, and class of customers. They cater for a cheap class of business. In the busy centers they are frequented mostly by young men and girl clerks and shop assistants, by women in town, shopping, and such-like custom. Young employees can get a modest mid-day meal at a price to suit a shallow pocket. Before the war, the ruling price for a cup of tea, and a roll and butter, was fourpence, and the general tariff in proportion. Nowadays, the war has run up prices at least fifty percent. During the worst times of food control the fare was very scanty and very unappetizing. As a rule, it is plain and wholesome, with no pretense of being _recherché_. Tea is almost always very good; coffee not on the same level. Their tea rooms are all places designed for small, quick meals; and are in no sense lounges. [Illustration: TEA BALCONY IN THE HOTEL CECIL, LONDON] Lyons have refreshment-houses of different grades. The Popular Café is a cut above the tea rooms, and so are the Corner Houses. Two years ago, the A. B. C. Amalgamated with Buzard's, an old established confectioner's in Oxford Street--a famous cake-house. The Monico and Gatti's appeal to a quite different class from that catered to by the tea shops, although perhaps not to what Mrs. Boffin would call "the highfliers of fashion" who frequent the lounges of the fashionable hotels. Gatti's original café was under the arches of Charing Cross station. [Illustration: SLATER'S, A BETTER-CLASS CHAIN SHOP, LONDON] I may add about the Savoy that it was an outcome of the successful Gilbert and Sullivan operas of the seventies, D'Oyly Carte having expended some of his profits on building the hotel on a piece of waste ground by the Savoy Theatre. He brought over M. Ritz from Monte Carlo to manage the hotel and restaurant, and Escoffier, the greatest chef of the day, to preside over the cuisine. They made the Savoy famous for its dinners, and it has always maintained a high reputation, although Escoffier, who has now retired, ruled later at the Carlton; and Ritz, at the hotel in Piccadilly which bears his name. BULGARIA. In Bulgaria, Arabian-Turkish methods of making coffee prevail. The accompanying illustration shows a group in a caravan of the faithfulon the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. The venerable Moslem, who isambitious of becoming a hadji, is attended by his guards, distinguishedby their fantastic dress; their glittering golden-hafted _hanjars_, stuck in their shawl girdles; and their silver-mounted pistols; thegrave turban replaced by a many-tasseled cap. Their accommodation is thestable of a khan, or serai, shared with their camel. Their refreshmentis coffee, thick, black and bitter, served by the khanji in tinyegg-shaped cups. [Illustration: ST. JAMES'S RESTAURANT, PICCADILLY, LONDON] In DENMARK and FINLAND coffee is made and served after the French andGerman fashion. FRANCE. Were it not for the almost inevitable high roast and frequentlythe disconcerting chicory addition, coffee in France might be anunalloyed delight--at least this is how it appears to American eyes. Oneseldom, if ever, finds coffee improperly brewed in France--it is neverboiled. Second only to the United States, France consumes about two million bagsof coffee annually. The varieties include coffee from the East Indies;Mocha; Haitian (a great favorite); Central American; Colombian; andBrazils. [Illustration: AN A. B. C. SHOP, LONDON] [Illustration: HALT OF CARAVANERS AT A SERAI, BULGARIA] Although there are many wholesale and retail coffee roasters in France, home roasting persists, particularly in the country districts. Thelittle sheet-iron cylinder roasters, that are hand-turned over an ironbox holding the charcoal fire, find a ready sale even in the moderndepartment stores of the big cities. In any village or city in France itis a common sight on a pleasant day to find the householder turning hisroaster on the curb in front of his home. Emmet G. Beeson, in _The Teaand Coffee Trade Journal_ gives us this vignette of rural coffeeroasting in the south of France: In a certain town in the south of France I saw an old man with an outfit a little larger than the home variety, a machine with a capacity of about ten pounds. Instead of a cylinder in which to roast his coffee, he had perched on a sheet-iron frame a hollow round ball made of sheet iron. In the top of this ball there was a little slide which was opened by the means of a metal tool. In the sheet-iron frame he had kindled his charcoal fire. Directly in front of his roaster was a home-made cooling pan, the sides of which were of wood, the bottom covered with a fine grade of wire screening. On this particular afternoon, the old man had taken up his place on the curb; and a big black cat had taken advantage of the warmth offered by the charcoal fire and was curled up, sleeping peacefully in the pan nearest the fire. The old man paid no attention to the cat, but went on rotating his ball of coffee and puffing away pensively on his cigarette. When his coffee had become blackened and burned, and blackened and burned it was, he stopped rotating the ball, opened the slide in the top, turned it over, and the hot, burned coffee rolled out, and much to his delight, on the sleeping cat, which leaped out of the pan and scampered up the street and into a hole under an old building. I afterward learned that this old fellow made a business of going about the town gathering up coffee from the houses along the way and roasting it at a few sous per kilo, much the same fashion as a scissors grinder plies his trade in an American town. [Illustration: CAFÉ DE LA PAIX, WHERE PARIS DRINKS ITS COFFEE OUTDOORS] Quite a few grocers roast their own coffee in crude devices much likethose described above; but the large coffee roasters are graduallyeliminating this sort of procedure. There are at Havre several roasters, but only two of importance; one does a business of about two hundred andfifty bags a day, and the next largest has a capacity of about onehundred and sixty bags a day. In Paris, there are many coffee roasters, some quite large, comparatively speaking, one having a capacity of aboutseven hundred and fifty bags a day. Shop-keepers in Paris and otherlarge cities roast their coffee fresh daily. The machines used are ofthe ball or cylinder type, employing gas fuel and turned by electricpower. Invariably they stand where they may be seen from the street. Sample-roasters, or testing tables, in France are conspicuous by theirabsence. Inquiry regarding this subject discloses that coffee is sold ondescription; and when the French trader is asked, "How do you know yourdelivery is up to description so far as cup quality is concerned?" heanswers that this is arrived at from the general appearance and thesmell of the coffee in the green. Perhaps one reason for the laxity inbuying cup quality may be explained by the fact that coffee is roastedvery high, in fact it is burned almost to a charred state; and unlessthe coffee is unusually bad in character, the burned taste eliminatesany foreign flavor it may have. [Illustration: SIDEWALK ANNEX, CAFÉ DE LA PAIX, PARIS, WITH OPERA HOUSEIN BACKGROUND--SUMMER OF 1918] The fact that coffee was, and still is, quite generally sold to theconsumer green, accounts for Central American coffees taking firstplace. Style takes preference over everything else when it comes toselling to a Frenchman. To the American coffee merchant it seems that the French are carryingtheir artistic tastes to an unreasonable extreme when they apply them tocoffee; for coffee is grown to drink and not to look at. Since the coming of the large coffee roaster, who delivers roastedcoffee right down the line to the consumer, Santos has come in for itsshare of the business. The roasters are getting good results out ofSantos blends, up to fifty percent and sixty percent with West Indianand Central American coffees. Rio is as much in disfavor in France as itis in the United States, perhaps more so. In Brittany the demand is for peaberry coffee, no matter of whatvariety. This comes about from the fact that the people of this sectionof the country still do a great deal of their roasting at home, and havebecome accustomed to the use of peaberry coffee because they do not havethe improved hand roasters, and still do a great deal of their roastingin pans in the ovens of their stoves. The peaberry coffee rolls about sonicely in the pan that they get a much more uniform roast. Nearly all the coffee is ground at home, which is not a bad practise forthe consumer; but perhaps works hardship on the dealer, who can mix somegrade grinders into his blends without doing them any material harm. Where coffee mills are used in the stores, they are of the Strong-Armfamily and of an ancient heritage. To get a growl out of the grocer inFrance, buy a kilo of coffee and ask him to grind it. Package coffee and proprietary brands have not come into their own tothe extent that they have in the United States, although there are atpresent two firms in Paris which have started in this business and areadvertising extensively on billboards, in street cars, and in thesubways. However, most coffee is still sold in bulk. The butter, egg, and cheese stores of France do a very large business in coffee. Prior tothe war and high prices, there were some very large firms doing apremium business in coffee, tea, spices, etc. They still exist, andhave a very fine trade; but since the high prices of coffees andpremiums, the business has gone down very materially. They operate bythe wagon-route and solicitor method, just as some of our Americancompanies do. One very large firm in Paris has been in this business formore than thirty years, operating branches and wagons in every town, village, and hamlet in France. [Illustration: CAFÉ DE LA RÉGENCE, PARIS, SHOWING THE TYPICALCONTINENTAL ARRANGEMENT OF SEATS] The consumption of coffee is increasing very materially in France; somesay, on account of the high price of wine, others hold that coffee issimply growing in favor with the people. Among the masses, Frenchbreakfast consists of a bowl or cup of _café au lait_, or half a cup orbowl of strong black coffee and chicory, and half a cup of hot milk, anda yard of bread. The workingman turns his bread on end and inserts itinto his bowl of coffee, allowing it to soak up as much of the liquid aspossible. Then he proceeds to suck this concoction into his system. Hisapproval is demonstrated by the amount of noise he makes in theoperation. Among the better classes, the breakfast is the same, _café au lait_, with rolls and butter, and sometimes fruit. The brew is prepared by thedrip, or true percolator, method or by filtration. Boiling milk ispoured into the cup from a pot held in one hand together with the brewedcoffee from a pot held in the other, providing a simultaneous mixture. The proportions vary from half-and-half to one part coffee and threeparts milk. Sometimes, the service is by pouring into the cup a littlecoffee then the same quantity of milk and alternating in this way untilthe cup is filled. Coffee is never drunk with any meal but breakfast, but is invariablyserved _en demi-tasse_ after the noon and the evening meals. In thehome, the usual thing after luncheon or dinner is to go into the _salon_and have your demi-tasse and liqueur and cigarettes before a cosy gratefire. A Frenchman's idea of after-dinner coffee is a brew that isunusually thick and black, and he invariably takes with it his liqueur, no matter if he has had a cocktail for an appetizer, a bottle of redwine with his meat course, and a bottle of white wine with the salad anddessert course. When the demi-tasse comes along, with it must be servedhis cordial in the shape of cognac, benedictine, or crème de menthe. Hecan not conceive of a man not taking a little alcohol with hisafter-dinner coffee, as an aid, he says, to digestion. In Normandy, there prevails a custom in connection with coffee drinkingthat is unique. They produce in this province great quantities of whatis known as _cidre_, made from a particular variety of apple grownthere--in other words, just plain hard cider. However, they distil thishard cider, and from the distillation they get a drink called_calvados_. [Illustration: CAFÉ DE LA RÉGENCE IN 1922] The man from Normandy takes half a cup of coffee, and fills the cup with_calvados_, sweetened with sugar, and drinks it with seeming relish. Ice-cold coffee will almost sizzle when _calvados_ is poured into it. Ittastes like a corkscrew, and one drink has the same effect as a crack onthe head with a hammer. From the toddling age up, the Norman takes his_calvados_ and coffee. In the south of France they make a concoction from the residue ofgrapes. They boil the residue down in water, and get a drink called_marc_; and it is used in much the same way as the Norman in the northuses _calvados_. Then there is also the very popular summertime drinkknown as _mazagran_, which in that region means seltzer water and coldcoffee, or what Americans might call a coffee highball. Making coffee in France has been, and always will be, by the drip andthe filtration methods. The large hotels and cafés follow these methodsalmost entirely, and so does the housewife. When company comes, andsomething unusual in coffee is to be served, Mr. Beeson says he hasknown the cook to drip the coffee, using a spoonful of hot water at atime, pouring it over tightly packed, finely ground coffee, allowing thewater to percolate through to extract every particle of oil. They usemore ground coffee in bulk than they get liquid in the cup, andsometimes spend an hour producing four or five demi-tasses. It isneedless to say that it is more like molasses than coffee when ready fordrinking. It is not unusual in some parts of France to save the coffee grounds fora second or even a third infusion, but this is not considered goodpractise. Von Liebig's idea of correct coffee making has been adapted to Frenchpractise in some instances after this fashion: put used coffee groundsin the bottom chamber of a drip coffee pot. Put freshly ground coffee inthe upper chamber. Pour on boiling water. The theory is that the oldcoffee furnishes body and strength, and the fresh coffee the aroma. The cafés that line the boulevards of Paris and the larger cities ofFrance all serve coffee, either plain or with milk, and almost alwayswith liqueur. The coffee house in France may be said to be the winehouse; or the wine house may be said to be the coffee house. They areinseparable. In the smallest or the largest of these establishmentscoffee can be had at any time of day or night. The proprietor of a verylarge café in Paris says his coffee sales during the day almost equalhis wine sales. The French, young or old, take a great deal of pleasure in sitting outon the sidewalk in front of a café, sipping coffee or liqueur. Here theylove to idle away the time just watching the passing show. In Paris, there are hundreds of these cafés lining the boulevards, whereone may sit for hours before the small tables reading the newspapers, writing letters, or merely idling. In the morning, from eight to eleven, employees, men-about-town, tourists, and provincials throng the cafésfor _café au lait_. The waiters are coldly polite. They bring thepapers, and brush the table--twice for _café créme_ (milk), and threetimes for _café complet_ (with bread and butter). In the afternoon, _café_ means a small cup or glass of _café noir_, or_café nature_. It is double the usual amount of coffee dripped bypercolator or filtration device, the process consuming eight to tenminutes. Some understand _café noir_ to mean equal parts of coffee andbrandy with sugar and vanilla to taste. When _café noir_ is mixed withan equal quantity of cognac alone it becomes _café gloria_. _Cafémazagran_ is also much in demand in the summertime. The coffee base ismade as for _café noir_, and it is served in a tall glass with water todilute it to one's taste. Few of the cafés that made Paris famous in the eighteenth centurysurvive. Among those that are notable for their coffee service are theCafé de la Paix; the Café de la Régence, founded in 1718; and the CaféPrévost, noted also for chocolate after the theater. [Illustration: ONE OF THE BIARD CAFÉS There are about 200 of these coffee and wine shops in Paris. They arefrequented mostly by laborers, clerks, and midinettes] [Illustration: RESTAURANT PROCOPE, 1922 Successor to the famous "Cave" of 1689] GERMANY. Germany originated the afternoon coffee function known as thekaffee-klatsch. Even today, the German family's reunion takes placearound the coffee table on Sunday afternoons. In summer, when weatherpermits, the family will take a walk into the suburbs, and stop at agarden where coffee is sold in pots. The proprietor furnishes thecoffee, the cups, the spoons and, in normal times, the sugar, two piecesto each cup; and the patrons bring their own cake. They put one piece ofsugar into each cup and take the other pieces home to the "canary bird, "meaning the sugar bowl in the pantry. Cheaper coffee is served in some gardens, which conspicuously displaylarge signs at the entrance, saying: "Families may cook their own coffeein this place. " In such a garden, the patron merely buys the hot waterfrom the proprietor, furnishing the ground coffee and cake himself. While waiting for the coffee to brew, he may listen to the band andwatch the children play under the trees. French or Vienna drip pots areused for brewing. Every city in Germany has its cafés, spacious places where patrons sitaround small tables, drinking coffee, "with or without" turned orunturned, steaming or iced, sweetened or unsweetened, depending on thesugar supply; nibble, at the same time, a piece of cake or pastry, selected from a glass pyramid; talk, flirt, malign, yawn, read, andsmoke. Cafés are, in fact, public reading rooms. Some places keephundreds of daily and weekly newspapers and magazines on file for theuse of patrons. If the customer buys only one cup of coffee, he may keephis seat for hours, and read one newspaper after another. Three of the four corners of Berlin's most important street crossing areoccupied by cafés. This is where Unter den Linden and Friedrichstrassemeet. On the southwest corner there is Kranzler's staid old café, a veryrespectable place, where the lower hall is even reserved fornon-smokers. On the southeast corner is Café Bauer, known the worldover. However, it has seen better days. It has been outdistanced bycompetitors. On the northeast corner is the Victoria, a new-style place, very bright, and less staid. There no room is reserved for non-smokers, for most of the ladies, if they do not themselves smoke, will light thecigars for their escorts. Around the Potsdamer Platz there is a number of cafés. Josty's isperhaps the most frequented in Berlin. It is the best liked on accountof the trees and terraces in front. Farther to the west, onKuerfuerstendamm, there are dozens of large cafés. [Illustration: MORNING COFFEE IN FRONT OF A BOULEVARD CAFÉ, PARIS, WITHA BRITISH BACKGROUND] [Illustration: INTERIOR, CAFÉ BAUER, BERLIN] Some of the cafés are meeting-places for certain professions and trades. The Admiral's café, in Friedrichstrasse, for instance, is the"artistes'" exchange. All the stage folk and stars of the tanbark meetthere every day. Chorus girls, tumblers, ladies of the flying trapeze, contortionists, and bareback riders are to be found there, discussingtheir grievances, denouncing their managers, swapping their diamonds, and recounting former triumphs. Cinema-makers come also to pick out acast for a new film play. There one can pick out a full cast everyminute. Then there is the Café des Westens in Kuerfuerstendamm, the old one, where dreamers and poets congregate. It is called also CaféGroessenwahn, which means that persons suffering from an exaggerated egoare conspicuous by their presence and their long hair. At almost every table one may find a poet who has written a play that isbound to enrich its author and any man of means who will put up themoney to build a new theater in which to produce it. Saxony and Thuringia are proverbial hotbeds of coffee lovers. It is saidthat in Saxony there are more coffee drinkers to the square inch andmore cups to the single coffee bean than anywhere else upon earth. TheSaxons like their coffee, but seem to be afraid it may be too strong forthem. So, when over their cups, they always make certain they can seebottom before raising the steaming bowl to the lip. Von Liebig's method of making coffee, whereby three-fourths of thequantity to be used is first boiled for ten or fifteen minutes, and theremainder added for a six-minute steeping or infusion, is religiouslyfollowed by some housekeepers. Von Liebig advocated coating the beanwith sugar. In some families, fats, eggs, and egg-shells are used tosettle and to clarify the beverage. [Illustration: CAFÉ BAUER, UNTER DEN LINDEN, BERLIN] Coffee in Germany is better cooked (roasted) and more scientificallyprepared than in many other European countries. In recent years, duringthe World War and since, however, there has been an amazing increase inthe use of coffee substitutes, so that the German cup of coffee is notthe pure delight it was once. GREECE. Coffee is the most popular and most extensively usednon-alcoholic beverage in Greece, as it is throughout the Near East. Itsannual per capita consumption there is about two pounds, two-thirds ofthe supply coming _via_ Austria and France, Brazil furnishing direct thebulk of the remaining third. Coffee is given a high or city roast, and is used almost entirely inpowdered form. It is prepared for consumption principally in the Turkishdemi-tasse way. Finely ground coffee is used even in making ordinarytable, or breakfast, coffee. In private houses the cylindrical brasshand-grinders, manufactured in Constantinople, are mostly used. In manyof the coffee houses in the villages and country towns throughout Greeceand the Levant, a heavy iron pestle, wielded by a strong man, isemployed to pulverize the grains in a heavy stone or marble mortar;while the poorer homes use a small brass pestle and mortar, alsomanufactured in Turkey. In his _The Greeks of the Present Day_[371], Edmond François ValentinAbout says: The coffee which is drunk in all the Greek houses rather astonishes the travellers who have neither seen Turkey nor Algeria. One is surprised at finding food in a cup in which one expected drink. Yet you get accustomed to this coffee-broth and end by finding it more savoury, lighter, more perfumed, and especially more wholesome, than the extract of coffee you drink in France. Then About gives the recipe of his servant Petros, who is "the first manin Athens for coffee": The grain is roasted without burning it; it is reduced to an impalpable powder, either in a mortar or in a very close-grained mill. Water is set on the fire till it boils up; it is taken off to throw in a spoonful of coffee, and a spoonful of pounded sugar for each cup it is intended to make; it is carefully mixed; the coffee pot is replaced on the fire until the contents seem ready to boil over; it is taken off, and set on again; lastly it is quickly poured into the cups. Some coffee drinkers have this preparation boiled as many as five times. Petros makes a rule of not putting his coffee more than three times on the fire. He takes care in filling the cups to divide impartially the coloured froth which rises above the coffee pot; it is the _kaimaki_ of the coffee. A cup without _kaimaki_ is disgraced. When the coffee is poured out you are at liberty to drink it boiling and muddy, or cold and clear. Real amateurs drink it without waiting. Those who allow the sediment to settle down, do not do so from contempt, for they afterwards collect it with the little finger and eat it carefully. Thus prepared, coffee may be taken without inconvenience ten times a day: five cups of French coffee could not be drunk with impunity every day. It is because the coffee of the Turks and the Greeks is a diluted tonic, and ours is a concentrated tonic. I have met at Paris many people who took their coffee without sugar, to imitate the Orientals. I think I ought to give them notice, between ourselves, that in the great coffee-houses of Athens, sugar is always presented with the coffee; in the khans and second-rate coffee-houses, it is served already sugared; and that at Smyrna and Constantinople, it has everywhere been brought to me sugared. [Illustration: KRANZLER'S, UNTER DEN LINDEN, BERLIN] ITALY. In Italy coffee is roasted in a wholesale and retail way as wellas in the home. French, German, Dutch, and Italian machines are used. The full city, or Italian, roast is favored. There are cafés as inFrance and other continental countries, and the drink is prepared in theFrench fashion. For restaurants and hotels, rapid filtering machines, first developed by the French and Italians, are used. In the homes, percolators and filtration devices are employed. The De Mattia Brothers have a process designed to conserve the aroma inroasting. The Italians pay particular attention to the temperature inroasting and in the cooling operation. There is considerable glazing, and many coffee additions are used. Like the French, the Italians make much of _café au lait_ for breakfast. At dinner, the _café noir_ is served. Cafés of the French school are to be found along the Corso in Rome, theToledo in Naples, in the Galleria Vittorio Emanuel and the Piazza delDuomo in Milan, and in the arcades surrounding the Piazza de San Marcoin Venice, where Florian's still flourishes. NETHERLANDS. In the Netherlands, too, the French café is a delightfulfeature of the life of the larger cities. The Dutch roast coffeeproperly, and make it well. The service is in individual pots, or indemi-tasses on a silver, nickle, or brass tray, and accompanied by aminiature pitcher containing just enough cream (usually whipped), asmall dish about the size of an individual butter plate holding threesquares of sugar, and a slender glass of water. This service isuniversal; the glass of water always goes with the coffee. It is the onesure way for Americans to get a drink of water. It is the custom inHolland to repair to some open-air café or indoor coffee house for theafter-dinner cup of coffee. One seldom takes his coffee in the placewhere he has his dinner. These cafés are many, and some are elaboratelydesigned and furnished. One of the most interesting is the St. Joris atthe Hague, furnished in the old Dutch style. The approved way of makingcoffee in Holland is the French drip method. NORWAY AND SWEDEN. French and German influences mark the roasting, grinding, preparing, and serving of coffee in Norway and Sweden. Generally speaking, not so much chicory is used, and a great deal ofwhipped cream is employed. In Norway, the boiling method has manyfollowers. A big (open) copper kettle is used. This is filled withwater, and the coffee is dumped in and boiled. In the poorer-classcountry homes, the copper kettle is brought to the table and set upon awooden plate. The coffee is served directly from the kettle in cups. Inbetter-class homes, the coffee is poured from the kettle into silvercoffee pots in the kitchen, and the silver coffee pots are brought tothe table. The only thing approaching coffee houses are the "coffeerooms" which are to be found in Christiania. These are small one-roomaffairs in which the plainer sorts of foods, such as porridge, may bepurchased with the coffee. They are cheap, and are largely frequented bythe poorer class of students, who use them as places in which to studywhile they drink their coffee. In RUSSIA and SWITZERLAND, French and German methods obtain. Russia, however, drinks more tea than coffee, which by the masses is prepared inTurkish fashion, when obtainable. Usually, the coffee is only a cheap"substitute. " The so-called _café à la Russe_ of the aristocracy, isstrong black coffee flavored with lemon. Another Russian recipe callsfor the coffee to be placed in a large punch bowl, and covered with alayer of finely chopped apples and pears; then cognac is poured over themass, and a match applied. ROUMANIA and SERVIA drink coffee prepared after either the Turkish orthe French style, depending on the class of the drinker and where it isserved. Substitutes are numerous. In SPAIN and PORTUGAL the French type of café flourishes as in Italy. InMadrid, some delightful cafés are to be found around the Puerto del Sol, where coffee and chocolate are the favorite drinks. The coffee is madeby the drip process, and is served in French fashion. _Coffee Manners and Customs in North America_ The introduction of coffee and tea into North America effected a greatchange in the meal-time beverages of the people. Malt beverages had beensucceeded by alcoholic spirits and by cider. These in turn weresupplanted by tea and coffee. CANADA. In Canada, we find both French and English influences at work inthe preparation and serving of the beverage; "Yankee" ideas also haveentered from across the border. Some years back (about 1910) A. McGill, chief chemist of the Canadian Inland Revenue Department, suggested animprovement upon Baron von Liebig's method, whereby Canadians mightobtain an ideal cup of coffee. It was to combine two well-known methods. One was to boil a quantity of ground coffee to get a maximum of body orsoluble matter. The other was to percolate a similar quantity to get theneeded caffeol. By combining the decoction and the infusion, a finishedbeverage rich in body and aroma might be had. Most Canadians continue todrink tea, however, although coffee consumption is increasing. MEXICO. In Mexico, the natives have a custom peculiarly their own. Theroasted beans are pounded to a powder in a cloth bag which is thenimmersed in a pot of boiling water and milk. The _vaquero_, however, pours boiling water on the powdered coffee in his drinking cup, andsweetens it with a brown sugar stick. Among the upper classes in Mexico the following interesting methodobtains for making coffee: Roast one pound until the beans are brown inside. Mix with the roasted coffee one teaspoonful of butter, one of sugar, and a little brandy. Cover with a thick cloth. Cool for one hour; then grind. Boil one quart of water. When boiling, put in the coffee and remove from fire immediately. Let it stand a few hours, and strain through a flannel bag, and keep in a stone jar until required for use; then heat quantity required. [Illustration: SIDEWALK CAFÉ, LISBON] UNITED STATES. In no country has there been so marked an improvement incoffee making as in the United States. Although in many parts, thenational beverage is still indifferently prepared, the progress made inrecent years has been so great that the friends of coffee are hopefulthat before long it may be said truly that coffee making in America is anational honor and no longer the national disgrace that it was in thepast. [Illustration: THESE COFFEE POTS ARE WIDELY USED IN SWEDEN FOR BOILINGCOFFEE Left, copper pot with wooden handle and iron legs designed to stand inthe coals--Center, glass-globe pot, for stove use, enclosed infelt-lined brass cosey--Right, hand-made hammered-brass kettle for stoveuse] Already, in the more progressive homes, and in the best hotels andrestaurants, the coffee is uniformly good, and the service all that itshould be. The American breakfast cup is a food-beverage because of theadditions of milk or cream and sugar; and unlike Europe, this samegenerous cup serves again as a necessary part of the noonday and eveningmeals for most people. [Illustration: THE COFFEE ROOM OF THE HOTEL ADOLPHUS, DALLAS, TEXAS] [Illustration: DAY-AND-NIGHT COFFEE ROOM, RICE HOTEL, HOUSTON, TEXAS] [Illustration: HOTEL BARS REPLACED BY COFFEE ROOMS IN THE UNITED STATES One effect of prohibition has been to lead many hotels to feature theircoffee service, bringing back the modern type of coffee room illustratedabove] The important and indispensable part that sugar plays in the make-up ofthe American cup of coffee was ably set forth by Fred Mason, [372]vice-president of the American Sugar Refining Co. , when he said: The coffee cup and the sugar bowl are inseparable table companions. Most of us did not realize this until the war came, with its attendant restrictions on everything we did, and we found that the sugar bowl had disappeared from all public eating places. No longer could we make an unlimited number of trips to the sugar bowl to sweeten our coffee; but we had to be content with what was doled out to us with scrupulous care--a quantity so small at times that it gave only a hint of sweetness to our national beverage. Then it was that we really appreciated how indispensable the proper amount of sugar was to a good, savory cup of coffee, and we missed it as much as we would seasoning from certain cooked foods. Secretly we consoled ourselves with the promise that if the day ever came when sugar bowls made their appearance once more, filled temptingly with the sweet granules that were "gone but not forgotten, " we should put an extra lump or an additional spoonful of sugar into our coffee to help us forget the joyless war days. Since sugar is so necessary to our enjoyment of this popular beverage, it is obvious that a considerable part of all the sugar we consume must find its way into the national coffee cup. The stupendous amount of 40, 000, 000, 000 cups of coffee is consumed in this country each year. Taking two teaspoonfuls or two lumps as a fair average per cup, we find that about 800, 000, 000 pounds of sugar, almost one-tenth of our total annual consumption, are required to sweeten Uncle Sam's coffee cup. This is specially significant when one considers that, with the single exception of Australia, the United States consumes more sugar per capita than any country on earth. Sugar adds high food value to the stimulative virtues of coffee. The beverage itself stimulates the mental and physical powers, while the sugar it contains is fuel for the body and furnishes it with energy. Sugar is such a concentrated food that the amount used by the average person in two cups of coffee is enough to furnish the system with more energy than could be derived from 40 oysters on the half-shell. Since prohibition, the average citizen is drinking one hundred more cupsof coffee a year than he did in the old days; and a good part of theincrease is attributed to newly formed habits of drinking coffee betweenmeals, at soda fountains, in tea and coffee shops, at hotels, and evenin the homes. In other words, the increase is due to coffee drinkingthat directly takes the place of malt and spirituous liquors. There havecome into being the hotel coffee room; the custom of afternoon coffeedrinking; and free coffee-service in many factories, stores, andoffices. In colonial days, must or ale first gave way to tea, and then to coffeeas a breakfast beverage. The Boston "tea party" clinched the case forcoffee; but in the meantime, coffee was more or less of an after-dinnerfunction, or a between-meals drink, as in Europe. In Washington's time, dinner was usually served at three o'clock in the afternoon, and atinformal dinner parties the company "sat till sunset--then coffee. " In the early part of the nineteenth century, coffee became firmlyintrenched as the one great American breakfast beverage; and itssecurity in this position would seem to be unassailable for all time. Today, all classes in the United States begin and end the day withcoffee. In the home, it is prepared by boiling, infusion or steeping, percolation, and filtration; in the hotels and restaurants, by infusion, percolation, and filtration. The best practise favors true percolation(French drip), or filtration. Steeping coffee in American homes (an English heirloom) is usuallyperformed in a china or earthenware jug. The ground coffee has boilingwater poured upon it until the jug is half full. The infusion is stirredbriskly. Next, the jug is filled by pouring in the remainder of theboiling water, the infusion is again stirred, then permitted to settle, and finally is poured through a strainer or filter cloth before serving. When a pumping percolator or a double glass filtration device is used, the water may be cold or boiling at the beginning as the maker prefers. Some wet the coffee with cold water before starting the brewing process. For genuine percolator, or drip coffee, French and Austrian china drippots are mostly employed. The latest filtration devices are described inchapter XXXIV. The Creole, or French market, coffee for which New Orleans has long beenfamous is made from a concentrated coffee extract prepared in a drippot. First, the ground coffee has poured over it sufficient boilingwater thoroughly to dampen it, after which further additions of boilingwater, a tablespoonful at a time, are poured upon it at five minuteintervals. The resulting extract is kept in a tightly corked bottle formaking _café au lait_ or _café noir_ as required. A variant of theCreole method is to brown three tablespoonfuls of sugar in a pan, to adda cup of water, and to allow it to simmer until the sugar is dissolved;to pour this liquid over ground coffee in a drip pot, to add boilingwater as required, and to serve black or with cream or hot milk, asdesired. In New Orleans, coffee is often served at the bedside upon waking, as akind of early breakfast function. The Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876 served to introduce theVienna café to America. Fleischmann's Vienna Café and Bakery was afeature of our first international exposition. Afterward, it wastransferred to Broadway, New York, where for many years it continued toserve excellent coffee in Vienna style next door to Grace Church. The opportunity is still waiting for the courageous soul who will bringback to our larger cities this Vienna café or some Americanized form ofthe continental or sidewalk café, making a specialty of tea, coffee, andchocolate. The old Astor House was famous for its coffee for many years, as wasalso Dorlon's from 1840 to 1922. Members of the family of the late Colonel Roosevelt began to promote aBrazil coffee-house enterprise in New York in 1919. It was first calledCafé Paulista, but it is now known as the Double R coffee house, or Clubof South America, with a Brazil branch in the 40's and an Argentinebranch on Lexington Avenue. Coffee is made and served in Brazilianstyle; that is, full city roast, pulverized grind, filtration made;service, black or with hot milk. Sandwiches, cakes, and crullers arealso to be had. One of New York's newest clubs is known as the Coffee House. It is inWest Forty-fifth Street, and has been in existence since December, 1915, when it was opened with an informal dinner, at which the late Joseph H. Choate, one of the original members, outlined the purpose and policiesof the club. The founders of the Coffee House were convinced--as the result of thehigh dues and constantly increasing formality and discipline in thesocial clubs in New York--that there was need here for a moderate-pricedeating and meeting place, which should be run in the simplest possibleway and with the least possible expense. At the beginning of its career, the club framed, adopted, and has sincelived up to, a most informal constitution: "No officers, no liveries, notips, no set speeches, no charge accounts, no RULES. " The membership is made up, for the most part, of painters, writers, sculptors, architects, actors, and members of other professions. Membersare expected to pay cash for all orders. There are no proposals ofcandidates for membership. The club invites to join it those whom itbelieves to be in sympathy with the ideals of its founders. The method of preparing coffee for individual service in theWaldorf-Astoria, New York, which has been adopted by many first-classhotels and restaurants that do not serve urn-made coffee exclusively, isthe French drip plus careful attention to all the contributing factorsfor making coffee in perfection, and is thus described by the hotel'ssteward: [Illustration: BRITANNIA COFFEE POT FROM WHICH ABRAHAM LINCOLN WAS OFTENSERVED IN NEW SALEM Its story is told on page 614] A French china drip coffee pot is used. It is kept in a warm heater; and when the coffee is ordered, this pot is scalded with hot water. A level tablespoonful of coffee, ground to about the consistency of granulated sugar, is put into the upper and percolator part of the coffee pot. Fresh boiling water is then poured through the coffee and allowed to percolate into the lower part of the pot. The secret of success, according to our experience, lies in having the coffee freshly ground, and the water as near the boiling point as possible, all during the process. For this reason, the coffee pot should be placed on a gas stove or range. The quantity of coffee can be varied to suit individual taste. We use about ten percent more ground coffee for after dinner cups than we do for breakfast. Our coffee is a mixture of Old Government Java and Bogota. [Illustration: COFFEE SERVICE, HOTEL ASTOR, NEW YORK] C. Scotty, chef at the Hotel Ambassador, New York, thus describes themethod of making coffee in that hostelry: In the first place, it is essential that the coffee be of the finest quality obtainable; secondly, better results are obtained by using the French filterer, or coffee bag. Twelve ounces of coffee to one gallon of water for breakfast. Sixteen ounces of coffee to one gallon of water for dinner. Boiling water should be poured over the coffee, sifoned, and put back several times. We do not allow the coffee grounds to remain in the urn for more than fifteen to twenty minutes at any time. The coffee service at the best hotels is usually in silver pots andpitchers, and includes the freshly made coffee, hot milk or cream(sometimes both), and domino sugar. Within the last year (1921) many of the leading hotels, and some of thebig railway systems, have adopted the custom of serving free ademi-tasse of coffee as soon as the guest-traveler seats himself at thebreakfast table or in the dining car. "Small blacks, " the waiters callthem, or "coffee cocktails, " according to their fancy. At the Pequot coffee house, 91 Water Street, New York, a noondayrestaurant in the heart of the coffee trade, an attempt has been made tointroduce something of the old-time coffee house atmosphere. The Childs chain of restaurants recently began printing on its menus, inbrackets before each item, the number of calories as computed by anexpert in nutrition. Coffee with a mixture of milk and cream is creditedwith eighty-five calories, a well known coffee substitute with seventycalories, and tea with eighteen calories. The Childs chain of 92restaurants serves 40, 000, 000 cups of coffee a year, made from 375 tonsof ground coffee, and figuring an average of 53 cups to the pound. The Thompson chain of one hundred restaurants serves 160, 000 cups ofcoffee per day, or more than 58, 000, 000 cups per year. _Coffee Customs in South America_ ARGENTINE. Coffee is very popular as a beverage in Argentina. _Café conléche_--coffee with milk, in which the proportion of coffee may varyfrom one-fourth to two-thirds--is the usual Argentine breakfastbeverage. A small cup of coffee is generally taken after meals, and itis also consumed to a considerable extent in cafés. BRAZIL. In Brazil every one drinks coffee and at all hours. Cafés makinga specialty of the beverage, and modeled after continental originals, are to be found a-plenty in Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and other largecities. The custom prevails of roasting the beans high, almost tocarbonization, grinding them fine, and then boiling after the Turkishfashion, percolating in French drip pots, steeping in cold water forseveral hours, straining and heating the liquid for use as needed, orfiltering by means of conical linen sacks suspended from wire rings. The Brazilian loves to frequent the cafés and to sip his coffee at hisease. He is very continental in this respect. The wide-open doors, andthe round-topped marble tables, with their small cups and saucers setaround a sugar basin, make inviting pictures. The customer pulls towardhim one of the cups and immediately a waiter comes and fills it withcoffee, the charge for which is about three cents. It is a common thingfor a Brazilian to consume one dozen to two dozen cups of black coffee aday. If one pays a social visit, calls upon the president of theRepublic, or any lesser official, or on a business acquaintance, it is asignal for an attendant to serve coffee. _Café au lait_ is popular inthe morning; but except for this service, milk or cream is never used. In Brazil, as in the Orient, coffee is a symbol of hospitality. In CHILE, PARAGUAY and URUGUAY, very much the same customs prevail ofmaking and serving the beverage. _Coffee Drinking in Other Countries_ In AUSTRALIA and NEW ZEALAND, English methods for roasting, grinding, and making coffee are standard. The beverage usually contains thirty toforty percent chicory. In the bush, the water is boiled in a billy can. Then the powdered coffee is added; and when the liquid comes again to aboil, the coffee is done. In the cities, practically the same method isfollowed. The general rule in the antipodes seems to be to "let it cometo a boil", and then to remove it from the fire. In CUBA the custom is to grind the coffee fine, to put it in a flannelsack suspended over a receiving vessel, and to pour cold water on it. This is repeated many times, until the coffee mass is well saturated. The first drippings are repoured over the bag. The final result is ahighly concentrated extract, which serves for making _café au lait_, or_café noir_, as desired. In MARTINIQUE, coffee is made after the French fashion. In PANAMA, French and American methods obtain; as also in the PHILIPPINES. [Illustration] CHAPTER XXXVI PREPARATION OF THE UNIVERSAL BEVERAGE _The evolution of grinding and brewing methods--Coffee was first a food, then a wine, a medicine, a devotional refreshment, a confection, and finally a beverage--Brewing by boiling, infusion, percolation, and filtration--Coffee making in Europe in the nineteenth century--Early coffee making in the United States--Latest developments in better coffee making--Various aspects of scientific coffee brewing--Advice to coffee lovers on how to buy coffee, and how to make it in perfection_ The coffee drink has had a curious evolution. It began, not as a drink, but as a food ration. Its first use as a drink was as a kind of wine. Civilization knew it first as a medicine. At one stage of itsdevelopment, before it became generally accepted as a liquidrefreshment, the berries found favor as a confection. As a beverage, itsuse probably dates back about six hundred years. The protein and fat content, that is, the food value, of coffee, so faras civilized man is concerned, is an absolute waste. The onlyconstituents that are of value are those that are water soluble, and canbe extracted readily with hot water. When coffee is properly made, as bythe drip method, either by percolation or filtration, the ground coffeecomes in contact with the hot water for only a few minutes; so the majorportion of the protein, which is not only practically insoluble, butcoagulates on heating, remains in the unused part of the coffee, thegrounds. The coffee bean contains a large percent of protein--fourteenpercent. By comparing this figure with twenty-one percent of protein inpeas, twenty-three percent in lentils, twenty-six percent in beans, twenty-four percent in peanuts, about eleven percent in wheat flour, andless than nine percent in white bread, we learn how much of thisvaluable food stuff is lost with the coffee grounds[373]. Though civilized man (excepting the inhabitants of the Isle de Groix offthe coast of Brittany) does not use this protein content of coffee, incertain parts of Africa it has been put to use in a very ingenious andeffective manner "from time immemorial" down to the present day. JamesBruce, the Scottish explorer, in his travels to discover the source ofthe Nile in 1768-73, found that this curious use of the coffee bean hadbeen known for centuries. He brought back accounts and specimens of itsuse as a food in the shape of balls made of grease mixed with roastedcoffee finely ground between stones. Other writers have told how the Galla, a wandering tribe of Africa--andlike most wandering tribes, a warlike one--find it necessary to carryconcentrated food on their long marches. Before starting on theirmarauding excursions, each warrior equips himself with a number of foodballs. These prototypes of the modern food tablet are about the size ofa billiard ball, and consist of pulverized coffee held in shape withfat. One ball constitutes a day's ration; and although civilized manmight find it unpalatable, from the purely physiological standpoint itis not only a concentrated and efficient food, but it also has theadditional advantage of containing a valuable stimulant in the caffeincontent which spurs the warrior on to maximum effort. And so the savagein the African jungle has apparently solved two problems; theutilization of coffee's protein, and the production of a concentratedfood. Further research shows that perhaps as early as 800 A. D. This practisestarted by crushing the whole ripe berries, beans and hulls, in mortars, mixing them with fats, and rounding them into food balls. Later, thedried berries were so used. The inhabitants of Groix, also, thrive on adiet that includes roasted coffee beans. About 900, a kind of aromatic wine was made in Africa from the fermentedjuice of the hulls and pulp of the ripe berries[374]. Payen says that the first coffee drinkers did not think of roasting but, impressed by the aroma of the dried beans, they put them in cold waterand drank the liquor saturated with their aromatic principles. Crushingthe raw beans and hulls, and steeping them in water, was a laterimprovement. It appears that boiled coffee (the name is anathema today) was inventedabout the year 1000 A. D. Even then, the beans were not roasted. We readof their use in medicine in the form of a decoction. The dried fruit, beans and hulls, were boiled in stone or clay cauldrons. The custom ofusing the sun-dried hulls, without roasting, still exists in Africa, Arabia, and parts of southern Asia. The natives of Sumatra neglect thefruit of the coffee tree and use the leaves to make a tea-like infusion. Jardin relates that in Guiana an agreeable tea is made by drying theyoung buds of the coffee tree, and rolling them on a copper plateslightly heated. In Uganda, the natives eat the raw berries; frombananas and coffee they make also a sweet, savory drink which is called_menghai_. About 1200, the practise was common of making a decoction from the driedhulls alone. There followed the discovery that roasting improved theflavor. Even today, this drink known as Sultan or Sultana coffee, _caféà la sultane_, or _kisher_, continues in favor in Arabia. Credit for theinvention of this beverage has been wrongfully given by various Frenchwriters to Doctor Andry, director of the Faculty of Medicine in Paris. Dr. Andry had his own recipe for making _café à la sultane_, which wasto boil the coffee hulls for half an hour. This gave a lemon-coloredliquid which was drunk with a little sugar. [Illustration: EARLY COFFEE MAKING IN PERSIA Showing leather bag for green beans, roasting plate, grinder, boiler, and serving cups] The Oriental procedure was to toast the hulls in an earthenware pot overa charcoal fire, mixing in with them a small quantity of the silverskins, and turning them over until they were slightly parched. The hullsand silver skins, in proportions of four to one, were then thrown intoboiling water and well boiled again for at least a half-hour. The colorof the drink had some resemblance to the best English beer, La Roqueassures us, and it required no sweetening, "there being no bitterness tocorrect. " This was still the coffee drink of the court of Yemen, and ofpeople of distinction in the Levant, when La Roque and hisfellow-travelers made their celebrated voyage to Arabia the Happy in1711-13. Some time in the thirteenth century, the practise began of roasting thedried beans, after the hulling process. This was done first in crudestone and earthenware trays, and later on metal plates, as described inchapter XXXIV. A liquor was made from boiling the whole roasted beans. The next step was to pound the roasted beans to a powder with a mortarand pestle; and the decoction was then made by throwing the powder intoboiling water, the drink being swallowed in its entirety, grounds andall. It was a decoction for the next four centuries. When the long-handled Arabian metal boiler made its appearance in theearly part of the sixteenth century, the method of preparation andservice had much improved. The Arabs and the Turks had made it a socialadjunct, and its use was no longer confined to the physicians and thechurchmen. It had become a stimulating refreshment for all the people;and at the same time, the Arabians and the Turks had developed a coffeeceremony for the higher classes which was quite as wonderful as the teaceremony of Japan. The common early method of preparation throughout the Levant was tosteep the powder in water for a day, to boil the liquor half away, tostrain it, and to keep it in earthen pots for use as wanted. In thesixteenth century, the small coffee boiler, or _ibrik_, caused thepractise to be more of an instantaneous affair. The coffee was ground, and the powder was dropped into the boiling water, to be withdrawn fromthe fire several times as it boiled up to the rim. While still boiling, cinnamon and cloves were sometimes added before pouring the liquid offinto the findjans, or little china cups, to be served with the additionof a drop of essence of amber. Later, the Turks added sugar during theboiling process. From the first simple uncovered _ibrik_ there was developed, about themiddle of the seventeenth century, a larger-size covered coffee boiler, the forerunner of the modern combination brewing and serving pot. Thiswas a copper-plated kettle patterned after the oriental ewer with abroad base, bulbous body, and narrow neck. After having poured into itone and a half times as much water as the dish (cup) in which the drinkwas to be served would hold, the pot was placed on a lively fire. Whenthe water boiled, the powdered coffee was tossed into the pot; and, asthe liquid boiled up, it was taken from the fire and returned, probablya dozen times. Then the pot was placed in hot ashes to permit thegrounds to settle. This done, the drink was served. Dufour, describingthis process as practised in Turkey and Arabia, says: One ought not to drink coffee, but suck it in as hot as one can. In order not to be burned, it is not necessary to place the tongue in the cup but hold the edge against the tongue with the lips above and below it, forcing it so little that the edges do not bear down, and then suck in; that is to say, swallow it sip by sip. If one is so delicate he can not stand the bitterness, he can temper it with sugar. It is a mistake to stir the coffee in the pot, the grounds being worth nothing. In the Levant it is only the scum of the people who swallow the grounds. La Roque says: The Arabians, when they take their coffee off the fire, immediately wrap the vessel in a wet cloth which fines the liquor instantly, makes it cream at the top and occasion a more pungent steam, which they take great pleasure in snuffing up as the coffee is pouring into the cups. They, like all other nations of the East, drink their coffee without sugar. Some of the Orientals afterward modified the early coffee-makingprocedure by pouring the boiling water on the powdered coffee in theserving cups. They thus obtained "a foaming and perfumed beverage, " saysJardin, "to which we (the French) could not accustom ourselves becauseof the powder which remains in suspension. Nevertheless, clarifiedcoffee may be obtained in the Orient. In Mecca, in order to filter it, they strain it through stopples of dried herbs, put into the opening ofa jar. " Sugar seems to have been introduced into coffee in Cairo about 1625. Veslingius records that the coffee drinkers in Cairo's three thousandcoffee houses "did begin to put sugar in their coffee to correct thebitterness of it", and that "others made sugar plums of the coffeeberries". This coffee confection later appeared in Paris, and about thesame time (1700) at Montpellier was introduced a coffee water, "a sortof rosa-folis of an agreeable scent that has somewhat of the smell ofcoffee roasted. " These novelties, however, were designed to please only"the most nice lovers of coffee"; for _ennui_ and boredom demanded newsensations then as now. Boiling continued the favorite method of preparing the beverage untilwell into the eighteenth century. Meanwhile, we learn from Englishreferences that it was the custom to buy the beans of apothecaries, todry them in an oven, or to roast them in an old pudding dish or fryingpan before pounding them to a powder with mortar and pestle, to forcethe powder through a lawn sieve, and then to boil it with spring waterfor a quarter of an hour. The following recipe from a rare bookpublished in London, 1662, details the manner of making coffee in theseventeenth century: COFFEE MAKING IN 1662 To make the drink that is now much used called coffee. The coffee-berries are to be bought at any Druggist, about three shillings the pound; take what quantity you please, and over a charcoal fire, in an old pudding-pan or frying-pan, keep them always stirring until they be quite black, and when you crack one with your teeth that it is black within as it is without; yet if you exceed, then do you waste the Oyl, which only makes the drink; and if less, then will it not deliver its Oyl, which must make the drink; and if you should continue fire till it be white, it will then make no coffee, but only give you its salt. The Berry prepared as above, beaten and forced through a Lawn Sive, is then fit for use. Take clean water, and boil one-third of it away what quantity soever it be, and it is fit for use. Take one quart of this prepared Water, put in it one ounce of your prepared coffee, and boil it gently one-quarter of an hour, and it is fit for your use; drink one-quarter of a pint as hot as you can sip it. In England, about this time, the coffee drink was not infrequently mixedwith sugar candy, and even with mustard. In the coffee houses, however, it was usually served black, without sugar or milk. About 1660, Nieuhoff, the Dutch ambassador to China, was the first tomake a trial of coffee with milk in imitation of tea with milk. In 1685, Sieur Monin, a celebrated doctor of Grenoble, France, first recommended_café au lait_ as a medicine. He prepared it thus: Place on the fire abowl of milk. When it begins to rise, throw in to it a bowl of powderedcoffee, a bowl of moist sugar, and let it boil for some time. We read that in 1669 "coffee in France was a hot black decoction ofmuddy grounds thickened with syrup. " Angelo Rambaldi in his _Ambrosia Arabica_ thus describes coffee makingin Italy and other European countries in 1691: DESCRIPTION OF THE VASE FOR MAKING THEDECOCTION, DOSE OF POWDER AND OF THEWATER NECESSARY AND TIME OFBOILING IT. Two such vessels having a large paunch to reach the fire, two others with long necks and narrow, with a cover to restrain their spirituous and volatile particles which when thrown off by the heat are easily lost. These vessels are called Ibriq in Arabia. They are made of copper--coated with white outside and inside. We, who do not possess the art of making them should select an earth vitriate, sulphate of copper, or any other material adapted for kitchen ware: it might even be of silver. The quantity of water and powder has no certain rule, by reason of the difference of our nature and tastes, and each one after some experience will use his own judgment to adjust it to his desire and liking. Maronita infused two ounces of powder in three litres of water. Cotovico in his voyage to Jerusalem affirms that he has observed six ounces of the former to 20 litres of the latter, boiled until it was reduced to half the quantity. Thévenot asserts that the Turks in three cups of water are contented with a good spoonful of powder. I have observed however that in Africa, France and England, into about six ounces of water (which with them is one cup) a dram of the powder is infused and this agrees with my taste--but I have wished at times to change the dose. Others put the water into the vase and when it begins to boil add the powder, but because it is full of spirit at the first contact with the heat it rises and boils over the edge of the vase. Take it away from the fire till the boiling ceases, then put it on the fire again and let it stay a short time boiling with the cover on: Stand it on warm ashes until it settles, after which slowly pour a little of the decoction into an earthen vessel, or one of porcelain or any other kind, as hot as can be borne, and drink a sip; if it pleases your taste, add a portion of cardamom, cloves, nutmeg or cinnamon, and dissolve a little sugar in the water; yet because these substances will alter the taste of this simple, they are not prized by many experts. Modern Arabia, Bassa, Turkey, the Great Orient, those who are travelling or in the army, infuse the powder in cold water, and then boiling it as directed above, bear witness to its efficacy. All times are opportune to take this salutary drink (beverage). Among the Turks are those who take it even by night, nor is there a business meeting or conversation, where coffee is not taken. Among the Great it would be accounted an incivility, if with smoke, coffee were not offered: and no one in the day is ashamed to frequent the bazaars where it is sold. When I was in London, that city of three million people, there were taverns for its special use. It is a great stimulant. The sober take it to invigorate the stomach. The scrofulous hated it because they thought it stirred up the bile on an empty stomach--but experience proving the contrary enjoy it as much as others. In 1702, coffee in the American colonies was being used as a refreshmentbetween meals, "like spirituous liquors. " It was in 1711 that the infusion idea in coffee making appeared inFrance. It came in the form of a fustian (cloth) bag which contained theground coffee in the coffee maker, and the boiling water was poured overit. This was a decided French novelty, but it made slow headway inEngland and America, where some people were still boiling the wholeroasted beans and drinking the liquor. In England, as early as 1722, there arose a conscientious objector toboiled coffee in the person of Humphrey Broadbent, a coffee merchant whowrote a treatise on _the True Way of Preparing and Making Coffee_[375], in which he condemned the "silly" practise of making coffee by "boilingan ounce of the powder in a quart of water, " then common in the Londoncoffee houses, and urging the infusion method. He favored the followingprocedure: Put the quantity of powder you intend, into your pot (which should be either of stone, or silver, being much better than tin or copper, which takes from it much of its flavour and goodness) then pour boiling-hot water upon the aforesaid powder, and let it stand to infuse five minutes before the fire. This is an excellent way, and far exceeds the common one of boiling, but whether you prepare it by boiling or this way, it will sometimes remain thick and troubled, after it is made, except you pour in a spoonful or two of cold water, which immediately precipitates the more heavy parts at the bottom, and makes it clear enough for drinking. Some, make coffee with spring water, but it is not so good as river, or _Thames_-water, because the former makes it hard, and distasteful, and the other makes it smooth and pleasant, lying soft on the stomach. If you have a desire to make good coffee in your families, I cannot conceive how you can put less than two ounces of powder to a quart, or one ounce to a pint of water; some put two ounces and a quarter. By 1760, the decoction, or boiling, method in France had been generallyreplaced by the infusion, or steeping, method. In 1763, Donmartin, a tinsmith of St. Bendit, France, invented a coffeepot, the inside of which was "filled by a fine sack put in itsentirety, " and which had a tap to draw the coffee. Many inventions tomake coffee _sans ebullition_ (without boiling) appeared in France aboutthis time; but it was not until 1800 that De Belloy's pot, employing theoriginal French drip method, appeared, signaling another step forward incoffee making--percolation. _De Belloy and Count Rumford_ De Belloy's pot was probably made of iron or tin, afterward ofporcelain; and it has served as a model for all the percolation devicesthat followed it for the next hundred years. It does not seem to havebeen patented, and not much is known of the inventor. About this period, it was the common practise in England to boil coffee in the goodold-fashioned way, and to "fine" (clarify) it with isinglass. This movedCount Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), an American-British scientist, thenliving in Paris, to make a study of scientific coffee-making, and toproduce an improved drip device known as Rumford's percolator. He hasbeen generally credited with the invention of the percolator; but, aspointed out in a previous chapter, this honor seems to be De Belloy'sand not Rumford's. Count Rumford embodied his observations and conclusions in a verboseessay entitled _Of the excellent qualities of coffee and the art ofmaking it in the highest perfection_, published in London in 1812. Inthis treatise he describes and illustrates the Rumford percolator. Brillat-Savarin, the famous French gastronomist, who also wrote oncoffee in his _VIme Meditation_, said of the De Belloy pot: I have tried, in the course of time, all methods and of all those which have been suggested to me up to today (1825) and with a full knowledge of the matter in hand. I prefer the De Belloy method, which consists of pouring the boiling water upon the coffee which has been placed in the vessel of porcelain or silver, pierced with very small holes. I have attempted to make coffee in a boiler at high pressure, but I have had as a result a coffee full of extracts and bitterness which would scrape the throat of a Cossack. Brillat-Savarin had something also to say on the subject of grindingcoffee, his conclusion being that it was "better to pound the coffeethan to grind it. " He refers to M. Du Belloy, archbishop of Paris, "who loved good thingsand was quite an epicure, " and says that Napoleon showed him deferenceand respect. This may have been Jean Baptiste De Belloy, who, accordingto Didot, was born in 1709 and died in 1808, and, it is thought likely, was the inventor of the De Belloy pot. Count Rumford was born in Woburn, Mass. , in 1753. He was apprenticed toa storekeeper in Salem in 1766. He became an object of distrust amongthe friends of the cause of American freedom: and, on the evacuation ofBoston by the Royal troops in 1776, he was selected by GovernorWentworth of New Hampshire to carry dispatches to England. He leftEngland in 1802, and resided in France from 1804 until his death in1814. In 1772, he had married, or rather, as he put it, he was marriedby, a wealthy widow, the daughter of a highly respectable minister andone of the first settlers at Rumford, now called Concord, New Hampshire. It was from this town that he took his title of Rumford when he wascreated a Count of the Holy Roman Empire in 1791. His first wife havingdied, he married in Paris, the wealthy widow of the celebrated chemist, Lavoisier; and with her he lived an extremely uncomfortable life untilthey agreed to separate. In his essay on coffee and coffee making, Count Rumford gives us a goodpen picture of the preparation of the beverage in England at thebeginning of the nineteenth century. He says: Coffee is first roasted in an iron pan, or in a hollow cylinder, made of sheet iron, over a brisk fire; and when, from the colour of the grain, and the peculiar fragrance which it acquires in this process, it is judged to be sufficiently roasted, it is taken from the fire, and suffered to cool. When cold it is pounded in a mortar; or ground in a hand-mill to a coarse powder, and preserved for use. Formerly, the ground Coffee being put into a coffee-pot, with a sufficient quantity of water, the coffee-pot was put over the fire, and after the water had been made to boil a certain time, the coffee-pot was removed from the fire, and the grounds having had time to settle, or having been fined down with isinglass, the clear liquor was poured off, and immediately served up in cups. Count Rumford thought it a mistake to agitate the coffee powder in thebrewing process, and in this he agreed with De Belloy. His improvementon the latter's pot is described in chapter XXXIV. He was a coffeeconnoisseur; and as such was one of the first to advocate the use ofcream as well as sugar for making an ideal cup of the beverage. Herefers, though not by name, to De Belloy's percolation method and says, "Its usefulness is now universally acknowledged. " _A Few Definitions_ Just here, in order to assure a better understanding of the subject, itmay be well to clear up sundry misconceptions regarding the wordspercolation, filtration, decoction, infusion, etc. , by the simpleexpedient of definition. A decoction is a liquid produced by boiling a substance until itssoluble properties are extracted. Thus the coffee drink was first adecoction; and a decoction is what one gets today when coffee is boiledin the good old-fashioned way--as "mother used to make it. " Infusion is the process of steeping--extraction without boiling. It isextraction accomplished at any temperature below boiling, and is ageneral classification of procedure capable of sub-division. Asgenerally and correctly applied, it is the operation wherein hot wateris merely poured upon ground coffee loose in a pot, or in a containerresting on the bottom of the pot. In the strictest sense of the term, aninfusion is also produced by percolation and filtration, when the wateris not boiled in contact with the coffee. Percolation means dripping through fine apertures in china or metal asin De Belloy's French drip pot. Filtration means dripping through a porous substance, usually cloth orpaper. Percolation and filtration are practically synonymous, although a shadeof distinction in their meaning has arisen so that often the latter isconsidered as a step logically succeeding the former. Accomplishingextraction of a material by permitting a liquid to pass slowly throughit is in fact percolation, whereas filtration of the resultant extractis effected by interposing in its path some medium which will removesolid or semi-solid material from it. Coffee-making practise has initself so applied these terms that each is considered a completeprocess. Percolation is thus applied when the infusion is removed fromthe grounds immediately by dripping through fine perforations in thechina or metal of which the device is constructed. True percolation is not produced in the pumping "percolators" in whichthe heated water is elevated and sprayed over the ground coffee held ina metal basket in the upper part of the pot, the liquor beingrecirculated until a satisfactory degree of extraction has been reached. Rather, the process is midway between decoction and infusion, for theweak liquor is boiled during the operation in order to furnishsufficient steam to cause the pumping action. Filtration is accomplished when the ground coffee is retained by clothor paper, generally supported by some portion of the brewing device, andextraction effected by pouring water on the top of the mass, permittingthe liquid to percolate through, the filtering medium retaining thegrounds. _Patents and Devices_ From the beginning, the French devoted more attention than any otherpeople to coffee brewing. The first French patent on a coffee maker wasgranted in 1802 to Denobe, Henrion, and Rauch for "apharmacological-chemical coffee making device by infusion. " In 1802, Charles Wyatt obtained a patent in London on an apparatus fordistilling coffee. The first French patent on an improved French drip pot for making coffee"by filtration without boiling" was granted to Hadrot in 1806. Strictlyspeaking, this was not a filtering device, as it was fitted with a tincomposition strainer, or grid. It was very like Count Rumford'spercolator announced six years later, as will be seen by comparing thetwo in chapter XXXIV. In 1815, Sené invented in France his _Cafetière Sené_, another device tomake coffee "without boiling. " About the year 1817, the coffee biggin appeared in England. It wassimply a squat earthenware pot with an upper, movable, strainer partmade of tin, after the French drip pot pattern. Later models employed acloth bag suspended from the rim of the pot. It was said to have beeninvented by a Mr. Biggin; and Dr. Murray, of dictionary fame, seems tohave become convinced of this gentleman's existence, although othershave doubted it and thought the name was of Dutch origin, the articlehaving been first made for Holland. It has been suggested that, in allprobability, the name came from the Dutch word _beggelin_, to trickle, or run down. One thing is certain, coffee biggins came originally fromFrance; so that if there was a Mr. Biggin, he merely introduced theminto England. The coffee biggin with which Americans are most familiaris a pot containing a flannel bag or a cylindrical wire strainer to holdthe ground coffee through which the boiling water is poured. The MarionHarland pot was an improved metal coffee biggin. The Triumph coffeefilter was a cloth-bag device which made any coffee pot a biggin. In 1819, Morize, a Paris tinsmith, invented a double drip, reversiblecoffee pot. The device had two movable "filters" and was placed bottomup on the fire until the water boiled, when it was inverted to let thecoffee "filter" or drip through. In 1819, Laurens was granted a French patent on the originalpumping-percolator device, in which the water was raised by steampressure and dripped over the ground coffee. In 1820, Gaudet, another Paris tinsmith, invented a filtration devicethat employed a cloth strainer. In 1822, Louis Bernard Rabaut was granted an English patent on acoffee-making device in which the usual French drip process was reversedby the use of steam pressure to force the boiling water upward throughthe coffee mass. Caseneuve, of Paris, was granted a patent on a similardevice in France in 1824. In 1825, the first coffee-pot patent in the United States was granted toLewis Martelley on a machine "to condense the steam and essential oilsand return them to the infusion. " In 1827, the first really practicable pumping percolator, as weunderstand the meaning today, was invented by Jacques-Augustin Gandais, a manufacturer of plated jewelry in Paris. The boiling water was raisedthrough a tube in the handle and sprayed over the ground coffeesuspended in a filter basket, but could not be returned for a furtherspraying. In 1827, Nicholas Felix Durant, a manufacturer of Chalons-sur-Marne, wasgranted a French patent on a "percolator" employing, for the first time, an inner tube to raise the boiling water for spraying over the groundcoffee. In 1839, James Vardy and Moritz Platow were granted an English patent ona kind of urn "percolator", or filter, employing the vacuum process ofcoffee making, the upper vessel being made of glass. By this time, the pumping percolator, working by steam pressure and bypartial vacuum, was in general use in France, England, and Germany. Andthen began the movement toward the next stage in coffeemaking--filtration. About this time (1840), Robert Napier (1791-1876) the Scottish marineengineer, of the celebrated Clyde shipbuilding firm of Robert Napier &Sons, invented a vacuum coffee machine to make coffee by distillationand filtration. The device was never patented; but thirty years later, it was being made in the works of Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Co. , Ltd. , successors) under the direction of Mr. Napier, the aged inventor. The device consists of a silver globe, brewer syphon, and strainer, asillustrated. It operates as follows: a half-cupful of water is put intothe globe, and the gas flame is lighted. The dry coffee is put into thereceiver, which is then filled up with boiling water. This will at oncebecome agitated, and will continue so for a few minutes. When it becomesstill, the gas flame is turned down, and clear coffee is syphoned overinto the globe through the syphon tube, on the end of which, as it restsin the coffee liquid, there is a metal strainer covered with a filtercloth. [Illustration: NAPIER VACUUM COFFEE MAKER] [Illustration: NAPIER-LIST STEAM COFFEE MACHINE] The Napierian coffee machine has enjoyed great popularity in England. The principle has in later years been incorporated in the Napier-Liststeam coffee machine for use in hotels, ships, restaurants, etc. Steamis used as a source of heat, but does not mix with the coffee. List'spatent is for an improvement on the Napierian system and was granted in1891. It is related that shortly before he died, old Mr. Napier, at thetermination of a dispute in Smith & Co. 's factory at Glasgow, where thedevice was being made under his instruction, said to old Mr. Smith: "You may be a guid silversmith, but I am a better engineer. " [Illustration: FINLEY ACKER'S FILTER-PAPER COFFEE POT SHOWING METHOD OF OPERATION] In 1841, William Ward Andrews was granted an English patent on animproved pot employing a pump to force the boiling water through theground coffee while contained in a perforated cylinder screwed to thebottom of the pot. In 1842, the first French patent on a glass coffee-making device wasgranted to Madame Vassieux of Lyons. Following this, there were numerous patents issued in France and Englandon double glass-globe coffee-making devices. They were first known asdouble glass balloons, and most of them employed metal strainers. After this, there were many "percolator" patents in France, England, andthe United States, some of which were for improved forms of the originaldrip method of the De Belloy device. Others were for the type of machinewhich came to be known as "percolators" because they employed theprinciple of raising the heated water and spraying it over the groundcoffee in continuous fashion. The story is told in chronological orderin the chapter on the evolution of coffee apparatus; so it is notnecessary to repeat it here. Numerous filtration devices also wereproduced abroad and in the United States. [Illustration: THE KIN-HEE POT IN OPERATION] Among the percolators, those of Manning, Bowman & Co. , and of Landers, Frary & Clark, became well known here. In the filtration field, thefollowing attained considerable distinction: Harvey Ricker's Half-Minutepot, employing a cotton sack with re-inforced bottom, introduced about1881; the Kin-Hee pot of 1900; Cauchois' Private Estate coffee maker, using Japanese filter paper, introduced in 1905; Finley Acker'spercolator, introduced the same year, which also employed a filter paperbetween two cylinders having side perforations; the Tricolator, 1908;King's percolator, using filter paper, in 1912; and the "Make-Right", 1911, with its adaptation as presented in the Tru-Bru pot of 1920. [Illustration: THE TRICOLATOR IN OPERATION] The Make-Right was the invention of Edward Aborn, New York, andcomprised two telescoping open wire frames, or baskets, with a flatpiece of muslin between them. In the Tru-Bru pot, the same idea wasemployed, except that the wire frames were so constructed as to furnishfour drip points to afford better distribution on the ground coffee andto lessen the time of filtration. There was also a porcelain top, tohouse and to raise the filtration device, above the brew with an openingthrough which the boiling water could be poured without exposing theground coffee. [Illustration: KING PERCOLATOR, AS APPLIED TO A HOTEL OR RESTAURANT URN] Among later developments of the genuine percolator principle that haveattracted attention in this country, mention should be made of thePhylax coffee maker, and the Galt pot. In 1914-16, there was a revival of interest in the United States in thedouble glass-globe method of making coffee, introduced into France as"double glass balloons" in the first half of the nineteenth century. American ingenuity produced several clever adaptations, and severalnotable filter improvements. Advertising developed a great demand forglass percolators, as they were first called; but although five attainedconsiderable prominence, only two survived and, at this writing, arestill being manufactured. Both are double glass-globe filters employinga spirit lamp, gas, or electricity as heating agents. [Illustration: THREE TYPES OF AMERICAN COFFEE MAKERS IN OPERATION Left, Blanke's Cloth Filter--Center, Phylax--Right, Galt Vacuum device] Within the last few years, it has become the fashion to obtain patentsin the United States on "the art of brewing coffee", or the "art ofmaking coffee". Instances are the patents issued to Messrs. Calkin andMuller. In the Calkin patent (the Phylax device illustrated at the topof this page) the "art" consists in controlling the flow of the boilingwater by means of the number and spacing of the holes in thewater-spreader, so as to restrict the volume and the speed, to effect aquick initial extraction; and then, by means of a new spacing of holesin the infuser, retarding the drip "to attain a prolonged extraction ofthe tannin and other elements of slow extraction and combining theliquids obtained during the initial and subsequent stages of the brewfor attaining a balanced liquid extract. " [Illustration: HOW THE TRU-BRU POT OPERATES] Muller's "art" (the apparatus is described in chapter XXXIV) consistedin so supplying and supporting the ground coffee in an urn that it isnever again subjected to the "decoction" after having been exposed tothe air and steam following the first application of the water. In 1920, William G. Goldsworthy, San Francisco, was granted a UnitedStates patent on a process for preparing the beans for making thebeverage. The process consisted of grinding the raw dried beans; thenpacking the ground product in non-combustible and non-soluble porouscontainers, which are securely closed to keep them unimpaired while thecontained coffee is being roasted; and, after cooling, sealing them withgelatine. To brew, container and contents are dropped into a cup of hotwater. [Illustration: COFFEE-MAKING DEVICES USED IN THE UNITED STATES 1--Marlon Harland Pot; 2--Universal Percolator; 3--Galt Vacuum ProcessCoffee Maker; 4--Universal Electric Urn; 5--English Coffee Biggin(Langley Ware); 6--Universal Cafenoira (Glass Filter); 7--Vienna(Bohemian or Carlsbad) Coffee Machine; 8--Tru-Bru Pot; 9--Tricolator;10--Manning-Bowman Percolator; 11--Blanke's Sanitary Coffee Pot;12--Phylax Coffee Maker; 13--Private-Estate Coffee Maker; 14--AmericanFrench Drip Pot; 15--Kin-Hee Pot; 16--Silex Opalescent Glass Filter;17--French Drip Pot (Langley Ware). ] This brief review of the evolution of coffee brews shows that coffeemaking started with boiling, and next became an infusion. After that, the best practise became divided between simple percolation andfiltration, which have continued to the present time. Boiling has alsocontinued to find advocates in every country, even in the United States, where it seems to die hard, no matter how much is done to discredit it. Percolation devices are subdivided into the simple drip pots and thecontinuous percolation machines, as represented by numerous complicatedand high-priced contrivances on the market. Gradually, however, truecoffee lovers are realizing that the best results are to be obtainedthrough simple percolation or simple filtration. There are goodarguments for both methods. _Coffee Making in Europe in the Nineteenth Century_ ENGLAND. We have noted Count Rumford's efforts to reform coffee makingin England in the early part of the nineteenth century. Many otherscientific men joined the movement. Among them was Professor Donovan, who in the _Dublin Philosophical Journal_ for May, 1826, told of hisexperiments "to ascertain the best methods for extracting all thevirtues inherent in the berry. " The _Penny Magazine_ for June 14, 1834, after deploring "the straw-colored fluid commonly introduced under themisnomer of coffee in England", thus digests Professor Donovan'sfindings: Mr. Donovan found, that what we shall call the medicinal quality of coffee resides in it independent of its aromatic flavor, --that it is possible to obtain the exhilarating effect of the beverage without gratifying the palate, --and, on the other hand, that all the aromatic quality may be enjoyed without its producing any effect upon the animal economy. His object was to combine the two. The roasting of coffee is requisite for the production of both these qualities; but, to secure them in their full degree, it is necessary to conduct the process with some skill. The first thing to be done is to expose the raw coffee to the heat of a gentle fire, in an open vessel, stirring it continually until it assumes a yellowish colour. It should then be roughly broken, --a thing very easily done, --so that each berry is divided into about four or five pieces, when it must be put into the roasting apparatus. This, as most commonly used, is made of sheet-iron, and is of a cylindrical shape: it no doubt answers the purpose well, and is by no means a costly machine, but coffee may be very well roasted in a common iron or earthenware pot, the main circumstances to be observed being the degree to which the process is carried, and the prevention of partial burning, by constant stirring. One of the requisites for having good coffee is that it shall have been recently roasted. Coffee should be ground very fine for use, and only at the moment when it is wanted, or the aromatic flavour will in some measure be lost. To extract all its good qualities, the powder requires two separate and somewhat opposite modes of treatment, but which do not offer any difficulty when explained. On the one hand, the fine flavour would be lost by boiling, while, on the other, it is necessary to subject the coffee to that degree of heat in order to extract its medicinal quality. The mode of proceeding, which, after many experiments, Mr. Donovan found to be the most simple and efficacious for attaining both these ends, was the following:-- The whole water to be used must be divided into two equal parts. One half must be put first to the coffee "cold", and this must be placed over the fire until it "just comes to a boil", when it must be immediately removed. Allowing it then to subside for a few moments the liquid must be poured off as clear as it will run. The remaining half of the water, which during this time should have been on the fire, must then be added "at a boiling heat" to the grounds, and placed on the fire, where it must be kept "boiling" for about three minutes. This will extract the medicinal virtue, and if then the liquid be allowed again to subside, and the clear fluid be added to the first portion, the preparation will be found to combine all the good properties of the berry in as great perfection as they can be obtained. If any fining ingredient is used it should be mixed with the powder at the beginning of the process. Several kinds of apparatus, some of them very ingenious in their construction, have been proposed for preparing coffee, but they are all made upon the principle of extracting only the aromatic flavour, while Professor Donovan's suggestions not only enable us to accomplish that desirable object, but superadd the less obvious but equally essential matter of extracting and making our own all the medicinal virtues. When Webster and Parkes published their _Encyclopedia of DomesticEconomy_, London, 1844, they gave the following as "the most usualmethod of making coffee in England": Put fresh ground coffee into a coffee-pot, with a sufficient quantity of water, and set this on the fire till it boils for a minute or two; then remove it from the fire, pour out a cupful, which is to be returned into the coffee-pot to throw down the grounds that may be floating; repeat this, and let the coffee-pot stand near the fire, but not on too hot a place, until the grounds have subsided to the bottom; in a few minutes the coffee will be clear without any other preparation, and may be poured into cups; in this manner, with good materials in sufficient quantity, and proper care, excellent coffee may be made. The most valuable part of the coffee is soon extracted, and it is certain that long boiling dissipates the fine aroma and flavour. Some make it a rule not to suffer the coffee to boil, but only to bring it just to the boiling point; but it is said by Mr. Donovan that it requires boiling for a little time to extract the whole of the bitter, in which he conceives much of the exhilarating qualities of the coffee reside. This work had also the following to say on the clearing of coffee, whichwas then a much-mooted question: The clearing of coffee is a circumstance demanding particular attention. After the heaviest parts of the grounds have settled, there are still fine particles suspended for some time, and if the coffee be poured off before these have subsided, the liquor is deficient in that transparency which is one test of its perfection; for coffee not well cleared has always an unpleasant bitter taste. In general, the coffee becomes clear by simply remaining quiet for a few minutes, as we have stated; but those who are anxious to have it as clear as possible employ some artificial means of assisting the clearing. The addition of a little isinglass, hartshorn shavings, skins of eels or soles, white of eggs, egg shells, etc. , has been recommended for clearing; but it is evident that these substances, to produce their effect, which is upon the same principle as the fining of beer or wine, should be dissolved previously, for if put in without, it would require so much time to dissolve, that the flavour of the coffee would vanish. Coffee-making devices of this period in England, in addition to theRumford type of percolator and the popular coffee biggin, includedEvans' machine provided with a tin air-float to which was attached afilter bag containing the coffee; Jones' apparatus, a pumpingpercolator; Parker's steam-fountain coffee maker, which forced the hotwater upward through the ground coffee; Platow's patent filter, previously mentioned, a single vacuum glass percolator in combinationwith an urn; Brain's vacuum or pneumatic filter employing a "muslin, linen or shamoy leather filter" and an exhausting pump, designed forkitchen use; and Palmer's and Beart's pneumatic filtering machines ofsimilar construction. Cold infusions were common, the practise being to let them standovernight, to be filtered in the morning, and only heated, not boiled. Coffee grinding for these various types of coffee makers was performedby iron mills; the portable box mill being most favored for family use. "It consisted of a square box either of mahogany or iron japanned, containing in the interior a hollow cone of steel with sharp grooves onthe inside; into this fits a conical piece of hardened iron or steelhaving spiral grooves cut upon its surface and capable of being turnedround by a handle. " There was a drawer to receive the finely groundcoffee. Larger wall-mills employed the same grinding mechanism. In 1855, Dr. John Doran wrote in his "Table Traits": With regard to the making of coffee, there is no doubt that the Turkish method of pounding the coffee in a mortar is infinitely superior to grinding it in a mill, as with us. But after either method the process recommended by M. Soyer may be advantageously adopted; namely, "Put two ounces of ground coffee into a stew-pan, which set upon the fire, stirring the coffee round with a spoon until quite hot, then pour over a pint of boiling water; cover over closely for five minutes, pass it through a cloth, warm again, and serve. " From observations by G. W. Poore, M. D. , London, 1883, we are given aglimpse of coffee making in England in the latter part of the nineteenthcentury. He said: Those who wish to enjoy really good coffee must have it fresh roasted. On the Continent, in every well-regulated household, the daily supply of coffee is roasted every morning. In England this is rarely done. If roasted coffee has to be kept, it must be kept in an air-tight vessel. In France, coffee used to be kept in a wrapper of waxed leather, which was always closely tied over the contained coffee. In this way the coffee was kept from contact with any air. The Viennese say that coffee should be kept in a glass bottle closed with a bung, and that coffee should on no account be kept in a tin canister. The coffee having been roasted, it has to be reduced to a coarse powder before the infusion is made. The grinding and powdering of coffee should be done just before it is wanted, for if the whole coffee seeds quickly lose their aroma, how much more quickly will the aroma be dissipated from coffee which has been reduced to a fine powder? Nothing need be said in the matter of coffee mills. They are common enough, varied enough, and cheap enough to suit all tastes. To insure a really good cup of coffee attention must be given to the following points: 1. Be sure that the coffee is good in quality, freshly roasted, and fresh ground. 2. Use sufficient coffee. I have made some experiments on this point, and I have come to the conclusions that one ounce of coffee to a pint of water makes poor coffee, 1-1/2 ounces of coffee to a pint of water makes fairly good coffee, two ounces of coffee to a pint of water makes excellent coffee. 3. As to the form of coffee pot I have nothing to say. The varieties of coffee machines are very numerous and many of them are useless incumbrances. At the best, they can not be regarded as absolutely necessary. The Brazilians insist that coffee pots should on no account be made of metal, but that porcelain or earthenware is alone permissible. I have been in the habit of late of having my coffee made in a common jug provided with a strainer, and I believe there is nothing better. [Illustration: COFFEE-MAKING MACHINES POPULAR IN ENGLISH HOTELS ANDRESTAURANTS] 4. Warm the jug, put the coffee into it, boil the water, and pour the boiling water on the coffee, and the thing is done. 5. Coffee must not be boiled, or at most it must be allowed just to "come to a boil", as cook says. If violent ebullition takes place, the aroma of the coffee is dissipated, and the beverage is spoiled. The most economical way of making coffee is to put the coffee into a jug and pour cold water upon it. This should be done some hours before the coffee is wanted--over night, for instance, if the coffee be required for breakfast. The light particles of coffee will imbibe the water and fall to the bottom of the jug in course of time. When the coffee is to be used stand the jug in a saucepan of water or a bainmarie and place the outer vessel over the fire till the water contained in it boils. The coffee in this way is gently brought to the boiling point without violent ebullition, and we get the maximum extract without any loss of aroma. Always make your coffee strong. _Café au lait_ is much better if made with one-fourth strong coffee and three-fourths milk than if made half-and-half with a weaker coffee; this is evident. It is a mistake to suppose that coffee can not be made without a great deal of costly and cumbersome apparatus. THE CONTINENT. Rossignon has given us a general view of coffee making onthe continent of Europe in the middle of the nineteenth century. Hesays: Formerly small bags of baize were used to percolate coffee. The water was poured on the coffee, and when they were new the coffee percolated through them was pretty good, but when they had been used a few times they became greasy and it was very difficult to clean them by any means. The greasy baize altered the quality of the coffee, and in spite of all efforts to keep it clean the coffee had a tarnished appearance very disagreeable to the view. Very few persons use them at present. The apparatus most in use for the percolation of coffee is a tin coffee-pot composed of two parts. The upper one has a filter or sieve on which the coffee powder is placed and through which the filtered coffee must pass. Boiling water is poured on the coffee. The liquor which percolates falls in the second part. Then the upper part is removed and the coffee is ready as a beverage. There are very many systems of coffee pots. One of the best is the Russian one, which consists of a receptacle composed of two parts resembling two halves of an egg screwed together. One part contains the hot water and the other the ground coffee. In the center there is a filter. Turning the pot upside down the percolation takes place very slowly and no aroma is lost. The tin plate which is generally used to make the coffee pot has many drawbacks. One of them is the dissolution of iron which takes place after it has been used for a short time. The quality of coffee, as a beverage, depends principally on the degree of heat of the water. Experience has shown that a medium class of coffee prepared at a moderate heat gives a very good liquor, while excellent coffee on which boiling water has been poured did not give a very good liquor. Therefore, instead of pouring boiling water at 100°C. In a porcelain or silver coffee-pot, those who desire to make a perfect coffee must use water heated from 60° to 75°C. [Illustration: The Duparquet Still's machine The Kellum THREE WELL KNOWN MAKES OF LARGE COFFEE URNS] FRANCE. Also about the middle of the nineteenth century the Frenchnaturalist, Du Tour, thus describes one manner of making coffee inFrance: Let the powder be poured into the coffee-pot filled with boiling water, in the proportion of two ounces and a half to two pounds, or two English pints of water. Let the mixture be stirred with a spoon, and the coffee-pot be soon taken off the fire, but suffered to remain closely shut, for about at least two hours, on the warm ashes of a wood fire. During the infusion the liquor should be several times agitated by a chocolate frother, or something of the same kind, and be finally left for about a quarter of an hour to settle. _Café au lait_ was not made by boiling coffee and milk together, as milkwas not proper to extract the coffee; the coffee was first made as _cafénoir_, only stronger; as much of this coffee was poured in the cup aswas required, and the cup was then filled up with _boiled_ milk. _Café ala crème_, was made by adding boiled cream to strong clear coffee andheating them together. In France, during the latter part of the nineteenth century, coffee wasroasted over charcoal fires in earthenware dishes or saucepans, stirredwith a spatula or wooden spoon, or in small cylinder or globularroasters of iron. Gas roasting was also practised. When roasted in largebatches, the beans were cooled in wicker baskets, tossed into the air. The grinding was preferably done in mortars or in box mills of pyramidshape with receiving drawers, and was not too fine. The usual method of making coffee in France among the better classes atthis time was by means of improved De Belloy drip devices, double glassvacuum filters, pumping percolators (double circulation devices), theRussian egg-shaped pots, and the Viennese machines. The last-named weremetal pumping percolators with glass tops, usually swung between theuprights of a carry arrangement, the base of which held a spirit lamp. Among the numerous French machines which became well known were:Reparlier's glass "filter"; Egrot's steam cloth-filter machine andMalen's percolator apparatus, both designed for barracks and ships, where previously the coffee had been brewed in soup kettles; BouillonMuller's steam percolator; Laurent's whistling coffee pot, a steampercolator which announced when the coffee was ready; Ed. Loysel's rapidfilter, a hydrostatic percolator; and those pots to which Morize, Lemare, Grandin, Crepaux, and Gandais gave their names. In 1892, the French minister of war directed that, in the army roastingand grinding operations, the coffee chaff should no longer be thrownaway, as it had been found that it was rich in caffein and aromaconstituents. [Illustration: POPULAR GERMAN DRIP POT] Coffee _à la minute_, which appeared in France in the nineteenthcentury, was made by decoction or infusion through a funnel pierced withholes and covered inside with blotting paper, or a woolen strainercloth. This system, says Jardin, suggested the economical coffee pot. A popular German drip coffee maker of the late nineteenth centuryemploys a plug in the spout which provides air pressure to hold back theinfusion until the plug is removed. Pierre Joseph Buc'hoz, physician to the king of Poland, in 1787, made abusiness of supplying roasted coffee in small packets, each sufficientfor one cup. He built up quite a trade until one day he was caughtsubstituting roasted rye for coffee. This was the Buc'hoz method ofmaking coffee, much practised by the lower classes because he was lookedupon as an authority: Boil the water in a coffee pot. When it boils, draw it from the fire long enough to add an ounce of coffee powder to a pound of water. Stir with a spoon. Return it to the fire and when it boils move it back somewhat from the heat and let it simmer for eight minutes. Clarify with sugar or deer horn powder. _Early Coffee Making in the United States_ The coffee drink reached the colonies, first as a beverage for thewell-to-do, about 1668. When introduced to the general public throughthe coffee houses about 1700, it was first sipped from small dishes asin England; and no one inquired too closely as to how it was made. When, half a century later, it had displaced beer and tea for breakfast, itscorrect making became a matter of polite inquiry. It was not until wellinto the nineteenth century that there was any suggestion of scientificinterest, and not until within the last decade was any real chemicalanalysis of brewed coffee undertaken with a view to producing ascientific cup of the beverage. At first, owing to the great distances, and difficulties surroundingcommunications, between the colonies, news of improvements in coffeemakers and coffee making traveled slowly, and coffee customs broughtfrom Europe by the early settlers became habits that were not easilychanged. Some of the worst have clung on, ignoring the march ofimprovement, and seem as firmly entrenched in suburban and ruralcommunities today as they were two hundred years ago. Indeed, despite the fact that the United States have been the largestconsumer of coffee among the nations for nearly half a century, it isonly within the last ten years that coffee properly prepared could beobtained outside the principal cities. Even today, the average consumeris sadly in need of education in correct coffee brewing. It would be anexcellent idea if all the coffee propaganda funds could be concentratedon a study of this one phase of the coffee question for several years, and the recommendations published in such fashion as firmly to fix inthe minds of the rising generation a knowledge of correct coffeebrewing. The facts of the case are that, generally speaking, coffee isstill prepared in slovenly fashion in the average American home. However, with the good work done in recent years by organized tradeeffort to correct this abuse of our national beverage, signs areplentiful that the time is not far distant when a lasting reformation incoffee making will have been accomplished. In colonial times the coffee drink was mostly a decoction. EstherSingleton tells us that in New Amsterdam coffee was boiled in a copperpot lined with tin and drunk as hot as possible With sugar or honey andspices. "Sometimes a pint of fresh milk was brought to the boiling pointand then as much drawn tincture of coffee was added, or the coffee wasput in cold water with the milk and both were boiled together and drunk. Rich people mixed cloves, cinnamon or sugar with ambergris in thecoffee. [376]" Ground cardamom seeds were also used to flavor the decoction. In the early days of New England, the whole beans were frequently boiledfor hours with not wholly pleasing results in forming either food ordrink[377]. In New Orleans, the ground coffee was put into a tin or pewter coffeedripper, and the infusion was made by slowly pouring the boiling waterover it after the French fashion. The coffee was not considered goodunless it actually stained the cup. This method still obtains among theold Creole families. Boiling coarsely pounded coffee for fifteen minutes to half an hour wascommon practise in the colonies before 1800. In the early part of the nineteenth century, the best practise was toroast the coffee in an iron cylinder that stood before the hearth fire. It was either turned by a handle or wound up like a jack to go byitself. The grinding was done in a lap or wall mill; and among the bestknown makes were Kenrick's, Wilson's, Wolf's, John Luther's, George W. M. Vandegrift's, and Charles Parker's Best Quality. To make coffee "without boiling" the cookery books of the period advisedthe housewife to obtain "a biggin, the best of which is what in Franceis called a Grecque. " In 1844, the _Kitchen Directory and American Housewife's_ advice on thesubject of coffee making was the following: Coffee should be put in an iron pot and dried near a moderate fire for several hours before roasting (in pot over hot coals and stirring constantly). It is sufficiently roasted when biting one of the lightest colored kernels--if brittle the whole is done. A coffee roaster is better than an open pot. Use a tablespoonful ground to a pint of boiling water. Boil in tin pot twenty to twenty-five minutes. If boiled longer it will not taste fresh and lively. Let stand four or five minutes to settle, pour off grounds into a coffee pot or urn. Put fish skin or isinglass size of a nine pence in pot when put on to boil or else the white and shell of half an egg to a couple of quarts of coffee. French coffee is made in a German filter, the water is turned on boiling hot and one-third more coffee is needed than when boiled in the common way. In 1856 the _Ladies' Home Magazine_ (now the _Ladies' Home Journal_)printed the following, which fairly sums up the coffee making customs ofthat period: Coffee, if you would have its best flavor, should be roasted at home; but _not in an open pan_, for this permits a large amount of aroma to escape. The roaster should be a closed sphere or cylinder. The aroma, upon which the good taste of the coffee depends, is only developed in the berry by the roasting process, which also is necessary to diminish its toughness, and fit it for grinding. While roasting, coffee loses from fifteen to twenty-five percent of its weight, and gains from thirty to fifty percent in bulk. More depends upon the proper roasting than upon the quality of the coffee itself. One or two scorched or burned berries will materially injure the flavor of several cupfuls. Even a slight overheating diminishes the good taste. The best mode of roasting, where it is done at home, is to dry the coffee first, in an open vessel, until its color is slightly changed. This allows the moisture to escape. Then cover it closely and scorch it, keeping up a constant agitation, so that no portion of a kernel may be unequally heated. Too low and too slow a heat dries it up without producing the full aromatic flavor; while too great heat dissipates the oily matter and leaves only bitter charred kernels. It should be heated so as to acquire a uniform deep cinnamon color, and an oily appearance, but never a deep, dark brown color. It then should be taken from the fire and kept closely covered until cold, and further until used. While unroasted coffee improves by age, the roasted berries will very generally lose their aroma if not covered very closely. The ground stuff kept on sale in barrels, or boxes, or in papers, is not worthy the name of coffee. Coffee should not be ground until just before using. If ground over night, it should be covered: or, what is quite as well, put into the boiler and covered with water. The water not only retains the valuable oil and other aromatic elements, but also prepares it by soaking for immediate boiling in the morning. If the coffee pot (the "_Old Dominion_", of course, for in a common boiler this process would ruin the coffee by wasting the aroma) be set on the range or stove, or near the fire, so as to be kept hot all night preparatory to boiling in the morning, the beverage will be found in the morning, rich, mellow, and of a most delicious flavor. Coffee used at supper time should be placed on or near the fire immediately after dinner and kept hot or simmering--not boiling--all the afternoon. Try this method if you wish coffee in perfection. Wood's improved coffee roaster is acknowledged to be the best article of the kind now in use. This patent coffee roaster has been improved by the introduction of a triangular flange inside of each of the hemispheres, as seen in the cut. These flanges, as the roaster is turned, catch the coffee and throw it from the inner surface, thus insuring a perfect uniformity in the burning. The Woods roaster (1849) and the Old Dominion Coffee Pot (1856) havebeen referred to in chapter XXXIV. From the _Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery_, we learn some more aboutthe customs prevailing "among the first cooks in the country" inroasting and making coffee in the United States about the middle of thenineteenth century. For example: ROASTING COFFEE BEANS Put the beans in the roaster, set this before a moderate fire, and turn slowly until the Coffee takes a good brown colour; for this it should require about twenty-five minutes. Open the cover to see when it is done. If browned, transfer it to an earthen jar, cover it tightly, and use when needed. Or a more simple plan, and even more effectual, is to take a tin baking-dish, butter well the bottom, put the Coffee in it, and set it in a moderate oven until the beans take a strong golden colour, twenty minutes sufficing for this. Toss them frequently with a wooden spoon as they are cooking. Another plan is to put in a small frying-pan 1 1b. Of raw Coffee-beans and set the pan on the fire, stirring and shaking occasionally till the beans are yellow: then cover the frying-pan and shake the Coffee about till it is a dark brown. Move the pan off the fire, keep the cover on, and when the beans are a little cool, break an egg over them and stir them until they are all well coated with the egg. Then store the Coffee in tins or jars with tight-fitting lids, and grind it as wanted for use. Coffee should always be bought in the bean and ground as required, otherwise it is liable to extensive adulteration with chicory (or succory); some persons like the addition, but the epicure who is really fond of Coffee would not admit of its introduction. MAKING BREAKFAST COFFEE. Allow 1 tablespoonful of Coffee to each person. The Coffee when ground should be measured, put into the Coffee-pot, and boiling water poured over it in the proportion of 3/4 pint to each tablespoonful of Coffee, and the pot put on the fire; the instant it boils, take the pot off, uncover it, and let it stand a minute or two; then cover it again, put it back on the fire, and let it boil up again. Take it from the fire and let it stand for five minutes to settle. It is then ready to pour out. This work recommended as among the latest and best devices for coffeemaking, all those manufactured or sold in this country by Adams & Son;the English coffee biggin; General Hutchinson's coffee pot and urn, combining De Belloy's and Rumford's ideas; Le Brun's Cafetiére formaking coffee by distillation and by steam pressure, passing it directlyinto the cup; a Vienna coffee-making machine, and a Russian coffeereversible pot called the Potsdam. Among two score of coffee recipes for making various kinds of extracts, ices, candies, cakes, etc. , flavored with coffee, there is a curious onefor coffee beer, the invention of Frenchman named Pluehart. "Theingredients and quantities in a thousand parts are--Strong coffee 300;rum 300; syrup thickened with gum senegal 65; alcoholic extract oforange peel 10; and water 325. " "It does not appear to have reached any important degree of popularity", adds the editor. In 1861, Godey's _Lady's Book and Magazine_ noted with approval thegrowing custom of hotel and restaurant guests to order coffee instead ofwines or spirits with their dinners. On the subject of "How to make acup of coffee" it had this to say: Which is the best way of making coffee? In this particular notions differ. For example, the Turks do not trouble themselves to take off the bitterness by sugar, nor do they seek to disguise the flavor by milk, as is our custom. But they add to each dish a drop of the essence of amber, or put a couple of cloves in it, during the process of preparation. Such flavoring would not, we opine, agree with western tastes. If a cup of the very best coffee, prepared in the highest perfection and boiling hot, be placed on a table in the middle of a room and suffered to cool, it will, in cooling, fill the room with its fragrance: but becoming cold, it will lose much of its flavor. Being again heated, its taste and flavor will be still further impaired, and heated a third time, it will be found vapid and nauseous. The aroma diffused through the room proved that the coffee has been deprived of its most volatile parts, and hence of its agreeableness and virtue. By pouring boiling water on the coffee, and surrounding the containing vessel with boiling water, the finer qualities of the coffee will be preserved. Boiling coffee in a coffee-pot is neither economical or judicious, so much of the aroma being wasted by this method. Count Rumford (no mean authority) states that one pound of good Mocha, when roasted and ground, will make fifty-six cups of the very best coffee, but it must be ground finely, or the surfaces of the particles only will be acted upon by the hot water, and much of the essence will be left in the grounds. In the East, coffee is said to arouse, exhilarate, and keep awake, allaying hunger, and giving to the weary renewed strength and vigor, while it imparts a feeling of comfort and repose. The Arabians, when they take their coffee off the fire, wrap the vessel in a wet cloth, which fines the liquor instantly, and makes it cream at the top. There is one great essential to be observed, namely, that coffee should not be ground before it is required for use, as in a powdered state its finer qualities evaporate. We pass over the usual modes of making coffee, as being familiar to every lady who presides over every household; and content ourselves with the most modern and approved Parisian methods, though we may add that a common recipe for good coffee is--two ounces of coffee and one quart of water. Filter or boil ten minutes, and leave to clear ten minutes. The French make an extremely strong coffee. For breakfast, they drink one-third of the infusion, and two-thirds of hot milk. The _café noir_ used after dinner, is the very essence of the berry. Only a small cup is taken, sweetened with white sugar or sugar-candy, and sometimes a little _eau de vie_ is poured over the sugar in a spoon held above the surface, and set on fire; or after it, a very small glass of _liqueur_, called a _chasse-café_, is immediately drunk. But the best method, prevalent in France, for making coffee (and the infusion may be strong or otherwise as taste may direct) is to take a large coffee-pot with an upper receptacle made to fit close into it, the bottom of which is perforated with small holes, containing in its interior two movable metal strainers, over the second of which the powder is to be placed, and immediately under the third. Upon this upper strainer pour boiling water, and continue to do so gently; until it bubbles up through the strainer: then shut the cover of the machine close down, place it near the fire, and so soon as the water has drained through the coffee, repeat the operation until the whole intended quantity be passed. No finings are required. Thus all the fragrance of its perfume will be retained with all the balsamic and stimulating powers of its essence. This is a true Parisian mode, and _voila!_ a cup of excellent coffee. This article is most interesting in that it shows the revolt againstboiling coffee had started in the United States; also that theimportance of fine grinding was being recognized and emphasized by theleaders of the best thought of the nation. Probably the first scientific inquiry into the subject of coffeeroasting and brewing in the United States was that detailed by August T. Dawson and Charles M. Wetherill, Ph. D. , M. D. , in the _Journal of theFranklin Institute_ for July and August, 1855. The following is adigest: There are two classes of beverages: 1, alcoholic, and 2, nitrogenized. Nitrogenized foods are effective to replace the substance of the different organs of the body wasted away by the process of vitality. Coffee is one of these. Besides the tannin, the coffee berry contains two substances, one the nitrogenized quality, caffeine, which is about one percent and is not altered in roasting, and the other a volatile oil which is developed in roasting and which gives the coffee its flavor. Dr. Julius Lehmann (Liebig's Annales LXXXVII. 205) says that coffee retards the waste tissues of the body and diminishes the amount of food necessary to preserve life. This effect is due to the oil. Much of the nutritive portion of coffee is lost by European methods of making. Good coffee is very rare. These experiments were made to ascertain whether a potable coffee could not be offered to the public at as low a price as the raw or roasted now is. In order to be successful we needed to extract a larger portion of the nutritive substance than is extracted in the household. The experiments have proved vain. As a result of our experiments with different ways of roasting and brewing coffee, we have found the following plan to be the most convenient and the best: the coffee will taste the same every time and it will taste good. If a good berry be properly roasted and the infusion be of the proper strength, good coffee must result. A Mocha berry should be selected and roasted seven or eight pounds at a time in a cylindrical drum. After roasting it should be placed in a stone jar with a mouth three inches in diameter. The jar should be closed air-tight. This will furnish two cups of coffee daily for six months. A quart should be taken from the jar at a time and ground. The ground coffee should be kept in covered glass jars. The best coffee pot was found to be the common biggin having an upper compartment with a perforated bottom upon which to place the coffee. To make one cup of this infusion, place half an ounce of ground coffee in the upper compartment and six fluid ounces of water into the bottom. Put the biggin over a gas lamp. After three minutes the water will boil. When steam appears, take the biggin from the fire and pour the water into a cup and thence immediately into the top of the biggin where it will extract the berry by replacement. (Here follows an experiment. ) This experiment shows that loss of weight is no criterion that coffee is properly roasted, neither is the color (by itself) nor the temperature, nor the time. Next we experimented to ascertain whether the aroma developed by roasting coffee and which is lost might not be collected and added to the coffee at pleasure. An attempt was made to drive the volatile oils from roasted coffee by steam and make a dried extract of the residual coffee to which the oils were to be later added. Two attempts were made and both failed. It appears that but a small quantity of the aroma is lost in roasting and that is mixed with bad smelling vapors from which it is impossible to free it. Then we tried to make a potable coffee by making an aqueous extract of raw coffee, evaporating to dryness and roasting the residue. (Here follows the experiment. ) This also was unsuccessful. The great trouble here is a dark shiny residue, which, while tasteless, is very disagreeable to look at. In the preparation of coffee by boiling, two and a half times as much matter is extracted as by biggin. The proper method of roasting coffee is as follows: It should be placed in a cylinder and turned constantly over a bright fire. When white smoke begins to appear, the contents should be closely watched. Keep testing the grains. As soon as a grain breaks easily at a slight blow, at which time the color will be a light chestnut brown, the coffee is done. Cool it by lifting some up and dropping it back with a tin cup. If it be left to cool in a heap there is great danger of over-roasting. Keep the coffee only in air-tight vessels. _Measure_ the infusions, a half ounce of coffee to six ounces of water per cup. All "extracts of coffee" are worthless. Most of them are composed of burned sugar, chicory, carrots, etc. In 1883, an authority of that day, Francis B. Thurber, in his book, _Coffee; from Plantation to Cup_, which he dedicated to the railroadrestaurant man at Poughkeepsie, because he served an "ideal cup ofcoffee", came out strongly for the good old boiling method with eggs, shells included. This was the Thurber recipe: Grind moderately fine a large cup or small bowl of coffee; break into it one egg with shell; mix well, adding enough cold water to thoroughly wet the grounds; upon this pour one pint of boiling water: let it boil slowly for ten to fifteen minutes, according to the variety of coffee used and the fineness to which it is ground. Let it stand three minutes to settle, then pour through a fine wire-sieve into a warm coffee pot; this will make enough for four persons. At table, first put the sugar into the cup, then fill half-full of boiling milk, add your coffee, and you have a delicious beverage that will be a revelation to many poor mortals who have an indistinct remembrance of, and an intense longing for, an ideal cup of coffee. If cream can be procured so much the better, and in that case boiling water can be added either in the pot or cup to make up for the space occupied by the milk as above; or condensed milk will be found a good substitute for cream. In 1886, however, Jabez Burns, who knew something about the practicalmaking of the beverage as well as the roasting and grinding operations, said: Have boiling water handy. Take a clean dry pot and put in the ground coffee. Place on fire to warm pot and coffee. Pour on sufficient boiling water, not more than two-thirds full. As soon as the water boils add a little cold water and remove from fire. To extract the greatest virtue of coffee grind it fine and pour scalding water over it. John Cotton Dana, of the Newark Public Library, says he remembers how inhis old home in Woodstock, Vt. , they had always, in the attic, a bigstone jar of green coffee. This was sacred to the great feast days, Thanksgiving, Christmas, etc. Just before those anniversaries, the jarwas brought forward and the proper amount of coffee was taken out androasted in a flat sheet-iron pan on the top of the stove, being stirredconstantly and watched with great care. "As my memory seems to say thatthis was not constantly done, " says Mr. Dana, "it would seem that, eventhen, my father, who kept the general store in the village, boughtroasted coffee in Boston or New York. " At the close of the century, there were still many advocates of boilingcoffee; but although the coffee trade was not quite ready to declare itsabsolute independence in this direction, there were many leaders whoboldly proclaimed their freedom from the old prejudice. Arthur Gray, inhis _Over the Black Coffee_, as late as 1902, quoted "the largest coffeeimporting house in the United States" as advocating the use of eggs andegg-shells and boiling the mixture for ten minutes. _Latest Developments in Better Coffee Making_ Better coffee making by co-operative trade effort got its initialstimulus at the 1912 convention of the National Coffee RoastersAssociation. As a result of discussions at that meeting and thereafter, a Better Coffee Making Committee was created for investigation andresearch. The coffee trade's declaration of independence in the matter of boiledcoffee was made at the 1913 convention of the National Coffee RoastersAssociation, when, after hearing the report of the Better Coffee MakingCommittee, presented by Edward Aborn of New York, it adopted aresolution saying that the recommendations met with its approval andordering that they be printed and circulated. The work done by the committee included "the first chemical analysis ofbrewed coffee on record", a study of grindings, and a comparison of theresults of four brewing methods. Its conclusions and recommendationswere embodied in a booklet published by the National Coffee RoastersAssociation, entitled _From Tree to Cup with Coffee_, and were asfollows: ROASTING The Roaster or "Coffee Chef" is the only cook necessary to a good cup of coffee. He sends it to the consumer a completely cooked product. In the roasting process the berries swell up by the liberation of gases within their substance. The aromatic oils contained in the cells are sufficiently developed or "cooked", and made ready for instantaneous solution with boiling water, when the cells are thoroughly opened by grinding. The roasting principles of different green coffees vary. Trained study and a nice science in timing the roast and manipulating the fire is necessary to a perfect development of aroma and flavor. The drinking quality is largely dependent upon the experienced knowledge of the coffee roaster and his scientific methods and modern machinery, by which the coffee is not only roasted, but cleaned, milled and completely manufactured to a high point of perfection. In their National Association work, the wholesale roasters are giving the public new facts and valuable information, from scientific researches, investigations, etc. GRINDING. The roasted berry is constructed of fibrous tissues formed into tiny cells visible only under the microscope, which are the "packages" wherein are stored the whole value of coffee, the aromatic oils. Like cutting open an orange, the grinding of coffee is the opening of surrounding tissue and pulp, and the finer it is cut the more easily are the "juices" released. The fibrous tissue itself is waste material, yielding, by boiling or too long percolations, a coffee colored liquid which is fibrous and twangy in taste, has no aromatic character, and contains undesirable elements. The true strength and flavor of roasted coffee is ground out, not boiled out. The finer coffee is ground, the more thoroughly are the cells opened, the surfaces multiplied, and the aromatic oils made ready for separation from their husks. Hence it follows that: Coarse ground coffee is unopened coffee--coffee thrown away. The finer the grind, the better and greater the yield. With pulverized coffee (fine as corn meal) the fully released aromatic oils are instantaneously soluble with boiling water. In ground coffee the oils are standing in "open packages, " escaping into the air and absorbing moisture, etc. , necessitating quick use or confinement in air proof and moisture proof protection. BREWING. From scientific researches by the National Coffee Roasters' Association, including the first chemical analysis on record of brewed coffee, produced by various brewing methods, the fundamental principles of coffee making have been clearly established. These principles are simple, and when once understood equip any person to intelligently judge the merits and defects of the various coffee making devices on the market. They constitute the law of coffee brewing, and may be stated as follows: Correct brewing is not "cooking. " It is a process of extraction of the already cooked aromatic oils from the surrounding fibrous tissue, which has no drinkable value. Boiling or stewing cooks in the fibre, which should be wholly discarded as dregs, and damages the flavor and purity of the liquid. Boiling coffee and water together is ruin and waste. The aromatic oils, constituting the whole true flavor, are extracted instantly by boiling water when the cells are thoroughly opened by fine grinding. The undesirable elements, being less quickly soluble, are left in the grounds in a quick contact of water and coffee. The coarser the grind the less accessible are the oils to the water, thus the inability to get out the strength from coffee not finely enough ground. Too long contact of water and coffee causes twang and bitterness, and the finer the grind the less the contact should be. The infusion, when brewed, is injured by being boiled or overheated. It is also damaged by being chilled, which breaks the fusion of oils and water. It should be served immediately, or kept hot, as in a double boiler. Tests show that water under the boiling point, 212°, is inefficient for coffee brewing, and does not extract the aromatic oils[378]. Used under this temperature, it is a sure cause of weak and insipid flavor. The effort to make up this deficiency by longer contact of coffee and water, or repeated pouring through, results in no extraction of the oils, but draws out undesirable elements, such as coffee-tannin, which is soluble in water at any temperature and is governed by the time of contact. Coffee-tannin, which is not the commercial tannic acid, is eliminated to practically nothing in the quick brewing methods. The chemical analysis of brewed coffee shows the following: Coffee Tannin Comparative per Cup Proportions Percolator method, [379] fine gran. 2. 90 grains -------- 5 minutes' steeping Boiling Method, medium " 2. 35 " ------ Steeping Method, " " 2. 31 " ----- Filtration (or Drip) Method } 0. 29 " - Pulverized } Brewing is the final manufacturing process of coffee. All previous perfection is dependent upon it. Like food products which lose nutritive value by bad cooking, coffee loses its best values by wrong brewing. Brewed by the very simple correct methods, it is an unfailingly clear, fragrant, taste-charming beverage, universally loved and scientifically approved. The committee made a further report in 1914, and some of the findingswere subsequently published in an association booklet called _The CoffeeBook_, used in connection with the second National Coffee Week campaignin 1915. In it were these: GRINDING DEFINITIONS _Powdered_ _Pulverized_ Like--flour. Like--not coarser than fine corn meal. _Very Fine and Fine_ _Medium_Like--from corn meal to Like--coarse granulated fine granulated sugar. Sugar. Also, the committee emphasized its previous findings, particularly thisone: "Filter bags should be kept in cold water when not in use. Dryingcauses decomposition. Keeps sweet if kept wet. Use muslin for filter bagand pulverized granulation. " The association brought out this same year, on recommendation of thecommittee, its Home coffee mill, an "ideal and standard coffee mill forhome use. " It was a wall mill equipped with a glass-front metal hopperand employing a ratchet spring-lock nut and double-action grinders. Themill was later improved with an all-glass hopper and a tumbler bracket. More than 20, 000 of these mills have been sold. At the suggestion of the author, the efficiency of nine differentcoffee-making devices (including boiling and drip pots, pumpingpercolators, cloth and paper filters) was investigated in thelaboratories of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research of theUniversity of Pittsburgh in 1915; and Dr. Raymond F. Bacon submitted areport that showed that the boiling method produced the highestpercentage of caffetannic acid and caffein; the French drip process thelowest. The investigation disclosed also a more palatable brew at 195°to 200° F. Than at the boiling point. Another notable contribution to the science of coffee brewing was madeby the Home Economics Laboratories of the University of Kansas in 1916. The experiments extended over one year. They showed that strength andcolor in coffee brews are independent of blend and price and are mostfully obtained by pulverized granulation, which was found to be the mostefficient; that the consumer pays for flavor and that filtration yieldedthe best brew. The French drip, or true percolator, did not figure inthese experiments. At the 1915 convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, Mr. Aborn reported that 4, 000 copies of the committee's findings on grindingand brewing had been given away: and the facts were further circulatedin 2, 000, 000 booklets issued during two years. He told of tests whichshowed that while there might be reasons of commercial expediency forpacking ground coffee, it could not be defended as a quality principle;also that plate-grinders produced a more efficient drawing granulationthan roller grinders, and that the idea that the steel-cut processeliminates dirt was an absurdity, as "the finest ground coffee is notdirt but coffee in its most efficient drawing condition. " He added, "Ihave paid no attention to chaff removal in these tests as theuselessness of such removal has been repeatedly shown up. " The referencehere was to his 1914 and 1913 reports, in which it was stated that"removing the chaff in the steel-cut process does not remove any of thetannin, and for this purpose the steel-cut process is wholely futile, and a wasteful and unnecessary tax upon cost", and that "the removal ofthe chaff appreciably affects the flavor and depreciates the cup value. " This report repeated previous findings against the pumping percolator asproducing an inefficient brew and being a very faulty utensil. Mr. Aborn concluded his report by saying: The old time boiling method has fewer and fewer defenders and holds its own only as a superstition. I therefore pass it over as a discarded issue.... It is but repetition of former reports for me to say that pulverized granulation is the most efficient granulation; that it assures the highest quality of brew and the lowest proportion of coffee to a given strength; that it is the most saving and most satisfying grinding for all to use; that it (the coffee) must be fresh ground; that the filtration method is the most correct in fundamental principles and that used with a muslin bag it assures the consumer coffee of the purest, finest flavored quality, highest health value and sure economy. The campaign of education was continued during 1916, producingencouraging results among schools, colleges, the medical fraternity, newspapers, with the trade and the consumer. It marked the first bigconstructive work combining the practical and scientific phases ofgrinding and brewing methods. In his report at the 1916 convention ofthe National Coffee Roasters Association, Mr. Aborn reviewed the fouryears work, and pointed out what had been accomplished. He told of a newbooklet, to be called the _True Book on Coffee Grinding and Brewing_, and an educational exhibit box for schools about to be issued. Due toopposition which developed from trade interests that were putting outsteel-cut and other grinds of coffee not favored by the committee, andalso because many members thought the association should not exploit anyparticular method of grinding or brewing, it was decided to make nofurther publication of the coffee grinding and brewing conclusions ofthe committee until they had been confirmed by laboratory research. Boiling and filtration tests in the mountains of the Yellowstone Park byW. H. Aborn in 1916 showed that the limit of coffee brewing was reachedat an altitude of nine thousand feet. At the 1916 meeting, Dr. Floyd W. Robison of the Detroit TestingLaboratories, read a notable paper entitled "What do we know aboutcoffee?, " which hailed coffee as a food product, warned the roasters tobeware of half-facts, and urged the importance of a research laboratory. It was published and given distribution by the association. The educational exhibit box showing samples of coffee from plantation tocup, including five different grinds, was issued in 1917, and sold forone dollar. The Better Coffee Making Committee also published in this year a bookletentitled _Coffee Grinding and Brewing_ in which it summarized its workto date, and presented its special plea for cotton-cloth filters as theideal coffee-making device. This booklet aroused considerable discussion, particularly between thosewho favored the paper filter and those who, with Mr. Aborn, believedcotton cloth, such as muslin, to be the most efficient strainer. "Cotton", argued Mr. Aborn, "is an ideal sanitary strainer because itcontains no chemical or questionable manufacturing element. " It was pointed out by Dr. Floyd W. Robison that while cotton cloth, suchas muslin, does give a fairly clear coffee, it is not so clear as by themethods where a filter paper is used. He said: Both methods have serious objectionable features. The muslin bag, particularly, is decidedly unsanitary, especially when used in restaurants and hotels. It is rarely kept clean, and one who has frequented restaurants and many hotel kitchens knows that it lends itself to very unclean and unsightly methods of handling. The food inspector has to check this up perhaps as often as any one feature about a restaurant. The objection to the filter paper is not at all on the ground of sanitation. It is ideal in this respect. The claim is made, and at least, in part, substantiated, that it does hold back valuable features of the brew. There are many points about the filter that have not been considered at all. Mr. Calkin believes that the very best type of filter is a bed of coffee itself, and I must say this has the sanction of good laboratory experience. I. D. Richheimer[380], attacking the cotton cloth filter, said: It is a known fact that the fats in coffee are very dense and represent twelve to fifteen percent of the coffee weight. These fats--due to the simplest chemical action of contact with air, moisture and continued heat--begin a fermentation in the completed beverage. In the cloth-filtering process--due to the rapid passage of water through grounds almost as quickly as poured--the largest percentage of fats is carried into the beverage. Fat being lighter than water rises to the top of water if given a certain amount of time during the brewing process. Were there no fats (which ferment) in coffee there would be no need for placing cloth-filtering material under water, as suggested, to keep them from becoming sour. In the booklet referred to, Mr. Aborn expressed himself as follows onthe filtration method: The filtration method is not new, but well tried, thoroughly proven and long used, though often incorrectly. It is the method followed, more or less correctly, by all of the first-class hotels in the world. It is controlled by no patent or proprietary device, and requires a most inexpensive equipment. For a perfect result it but demands an accurate adherence to simple but vital principles. Deviations from these fundamentals, though apparently slight, cause failure. When they, and the necessary _exact_ following of them, are clearly understood, any person, even a small child, can brew coffee with unvarying success. The first point to consider in filtration is the dimensions of the filter bag, or container of the ground coffee, in relation to the quantity of coffee used and the granulation of same. If the filter be a muslin bag, free on all sides, the filtering surface is considerable and permits the necessary quick passage of water through the grounds, provided the bag is of a wide enough diameter as to prevent too great a depth of grounds through which the water cannot quickly penetrate. The error of too narrow a filter is a common one. It causes a delayed filtration, which means undesirably long contact of water and coffee and also the cooling of the liquid which in a correct, undelayed filtration is smoking hot at completion. The bag should also not be too long or be allowed to hang or soak in the liquid. A filter bag set tightly into a pot against its sides, thus surrounded with impenetrable walls, is greatly reduced in filtering surface, and the filtration is thereby slackened. The filter material should not be too coarse in texture, like cheese cloth, or too heavy and impenetrable, like very heavy muslin. A moderate weight muslin, not too light, is efficient. The degree of granulation also, of course, affects the rate of flow. The coarser the grind the faster the flow, which permits a larger quantity of coffee to a given diameter of filter bag. A most frequent fault in the use of the filtration method is the failure to understand the fine degree of grinding necessary to the best results. When the grind is not sufficiently fine the extraction is, of course, weak. A fine grind (like fine cornmeal) is essential. It does not retard the flow if the filter is of right dimensions. A powdered grind (like flour) is so fine that it is apt to "mat" itself into a resisting floor. Many users of the filtration method pour the liquid through more than once. This gains some added color, but adds undesirable element, depreciates flavor and is especially inadvisable when the grind is sufficiently fine. _One pouring_ only is recommended for the best results. The chinaware, or glazed earthenware pot, sometimes called the French drip pot, with a chinaware or earthenware sieve container for the grounds at the top through which the water is poured, being free of all metal, is inviting in purity and in hygienic merit. Together with the filter bag, it is subject to the above remarks on dimensions. A chinaware sieve cannot be made as fine as a metal sieve and cannot of course hold very fine granulation as can cotton cloth. More coffee for a given strength is, therefore, required. The upper container should be wide enough, for a given quantity of coffee, as to allow an unretarded flow, and the more openings the strainer contains the better. In any drip, filtration or percolating method the stirring of the grounds causes an over-contact of water and coffee and results in an overdrawn liquor of injured flavor. If the water does not pass through the grounds readily, the fault is as above indicated and cannot be corrected by stirring or agitation. Many complaints of bitter taste are traced to this error in the use of the filtration method. It is not necessary to pour on the water in driblets. The water may be poured slowly, but the grounds should be kept well covered. The weight of the water helps the flow downward through the grounds. Care should be taken to keep up the temperature of the water. Set the kettle back on the stove when not pouring. If the water is measured, use a small heated vessel, which fill and empty quickly without allowing the water to cool. In 1917, _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_ made a comparativecoffee-brewing test with a regulation coffee pot for boiling, a pumpingpercolator, a double glass filtration device, a cloth-filter device, anda paper filter device. The cup tests were made by E. M. Frankel, Ph. D. ;and William B. Harris, coffee expert, United States Department ofAgriculture. The brews were judged for color, flavor (palatability, smoothness), body (richness), and aroma. The test showed that the paperfiltration device produced the most superior brew. The cloth-filter, glass-filter, percolator, and boiling pot followed in the order named. At the 1917 convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, JohnE. King, of Detroit, announced that laboratory research which he had hadconducted for him showed that the finer the grind, the greater the lossof aroma, and so he had selected a grind containing ninety percent ofvery fine coffee and ten percent of a coarser nature, which seemed toretain the aroma. He subsequently secured a United States patent forthis grind. Mr. King announced also at this meeting that hisinvestigations showed there was more than a strong likelihood that themuch-discussed caffetannic acid did not exist in coffee--that it mostprobably was a mixture of chlorogenic and and coffalic acids. The World War operated to interfere with the coffee roasters' plans fora research bureau; and in the meantime the Brazil planters, in 1919, started their million-dollar advertising campaign in the United States, co-operating with a joint committee representing the green and roastedcoffee interests. In the following year (June, 1920), this committeearranged with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to startscientific research work on coffee, the literature of the roasters'Better Coffee Making Committee being turned over to it; and theInstitute began to "test the results of the committee's work by purelyanalytical methods. " The first report on the research work at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology was made by Professor S. C. Prescott to the Joint Coffee TradePublicity Committee in April, 1921. The committee gave out a statementsaying that Prof. Prescott's report stated that "caffein, the mostcharacteristic principle of coffee, is, in the moderate quantitiesconsumed by the average coffee drinker, a safe stimulant without harmfulafter-effects. " There was no publication of experimental results; but the announcedfindings were, in the main, a confirmation of the results of previousworkers, particularly of Hollingworth, with whose statement, that"caffein, when taken with food in moderate amount is not in the leastdeleterious, " the report was quoted as being in entire agreement. At the annual convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, November 2, 1921, Professor Prescott made a further report, in which hestated that investigations on coffee brewing had disclosed that coffeemade with water between 185° and 200° was to be preferred to coffee madewith the water at actual boiling temperature (212°), that the chemicalaction was far less vigorous, and that the resulting infusion retainedall the fine flavors and was freer from certain bitter or astringentflavors than that made at the higher temperature. Professor Prescottannounced also that the best materials for coffee-making utensils wereglass (including agate-ware, vitrified ware, porcelain, etc. ), aluminum, nickel or silver plate, copper, and tin plate, in the order named[381]. The Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee's booklet on _Coffee andCoffee Making_, issued in 1921, was very guarded in its observations ongrinding and brewing. It avoided all controversial points, but it did goso far as to say on the general subject of brewing: Chemists have analyzed the coffee bean and told us that the only part of it which should go into our coffee cups for drinking is an aromatic oil. This aromatic element is extracted most efficiently only by fresh boiling water. The practice of soaking the grounds in cold water, therefore, is to be condemned. It is a mistake also to let the water and the grounds boil together after the real coffee flavor is once extracted. This extraction takes place very quickly, especially when the coffee is ground fine. The coarser the granulation the longer it is necessary to let the grounds remain in contact with the boiling water. Remember that flavor, the only flavor worth having, is extracted by the _short_ contact of boiling water and coffee grounds and that after this flavor is extracted, the coffee grounds become valueless dregs. The report contained also the following helpful generalities on coffeeservice and the various methods of brewing in more or less common use inthe United States in 1921: Although the above rules are absolutely fundamental to good Coffee Making, their importance is so little appreciated that in some households the lifeless grounds from the breakfast Coffee are left in the pot and resteeped for the next meal, with the addition of a small quantity of fresh coffee. Used coffee grounds are of no more value in coffee making than ashes are in kindling a fire. After the coffee is brewed the true coffee flavor, now extracted from the bean, should be guarded carefully. When the brewed liquid is left on the fire or overheated this flavor is cooked away and the whole character of the beverage is changed. It is just as fatal to let the brew grow cold. If possible, coffee should be served as soon as it is made. If service is delayed, it should be kept hot but not overheated. For this purpose careful cooks prefer a double boiler over a slow flre. The cups should be warmed beforehand, and the same is true of a serving pot, if one is used. Brewed coffee, once injured by cooling, cannot be restored by reheating. Unsatisfactory results in coffee brewing frequently can be traced to a lack of care in keeping utensils clean. The fact that the coffee pot is used only for coffee making is no excuse for setting it away with a hasty rinse. Coffee making utensils should be cleansed after each using with scrupulous care. If a percolator is used pay special attention to the small tube through which the hot water rises to spray over the grounds. This should be scrubbed with the wire-handled brush that comes for the purpose. In cleansing drip or filter bags use cool water. Hot water "cooks in" the coffee stains. After the bag is rinsed keep it submerged in cool water until time to use it again. Never let it dry. This treatment protects the cloth from the germs in the air which cause souring. New filter bags should be washed before using to remove the starch or sizing. DRIP (OR FILTER) COFFEE. The principle behind this method is the quick contact of water at full boiling point with coffee ground as fine as it is practical to use it. The filtering medium may be of cloth or paper, or perforated chinaware or metal. The fineness of the grind should be regulated by the nature of the filtering medium, the grains being large enough not to slip through the perforations. The amount of ground coffee to use may vary from a heaping teaspoonful to a rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee desired, depending upon the granulation, the kind of apparatus used and individual taste. A general rule is the finer the grind the smaller the amount of dry coffee required. The most satisfactory grind for a cloth drip bag has the consistency of powdered sugar and shows a slight grit when rubbed between thumb and finger. Unbleached muslin makes the best bag for this granulation. For dripping coffee reduced to a powder, as fine as flour or confectioner's sugar, use a bag of canton flannel with the fuzzy side in. Powdered coffee, however, requires careful manipulation and cannot be recommended for everyday household use. Put the ground coffee in the bag or sieve. Bring fresh water to a full boil and pour it through the coffee at a steady, gradual rate of flow. If a cloth drip bag is used, with a very finely ground coffee, one pouring should be enough. No special pot or device is necessary. The liquid coffee may be dripped into any handy vessel or directly into the cups. Dripping into the coffee cups, however, is not to be recommended unless the dripper is moved from cup to cup so that no one cup will get more than its share of the first flow, which is the strongest and best. The brew is complete when it drips from the grounds, and further cooking or "heating up" injures the quality. Therefore, since it is not necessary to put the brew over the fire, it is possible to make use of the hygienic advantages of a glassware, porcelain or earthenware serving pot. BOILED (OR STEEPED) COFFEE. For boiling (or steeping) use a medium grind. The recipe is a rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee desired or--as some cooks prefer to remember it--a tablespoonful for each cup and "one for the pot. " Put the dry coffee in the pot and pour over it fresh water _briskly boiling_. Steep for five minutes or longer, according to taste, over a low fire. Settle with a dash of cold water or strain through muslin or cheesecloth and serve at once. PERCOLATED COFFEE. Use a rounded tablespoonful of medium fine ground coffee to each cupful of water. The water may be poured into the percolator cold or at the boiling point. In the latter case, percolation begins at once. Let the water percolate over the grounds for five or ten minutes depending upon the intensity of the heat and the flavor desired. In response to a request by the author, Charles W. Trigg has contributedthe following discussion of coffee making: VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC COFFEE BREWING Before converting it into the beverage form, coffee must be carefully selected and blended, and skillfully roasted, in order thus far to assure obtaining a maximum efficiency of results. No matter how accurately all this be done, improper brewing of the roasted bean will nullify the previous efforts and spoil the drink; for roasted coffee is a delicate material, very susceptible to deterioration and of doubtful worth as the source of a beverage unless properly handled. There probably never was produced a drink which so fits into the exacting desires of the human appetite as does coffee. Properly prepared, it is a delightful beverage: but incorrectly made, it becomes an imposition upon the palates of mankind. Sensitive though coffee is to improper manipulation, the best procedure for brewing it is also the easiest. Cheap coffee well made excels good coffee poorly made. CONSTITUENT CONCEPTS. The roasting of green coffee causes an alteration in the constitution of its constituents, with the result that some of the compounds present therein which were originally water-soluble are rendered insoluble, and some which were insoluble are converted into soluble ones. A portion of the original caffein content is lost by sublimation. The aromatic conglomerate, caffeol, is formed, and a considerable quantity of gas is produced, a portion of which, developing pressure in the cells of the beans, pops, or swells, them so as to increase the size of each individual bean. The constituents which are water-soluble after the torrefaction may be generally classified as heavy extractives and light aromatic materials. The percentages and nature of these materials in the roasted coffee will vary with the type of coffee and with the roast which it is given. In general, and in particular for purposes of comparison of methods of brewing, they may be considered to be the same and to occur in about the same proportions in all coffees. The heavy extractives are caffein, mineral matter, proteins, caramel and sugars, "caffetannic acid", and various organic materials of uncertain composition. Some fat will also be found in the average coffee brew, being present not by virtue of being water soluble, but because it has been melted from the bean by the hot water and carried along with the solution. The caffein furnishes the stimulation for which coffee is generally consumed. It has only a slightly bitter taste, and because of the relatively small percentage in which it is present in a cup of coffee, does not contribute to the cup value. The mineral matter, together with certain decomposition and hydrolysis products of crude fiber and chlorogenic acid, contribute toward the astringency or bitterness of the cup. The proteins are present in such small quantity that their only rôle is to raise somewhat the almost negligible food value of a coffee infusion. The body, or what might be called the licorice-like character of coffee, is due to the presence of bodies of a glucosidic nature and to caramel. As has been previously pointed out[382], the term "caffetannic acid" is a misnomer; for the substances which are called by this name are in all probability mainly coffalic and chlorogenic acids. Neither is a true tannin, and they evince but few of the characteristic reactions of tannic acid. Some neutral coffees will show as high a "caffetannic acid" content as other acid-charactered ones. Careful work by Warnier[383] showed the actual acidities of some East Indian coffees to vary from 0. 013 to 0. 033 percent. These figures may be taken as reliable examples of the true acid content of coffee, and though they seem very low, it is not at all incomprehensible that the acids which they indicate produce the acidity in a cup of coffee. They probably are mainly volatile organic acids together with other acidic-natured products of roasting. [Illustration: SECTION OF ROASTED BEAN MAGNIFIED 1, 000 TIMES] We know that very small quantities of acid are readily detected in fruit juices and beer, and that variation in their percentages is quickly noticed, while the neutralization of this small amount of acidity leaves an insipid drink. Hence it seems quite likely that this small acid content gives to the coffee brew its essential acidity. A few minor experiments on neutralization have proven the production of a very insipid beverage by thus treating a coffee infusion. So that the acidity of certain coffees most apparently should be attributed to such compounds, rather than to the misnamed "caffetannic acid. " The light aromatic materials, and the other substances which are steam-distillable, i. E. Which are driven off when coffee is concentrated by boiling, are the main determining factors in the individuality of coffees. These compounds, which are collectively called "caffeol", vary greatly in the percentages present in different coffees, and thus are largely responsible for our ability to distinguish coffees in the cup. It is these compounds which supply the pleasingly aromatic and appetizing odor to coffee. All of these compounds, with the possible exception of the proteins, are easily soluble in both hot and cold water. The fact that a clear coffee extract made with hot water does not show any precipitate immediately upon cooling, proves that cold water will give as complete an extraction as hot water. However, speed of extraction is materially increased with rise in temperature, due to the fact that the rate and degree of solubility of the substances in water, and the diffusion of the water through the cell walls of the coffee, are accelerated. Also, the resistance which the fat content of the bean offers to the wetting of the coffee, and the persistency of the "enfleurage" action of the fat in retaining the caffeol, are less with hot than with cold water. Accordingly, the speed of extraction is increased by using hot water, and the efficiency of extraction procured per unit time of subjection to water is higher. Prolonged contact of coffee with water results in the hydrolysis of some of the insoluble materials and subsequent extraction of the substances thus formed. The rate of hydrolysis also increases with temperature: and as these compounds are of an astringent or bitter nature, the solution obtained upon boiling coffee is naturally possessed of a flavor unpleasant to the palate of the connoisseur. Boiling of the coffee infusion after it has been removed from the grounds also has a deleterious effect, as the local overheating of the solution at the point of application of the heat results in a decomposition, particularly if the solution be converted into steam at this point, leaving a thin film of solids temporarily exposed to the destructive action of the heat. Some of the more delicate constituents are unfavorably affected by such treatment, and undergo hydrolysis and oxidation. The products thus formed are thrown into relief in the flavor by the loss of the aromatic properties through steam distillation which is incidental to boiling. It is a well known fact that re-warming a coffee brew has a unfavorable effect upon it. This is probably due in part to a precipitation of some of the water-soluble proteins upon standing, and their subsequent decomposition when heat is applied directly to them in reheating the solution. The absorption of air by the solution upon cooling, with attendant oxidation, which is accentuated by the application of heat in re-warming, must also be considered, as well as the other effects of boiling as set forth, and the action of the materials of which the coffee pot is constructed upon the solution. PHYSICAL CONCEPTION. The coffee bean is composed of a large number of cells which function as natural containers and retainers of coffee fat and of the aromatic flavoring substances. In order to render the soluble solids fully accessible, the resistance which these cells offer to the extracting water must be overcome by grinding so as to break open all of them. In this manner a grind is obtained which will give a maximum removal of the heavy extractives. But when all of the cells are broken, great opportunity is offered for the escape of the caffeol, which is further enhanced by the slight heating which usually accompanies such fine grinding. So much caffeol escapes that even our most expert cup-testers would experience difficulty in identifying powdered coffees in a blind test. What cup-testers, in fact, use powdered coffees for making their cup selections? Consider powdered coffee, compared with freshly ground coffee of a coarser grind. Neither the former nor its brew possesses the amount of characteristic flavor or aroma, attributable to caffeol, evidenced by the latter. The explanation of this is that the finer the grind, the more readily accessible are the soluble constituents of the coffee to the extracting water. Caffeol, however, in addition to being water-soluble, is extremely fugacious, so that when the grinding is carried to such a fineness that every cell is broken, the greater part of the caffeol volatilizes before the water comes into contact with it. It is therefore highly desirable that a grind be used wherein all of the cells are not broken, but a grind that is sufficiently fine to permit efficient extraction. In the light of this knowledge, the grind advocated by King[384] seems to be logical, for with it--though neither a maximum of the non-volatile extractives nor a maximum of caffeol is obtained--an all-round maximum of cup quality is procured. The escape, upon grinding, of these volatile aromatic and flavoring constituents which lend individuality to coffees, makes it essential that the roasted beans be ground immediately prior to extraction. DIFFERENT METHODS OF EXTRACTION. The methods employed for preparing the coffee drink may be classified under the general headings of boiling, steeping, percolation, and filtration. True percolation is the simple process known by the trade as filtration; but in this classification, the term indicates the style of extraction exemplified by the pumping percolator. Boiled coffee is usually cloudy, due to the suspension of fine particles resulting from the disintegration of the grounds by the violence of boiling. The usual procedure in clarifying the decoction is to add the white of an egg or some egg-shells, the albumen of which is coagulated upon the fine particles by the heat of the solution, and the particles thus weighted sink to the bottom. Even this procedure, requiring much attention, does not give as clear a solution as some of the other extraction procedures employed. The conditions to which coffee is subjected during boiling are the worst possible, as both grounds and solution undergo hydrolysis, oxidation, and local-overheating, while the caffeol is steam-distilled from the brew. Many persons, who have long been accustomed to drinking the relatively bitter beverage thus produced, are not satisfied by coffee made in any other way; but this is purely a perversion of taste, for none of the properties are present which make coffee so prized by the epicure. [Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF ROASTED COFFEE BEAN MAGNIFIED 600 TIMES] [Illustration: COARSE GRIND UNDER THE MICROSCOPE] Steeping, in which cold water is added to the coffee, and the mixture brought up to a boil, does not subject the coffee to so strenuous conditions. Local overheating and hydrolysis occur, but not to so great an extent as in boiling; and most of the effects of oxidation and volatization of caffeol are absent. However, extraction is rather incomplete, due to lack of thorough admixture of the water and coffee. When coffee is to be made under the best conditions, the temperature of the water used and of the extract after it is made should not fluctuate. In the pumping percolator, as in the steeping method, the temperature varies greatly from the time the extraction is started to the completion of the operation. This is deleterious. Also, local overheating of the infusion occurs at the point of application of the heat; and because of the manner in which the water is brought into contact with the coffee, the degree of extraction shows inefficiency. Spraying of the water over the coffee never permits the grounds to be completely covered with water at any one time, and the opportunity offered for channeling is excessive. The principle of thorough extraction demands that, as the substance being extracted becomes progressively more exhausted, fresh solvent should be brought into contact with it. In the pumping percolator the solution pumped over the grounds becomes more concentrated as the grounds become exhausted; so that the time taken to reach the degree of extraction desired is longer, and an appreciable amount of relatively concentrated liquor is retained by the grounds. [Illustration: MEDIUM GRIND UNDER THE MICROSCOPE] The simplest procedure to follow is that in which boiling water is poured over ground coffee suspended on a filtering medium in such a manner that the extracting water will slowly pass through the coffee and be received in a containing vessel, which obviates further contact of the beverage with the grounds. The water as it comes into contact with the ground coffee extracts the soluble material, and the solution is removed by gravity. Fresh water takes its place; so that, if the filter medium be of the proper fineness, the water flows through at the correct rate of speed, and complete extraction is effected with the production of a clear solution. Thus a maximum extraction of desirable materials is obtained in a short time with a minimum of hydrolysis, oxidation, and loss of caffeol; and if the infusion be consumed at once, or kept warm in a contrivance embodying the double-boiler principle, the effects of local overheating are avoided. Also, with the use of an appropriate filter, a finer grind of coffee can be used than in the other devices, without obtaining a turbid brew. All this works toward the production of a desirable drink. There are several devices on the market, some using paper, and some cloth, as a filter, which operate on this principle and give very good coffee. The use of paper presents the advantage of using a new and clean filter for each brew, whereas the cloth must be carefully kept immersed in water between brews to prevent its fouling. Contrivances operating on the filtration principle have been designed for use on a large scale in conjunction with coffee urns, and have proven quite successful in causing all of the water to go slowly through the coffee without channeling, thus accomplishing practically complete extraction. The majority of urns are still operated with bags, of which the ones with sides of heavier material than the bottom obtain the most satisfactory results, as the majority of the water must pass through the coffee instead of out through the sides of the bag. Greatest efficiency, when bags are used, is obtained by repouring until all of the liquid has passed twice through the coffee; further repouring extracts too much of the astringent hydrolysis products. The bags, when not in use, should not be allowed to dry but should be kept in a jar of cold water. The urns provided with water jackets keep the brew at almost a constant temperature and avoid the deterioration incident to temperature fluctuation. COMPOSITION OF BREWS. The real tests of the comparative values of different methods of brewing are the flavor and palatibility of the drink, in conjunction with the number of cups of a given strength which are produced, or the relative strengths of brews of the same number of cups volume. Chemical analysis has not yet been developed to a stage where the results obtained with it are valuably indicative. Caffeol is present in quantities so small that no comparative results can be obtained. "Caffetannic acid" determinations are practically meaningless. This compound is of so doubtful a composition and physiological action, and the methods employed for its determination are so indefinite as to interpretation, as to render valueless any attempts at comparison of relative percentages. The only accurate analysis which can be made is that for caffein. Much advertising emphasis has been placed on the small amount of caffein extracted by some devices. What is one of the main reasons for the consumption of coffee? The caffein contained therein, of course. So that if one device extracts less caffein than another, that fact alone is nothing in favor of the former. If the consumer does not want caffein in his drink there are caffein-free coffees on the market. [Illustration: FINE-MEAL GRIND UNDER THE MICROSCOPE] The coffee liquor acts on metals in such a manner as to lower the quality of the drink, so that metals of any sort, and by all means, irons, should be avoided as far as possible. Instead, earthenware or glass, preferably a good grade of the former, should be employed as far as possible in the construction of coffee-making devices. Of the various metals, silver, aluminum, monel metal, and tin (in the order named) are least attacked by coffee infusions; and besides these, nickel, copper, and well enameled iron (absolutely free from pin holes) may be used without much danger of contamination. Rings for coffee-urn bags should be made of tinned copper, monel metal, or aluminum. Even if coffee be made in metal contrivances, the receptacles in which it stands should be made of earthenware or of glass. Painstaking care should be given to the preservation of the coffee-makers in a state of cleanliness, as upon this depends the value of the brew. Dirt, fine grounds, and fat (which will turn rancid quickly) should not be allowed to collect on the sides, bottom, or in angles of the device difficult of access. Nor should any source of metallic or exterior contamination be allowed to go uneliminated. _The Perfect Cup of Coffee_ Lovers of coffee in the United States are in a better position to obtainan ideal cup of the beverage than those in any other country. Whileimports of green coffee are not so carefully guarded as tea imports, there is a large measure of government inspection designed to protectthe consumer against impurities, and the Department of Agriculture iszealous in applying the pure food laws to insure against misbranding andsubstitution. The department has defined coffee as "a beverage resultingfrom a water infusion of roasted coffee and nothing else. " Today no reputable merchant would think of selling even loose coffee forother than what it is. And the consumer can feel that, in the case ofpackage coffee, the label tells the truth about the contents. With a hundred different kinds of coffee coming to this market fromnineteen countries, so many combinations are possible, that there issure to be a straight coffee or a blend to suit any taste. And those whomay have been frightened into the belief that coffee is not for themshould do a little experimenting before exposing themselves to thedangers of the coffee-substitute habit. Once upon a time it was thought that Java and Mocha were the onlyworthwhile blend, but now we know that a Bogota coffee from Colombia, and a Bourbon Santos from Brazil, make a most satisfying drink. And ifthe individual seeker should happen to be a caffein-sensitive, there arecoffees so low in caffein content, like some Porto Ricans, as toovercome this objection; while there are other coffees from which thecaffein has been removed by a special treatment. There is no reason whyany person who is fond of coffee should forego its use. ParaphrasingMakaroff, Be modest, be kind, eat less, and think more, live to serve, work and play and laugh and love--it is enough! Do this and you maydrink coffee without danger to your immortal soul. If you are accustomed to buying loose coffee, have your dealer do alittle experimental blending for you until you find a coffee to suityour palate. Some expert blends are to be found among the leadingpackage brands. But you really can not do better than to trust your caseto a first-class grocer of known reputation. He will guide you right ifhe knows his business; and if he doesn't, then he doesn't know hisbusiness--try elsewhere. Test him out along this line: Let us reason together, Mr. Grocer. Let us consider these facts aboutcoffee: green coffee improves with age? Granted. As soon as it isroasted, it begins to lose in flavor and aroma? Certainly. Grindinghastens the deterioration? Of course. Therefore, it is better to buy asmall quantity of freshly roasted coffee in the bean and grind it at thetime of purchase or at home just before using? Absolutely! If your grocer reacts in this fashion, he need only supply you with aquality coffee at fair price and you need only to make it properly toobtain the utmost of coffee satisfaction. Some connoisseurs still cling to the good old two-thirds Java andone-third Mocha blend, but the author has for years found great pleasurein a blend composed of half Medellin Bogota, one-quarter Mandheling"Java", and one-quarter Mocha. However, this blend might not appeal toanother's taste, and the component parts are not always easy to get. Theretail cost (1922) is about fifty cents. Another pleasing blend is composed of Bogota, washed Maracaibo, andSantos, equal parts. This should retail from thirty to thirty-fivecents. Good drinking coffees are to be had for prices ranging fromtwenty-five to thirty cents. In the stores of one of the large chainsystems an excellent blend composed of sixty percent Bourbon Santos, and forty percent Bogota is to be had (1922) for 29 cents. All thesefigures apply, of course, to normal times. If you are epicurean, you will want to read up on, and to try, the fancyMexicans, Cobáns, Sumatra growths, Meridas, and some from the "Konaside" of Hawaii. In preparing the perfect cup of coffee, then, the coffee must be of goodgrade, and freshly roasted. It should, if possible, be ground justbefore using. The author has found a fine grind, about the consistencyof fine granulated sugar, the most satisfactory. For general home use, adevice that employs filter paper or filter cloth is best; for theepicure an improved porcelain French percolator (drip pot) or animproved cloth filter will yield the utmost of coffee's delights. Drinkit black, sweetened or unsweetened, with or without cream or hot milk, as your fancy dictates. It should be remembered that to make good coffee no special pot ordevice is necessary. Good coffee can be made with any china vessel and apiece of muslin. But to make it in perfection pains must be taken withevery step in the process from roaster to cup. Hollingworth[385] points out that through taste alone it is impossibleto distinguish between quinine and coffee, or between apple and onion. There is something more to coffee than its caffein stimulus, its actionon the taste-buds of the tongue and mouth. The sense of smell and thesense of sight play important rôles. To get all the joy there is in acup of coffee, it must look good and smell good, before one canpronounce its taste good. It must woo us through the nostrils with thewonderful aroma that constitutes much of the lure of coffee. And that is why, in the preparation of the beverage, the greatestpossible care should be observed to preserve the aroma until the momentof its psychological release. This can only be done by having it appearat the same instant that the delicate flavor is extracted--roasting andgrinding the bean much in advance of the actual making of the beveragewill defeat this object. Boiling the extraction will perfume the house;but the lost fragrance will never return to the dead liquid calledcoffee, when served from the pot whence it was permitted to escape. To recapitulate, with an added word on service, the correct way to makecoffee is as follows: 1. Buy a good grade of freshly roasted coffee from a responsible dealer. 2. Grind it very fine, and at home, just before using. 3. Allow a rounded tablespoonful for each beverage cup. 4. Make it in a French drip pot or in some filtration device wherefreshly boiling water is poured through the grind but once. A piece ofmuslin and any china receptacle make an economical filter. 5. Avoid pumping percolators, or any device for heating water andforcing it repeatedly through the grounds. Never boil coffee. 6. Keep the beverage hot and serve it "black" with sugar and hot milk, or cream, or both. _Some Coffee Recipes_ When Mrs. Ida C. Bailey Allen prepared a booklet of recipes for theJoint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, she introduced them with thefollowing remarks on the use of coffee as a flavoring agent: Although coffee is our national beverage, comparatively few cooks realize its possibilities as a flavoring agent. Coffee combines deliciously with a great variety of food dishes and is especially adapted to desserts, sauces and sweets. Thus used it appeals particularly to men and to all who like a full-bodied pronounced flavor. For flavoring purposes coffee should be prepared just as carefully as when it is intended for a beverage. The best results are obtained by using freshly made coffee, but when, for reasons of economy, it is desirable to utilize a surplus remaining from the meal-time brew, care should be taken not to let it stand on the grounds and become bitter. When introducing made coffee into a recipe calling for other liquid, decrease this liquid in proportion to the amount of coffee that has been added. When using it in a cake or in cookies, instead of milk, a tablespoonful less to the cup should be allowed, as coffee does not have the same thickening properties. In some cases, better results are gained if the coffee is introduced into the dish by scalding or cooking the right proportion of ground coffee with the liquid which is to form the base. By this means the full coffee flavor is obtained, yet the richness of the finished product is not impaired by the introduction of water, as would be the case were the infused coffee used. This method is advisable especially for various desserts which have milk as a foundation, as those of the custard variety and certain types of Bavarian Creams, Ice Cream, and the like. The right proportion of ground coffee, which is generally a tablespoonful to the cup, should be combined with the cold milk or cream in the double-boiler top and should then be scalded over hot water, when the mixture should be put through a very fine strainer or cheese cloth, to remove all grounds. Coffee can be used as a flavoring in almost any dessert or confectionwhere a flavoring agent is employed. On iced coffee and the use of coffee in summer beverages in general, Mrs. Allen writes as follows: ICED COFFEE. This is not only a delicious summer drink, but it also furnishes a mild stimulation that is particularly grateful on a wilting hot day. It may be combined with fruit juices and other ingredients in a variety of cooling beverages which are less sugary and cloying than the average warm weather drink and for that reason it is generally popular with men. Coffee that is to be served cold should be made somewhat stronger than usual. Brew it according to your favorite method and chill before adding sugar and cream. If cracked ice is added make sure the coffee is strong enough to compensate for the resulting dilution. Mixing the ingredients in a shaker produces a smoother beverage topped with an appetizing foam. It is a convenience, however, to have on hand a concentrated syrup from which any kind of coffee-flavored drink may be concocted on short notice and without the necessity of lighting the stove. Coffee left over from meals may be used for the same purpose, but it should be kept in a covered glass or china dish and not allowed to stand too long. A coffee syrup made after the following recipe will keep indefinitely and may be used as a basis for many delicious iced drinks: COFFEE SYRUP. Two quarts of very strong coffee; 3-1/2 pounds sugar. The coffee should be very strong, as the syrup will be largely diluted. The proportion of a pound of coffee to one and three-fourths quarts of water will be found satisfactory. This may be made by any favorite method, cleared and strained, then combined with the sugar, brought to boiling point, and boiled for two or three minutes. It should be canned while boiling, in sterilized bottles. Fill them to overflowing and seal as for grape juice or for any other canned beverage. [Illustration] A COFFEE CHRONOLOGY _Giving dates and events of historical interest in legend, travel, literature, cultivation, plantation treatment, trading, and in the preparation and use of coffee from the earliest time to the present_ 900[L]--Rhazes, famous Arabian physician, is first writer to mention coffee under the name _bunca_ or _bunchum_. [M] 1000[L]--Avicenna, Mahommedan physician and philosopher, is the first writer to explain the medicinal properties of the coffee bean, which he also calls _bunchum_. [M] 1258[L]--Sheik Omar, disciple of Sheik Schadheli, patron saint and legendary founder of Mocha, by chance discovers coffee as a beverage at Ousab in Arabia. [M] 1300[L]--The coffee drink is a decoction made from roasted berries, crushed in a mortar and pestle, the powder being placed in boiling water, and the drink taken down, grounds and all. 1350[L]--Persian, Egyptian, and Turkish ewers made of pottery are first used for serving coffee. 1400-1500--Earthenware or metal coffee-roasting plates with small holes, rounded and shaped like a skimmer, come into use in Turkey and Persia over braziers. Also about this time appears the familiar Turkish cylinder coffee mill, and the original Turkish coffee boiler of metal. 1428-48--Spice grinder to stand on four legs first invented; subsequently used to grind coffee. 1454[L]--Sheik Gemaleddin, mufti of Aden, having discovered the virtues of the berry on a journey to Abyssinia, sanctions the use of coffee in Arabia Felix. 1470-1500--The use of coffee spreads to Mecca and Medina. 1500-1600--Shallow iron dippers with long handles and small foot-rests come into use in Bagdad and in Mesopotamia for roasting coffee. 1505[L]--The Arabs introduce the coffee plant into Ceylon. 1510--The coffee drink is introduced into Cairo. 1511--Kair Bey, governor of Mecca, after consultation with a council of lawyers, physicians, and leading citizens, issues a condemnation of coffee, and prohibits the use of the drink. Prohibition subsequently ordered revoked by the sultan of Cairo. 1517--Sultan Selim I, after conquering Egypt, brings coffee to Constantinople. 1524--The kadi of Mecca closes the public coffee houses because of disorders, but permits coffee drinking at home and in private. His successor allows them to re-open under license. 1530[L]--Coffee drinking introduced into Damascus. 1532[L]--Coffee drinking introduced into Aleppo. 1534--A religious fanatic denounces coffee in Cairo and leads a mob against the coffee houses, many of which are wrecked. The city is divided into two parties, for and against coffee; but the chief judge, after consultation with the doctors, causes coffee to be served to the meeting, drinks some himself, and thus settles the controversy. 1542--Soliman II, at the solicitation of a favorite court lady, forbids the use of coffee, but to no purpose. 1554--The first coffee houses are opened in Constantinople by Shemsi of Damascus and Hekem of Aleppo. 1570[L]-80[L]--Religious zealots in Constantinople, jealous of the increasing popularity of the coffee houses, claim roasted coffee to be a kind of charcoal, and the mufti decides that it is forbidden by the law. Amurath III subsequently orders the closing of all coffee houses, on religious grounds, classing coffee with wine, forbidden by the _Koran_. The order is not strictly observed, and coffee drinking continues behind closed shop-doors and in private houses. 1573--Rauwolf, German physician and botanist, first European to mention coffee, makes a journey to the Levant. 1580--Prospero Alpini (Alpinus), Italian physician and botanist, journeys to Egypt and brings back news of coffee. 1582-83--The first printed reference to coffee appears as _chaube_ in Rauwolf's _Travels_, published in German at Frankfort and Lauingen. 1585--Gianfraneesco Morosini, city magistrate in Constantinople, reports to the Venetian senate the use by the Turks "of a black water, being the infusion of a bean called _cavee_. " 1587--The first authentic account of the origin of coffee is written by the Sheik Abd-al-Kâdir, in an Arabian manuscript preserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. 1592--The first printed description of the coffee plant (called _bon_) and drink (called _caova_) appears in Prospero Alpini's work _The Plants of Egypt_, written in Latin, and published in Venice. 1596[L]--Belli sends to the botanist de l'Écluse "seeds used by the Egyptians to make a liquid they call _cave_. " 1598--The first printed reference to coffee in English appears as _chaoua_ in a note of Paludanus in _Linschoten's Travels_, translated from the Dutch, and published in London. 1599--Sir Antony Sherley, first Englishman to refer to coffee drinking in the Orient, sails from Venice for Aleppo. 1600[L]--Pewter serving-pots appear. 1600--Iron spiders on legs, designed to sit in open fires, are used for roasting coffee. 1600[L]--Coffee cultivation introduced into southern India at Chickmaglur, Mysore, by a Moslem pilgrim, Baba Budan. [M] 1600-32--Mortars and pestles of wood, and of metal (iron, bronze, and brass) come into common use in Europe for making coffee powder. 1601--The first printed reference to coffee in English, employing the more modern form of the word, appears in W. Parry's book, _Sherley's Travels_, as "a certain liquor which they call coffe. " 1603--Captain John Smith, English adventurer, and founder of the colony of Virginia, in his book of travels published this year, refers to the Turks' drink, "coffa. " 1610--Sir George Sandys, the poet, visits Turkey, Egypt, and Palestine, and records that the Turks "sip a drink called _coffa_ (of the berry that it is made of) in little china dishes, as hot as they can suffer it. " 1614--Dutch traders visit Aden to examine into the possibilities of coffee cultivation and coffee trading. 1615--Pietro Della Valle writes a letter from Constantinople to his friend Mario Schipano at Venice that when he returns he will bring with him some coffee, which he believes "is a thing unknown in his native country. " 1615--Coffee is introduced into Venice. 1616--The first coffee is brought from Mocha to Holland by Pieter Van dan Broecke. 1620--Peregrine White's wooden mortar and pestle (used for "braying" coffee) is brought to America on the Mayflower by White's parents. 1623-27--Francis Bacon, in his _Historia Vitae et Mortis_ (1623), speaks of the Turks' "caphe"; and in his _Sylva Sylvarum_ (1627) writes: "They have in Turkey a drink called _coffa_ made of a berry of the same name, as black as soot, and of a strong scent ... This drink comforteth the brain and heart, and helpeth digestion. " 1625--Sugar is first used to sweeten coffee in Cairo. 1632--Burton in his _Anatomy of Melancholy_ says: "The Turks have a drink called _coffa_, so named from a berry black as soot and as bitter. " 1634--Sir Henry Blount makes a voyage to the Levant, and is invited to drink "cauphe" in Turkey. 1637--Adam Olearius, German traveler and Persian scholar, visits Persia (1633-39); and on his return tells how in this year he observed that the Persians drink _chawa_ in their coffee houses. 1637--Coffee drinking is introduced into England by Nathaniel Conopios, a Cretan student at Balliol College, Oxford. 1640--Parkinson, in his _Theatrum Botanicum_, publishes the first botanical description of the coffee plant in English--referred to as "_Arbor Bon cum sua Buna_. The Turkes Berry Drinke. " 1640--The Dutch merchant, Wurffbain, offers for sale in Amsterdam the first commercial shipment of coffee from Mocha. 1644--Coffee is introduced into France at Marseilles by P. De la Roque, who brought back also from Constantinople the instruments and vessels for making it. 1645--Coffee comes into general use in Italy. 1645--The first coffee house is opened in Venice. 1647--Adam Olearius publishes in German his _Persian Voyage Description_, containing an account of coffee manners and customs in Persia in 1633-39. 1650[L]--Varnar, Dutch minister resident at the Ottoman Porte, publishes a treatise on coffee. 1650[L]--The individual hand-turned metal (tin-plate or tinned copper) roaster appears; shaped like the Turkish coffee grinder, for use over open fires. 1650--The first coffee house in England is opened at Oxford by Jacobs, a Jew. 1650--Coffee is introduced into Vienna. 1652--The first London coffee house is opened by Pasqua Rosée in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill. 1652--The first printed advertisement for coffee in English appears in the form of a handbill issued by Pasqua Rosée, acclaiming "The Vertue of the Coffee Drink. " 1656--Grand Vizier Kuprili, during the war with Candia, and for political reasons, suppresses the coffee houses and prohibits coffee. For the first violation the punishment is cudgeling; for a second, the offender is sewn up in a leather bag and thrown into the Bosporus. 1657--The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appears in _The Publick Adviser_ of London. 1657--Coffee is introduced privately into Paris by Jean de Thévenot. 1658--The Dutch begin the cultivation of coffee in Ceylon. 1660[L]--The first French commercial importation of coffee arrives in bales at Marseilles from Egypt. 1660--Coffee is first mentioned in the English statute books when a duty of four pence is laid upon every gallon made and sold "to be paid by the maker. " 1660[L]--Nieuhoff, Dutch ambassador to China, is the first to make a trial of coffee with milk, in imitation of tea with milk. 1660--Elford's "white iron" machine for roasting coffee is much used in England, being "turned on a spit by a jack. " 1662--Coffee is roasted in Europe over charcoal fires without flame, in ovens, and on stoves; being "browned in uncovered earthenware tart dishes, old pudding pans, fry pans. " 1663--All English coffee houses are required to be licensed. 1663--Regular imports of Mocha coffee begin at Amsterdam. 1665--The improved Turkish long brass combination coffee grinder with folding handle and cup receptacle for green beans, for boiling and serving, is first made in Damascus. About this period the Turkish coffee set, including long-handled boiler and porcelain cups in brass holders, comes into vogue. 1668--Coffee is introduced into North America. 1669--Coffee is introduced publicly into Paris by Soliman Aga, the Turkish ambassador. 1670--Coffee is roasted in larger quantities in small closed sheet-iron cylinders having long iron handles designed to turn them in open fireplaces. First used in Holland. Later, in France, England, and the United States. 1670--The first attempt to grow coffee in Europe at Dijon, France, results in failure. 1670--Coffee is introduced into Germany. 1670--Coffee is first sold in Boston. 1671--The first coffee house in France is opened in Marseilles in the neighborhood of the Exchange. 1671--The first authoritative printed treatise devoted solely to coffee, written in Latin by Faustus Nairon, professor of Oriental languages, Rome, is published in that city. 1671--The first printed treatise in French, largely devoted to coffee, _Concerning the Use of Coffee, Tea and Chocolate_, by Philippe Sylvestre Dufour, purporting to be a translation from the Latin, is published at Lyons. 1672--Pascal, an Armenian, first sells coffee publicly at St. Germain's fair, Paris, and opens the first Parisian coffee house. 1672--Great silver coffee pots (with all the utensils belonging to them of the same metal) are used at St. -Germain's fair, Paris. 1674--_The Women's Petition Against Coffee_ is published in London. 1674--Coffee is introduced into Sweden. 1675--Charles II issues a proclamation to close all London coffee houses as places of sedition. Order revoked on petition of the traders in 1676. 1679--An attempt by the physicians of Marseilles to discredit coffee on purely dietetic grounds fails of effect; and consumption increases at such a rate that traders in Lyons and Marseilles begin to import the green bean by the ship-load from the Levant. 1679[L]--The first coffee house in Germany is opened by an English merchant at Hamburg. 1683--Coffee is sold publicly in New York. 1683--Kolschitzky opens the first coffee house in Vienna. 1684--Dufour publishes at Lyons, France, the first work on _The Manner of Making Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate_. 1685--_Café au lait_ is first recommended for use as a medicine by Sieur Monin, a celebrated physician of Grenoble, France. 1686--John Ray, one of the first English botanists to extol the virtues of coffee in a scientific treatise, publishes his _Universal Botany of Plants_ in London. 1686--The first coffee house is opened in Regensburg, Germany. 1689--Café de Procope, the first real French café, is opened in Paris by François Procope, a Sicilian, coming from Florence. 1689--The first coffee house is opened in Boston. 1691--Portable coffee-making outfits to fit the pocket find favor in France. 1692--The "lantern" straight-line coffee pot with true cone lid, thumb-piece, and handle fixed at right angle to the spout, is introduced into England, succeeding the curved Oriental serving pot. 1694--The first coffee house is opened in Leipzig, Germany. 1696--The first coffee house (The King's Arms) is opened in New York. 1696--The first coffee seedlings are brought from Kananur, on the Malabar coast, and introduced into Java at Kedawoeng, near Batavia, but not long afterward are destroyed by flood. 1699--The second shipment of coffee plants from Malabar to Java by Henricus Zwaardecroon becomes the progenitors of all the _arabica_ coffee trees in the Dutch East Indies. 1699--Galland's translation of the earliest Arabian manuscript on coffee appears in Paris under the title, _Concerning the First Use of Coffee and the Progress It Afterward Made_. 1700--Ye coffee house, the first in Philadelphia, is built by Samuel Carpenter. 1700-1800--Small portable coke or charcoal stoves made of sheet-iron, and fitted with horizontal revolving cylinders turned by hand, come into use for family roasting. 1701--Coffee pots appear in England with perfect domes and bodies less tapering. 1702--The first "London" coffee house is established in Philadelphia. 1704--Bull's machine for roasting coffee, probably the first to use coal for commercial roasting, is patented in England. 1706--The first samples of Java coffee, and a coffee plant grown in Java, are received at the Amsterdam botanical gardens. 1707--The first coffee periodical, _The New and Curious Coffee House_, is issued at Leipzig by Theophilo Georgi, as a kind of organ of the first kaffee-klatsch. 1711--Java coffee is first sold at public auction in Amsterdam. 1711--A novelty in coffee-making is introduced into France by infusing the ground beans in a fustian (linen) bag. 1712--The first coffee house is opened in Stuttgart, Germany. 1713--The first coffee house is opened in Augsburg, Germany. 1714--The thumb-piece on English coffee pots disappears, and the handle is no longer set at a right angle to the spout. 1714--A coffee plant, raised from seed of the plant received at the Amsterdam botanical gardens in 1706, is presented to Louis XIV of France, and is nurtured in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. 1715--Jean La Roque publishes in Paris his _Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse_ (voyage to Arabia the Happy) containing much valuable information on coffee in Arabia and its introduction into France. 1715--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Haiti and Santo Domingo. 1715-17--Coffee cultivation is introduced into the Isle of Bourbon (now Réunion) by a sea captain of St. Malo, who brings the plants from Mocha by direction of the French Company of the Indies. 1718--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Surinam by the Dutch. 1718--Abbé Massieu's _Carmen Caffaeum_, the first and most notable poem on coffee written in Latin, is composed, and is read before the Academy of Inscriptions. 1720--Caffè Florian is opened in Venice by Floriono Francesconi. 1721--The first coffee house is opened in Berlin, Germany. 1721--Meisner publishes a treatise on coffee, tea, and chocolate. 1722--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Cayenne, from Surinam. 1723--The first coffee plantation started in the Portuguese colony of Pará, Brazil, with plants brought from Cayenne (French Guiana) results in failure. 1723--Gabriel de Clieu, Norman captain of infantry, sails from France, accompanied by one of the seedlings of the Java tree presented to Louis XIV, and with it shares his drinking water on a protracted voyage to Martinique. 1730--The English bring the cultivation of coffee to Jamaica. 1732--The British Parliament seeks to encourage the cultivation of coffee in British possessions in America by reducing the inland duty. 1732--Bach's celebrated _Coffee Cantata_ is published in Leipzig. 1737--The Merchants' coffee house is established in New York; by some called the true cradle of American liberty and the birthplace of the Union. 1740--Coffee culture is introduced into the Philippines from Java by Spanish missionaries. 1748--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Cuba by Don José Antonio Gelabert. 1750--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Celebes from Java. 1750--The straight-line coffee pot in England begins to give way to the reactionary movement in art favoring bulbous bodies and serpentine spouts; the sides are nearly parallel, while the dome of the lid is flattened to a slight elevation above the rim. 1752--Intensive coffee cultivation is resumed in the Portuguese colonies in Pará and Amazonas, Brazil. 1754--A white-silver coffee roaster, eight inches high by four inches in diameter, is mentioned as being among the deliveries made to the army of Louis XV at Versailles. 1755--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Porto Rico from Martinique. 1760--Decoction, or boiling, of coffee in France is generally replaced by the infusion method. 1760--João Alberto Castello Branco plants in Rio de Janeiro the first coffee tree brought to Brazil from Goa, Portuguese India. 1761--Brazil exempts coffee from export duty. 1763--Donmartin, a tinsmith of St. Benoit, France, invents a novel coffee pot, the inside of which is "filled by a fine flannel sack put in its entirety. " It has a tap to draw the coffee. 1764--Count Pietro Verri publishes in Milan, Italy, a philosophic and literary periodical, entitled _Il Caffè_ (the coffee house). 1765--Mme. De Pompadour's golden coffee mill is mentioned in her inventory. 1770--Complete revolution in style of English serving pots; return to the flowing lines of the Turkish ewer. 1770--Chicory is first used with coffee in Holland. 1770-73--Coffee cultivation begins in Rio, Minãs, and São Paulo. 1771--John Dring is granted a patent in England for a compound coffee. 1774--Molke, a Belgian monk, introduces the coffee plant from Surinam into the garden of the Capuchin monastery at Rio de Janeiro. 1774--A letter is sent by the Committee of Correspondence from the Merchants' coffee house, New York, to Boston, proposing the American Union. 1777--King Frederick the Great of Prussia issues his celebrated coffee and beer manifesto, recommending the use of the latter in place of the former among the lower classes. 1779--Richard Dearman is granted an English patent for a new method of making mills for grinding coffee. 1779--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Costa Rica from Cuba by the Spanish voyager, Navarro. 1781--King Frederick the Great of Prussia establishes state coffee-roasting plants in Germany, declares the coffee business a government monopoly, and forbids the common people to roast their own coffee. "Coffee-smellers" make life miserable for violators of the law. 1784--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Venezuela by seed from Martinique. 1784--A prohibition against the use of coffee, except by the rich, is issued by Maximilian Frederick, elector of Cologne. 1785--Governor Bowdoin of Massachusetts introduces chicory to the United States. 1789--The first import duty on coffee, two and a half cents a pound, is levied by the United States. 1789--George Washington is officially greeted, April 23, as president-elect of the U. S. At the Merchants coffee house in New York. 1790--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Mexico from the West Indies. 1790--The first wholesale coffee-roasting plant in the United States begins operation at 4 Great Dock Street, New York. 1790--The first United States advertisement for coffee appears in the _New York Daily Advertiser. _ 1790--The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased to four cents a pound. 1790--The first crude package coffee is sold in "narrow mouthed stoneware pots and jars, " by a New York merchant. 1792--The Tontine coffee house is established in New York. 1794--The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased to five cents a pound. 1798--The first United States patent for an improved coffee-grinding mill is granted to Thomas Bruff, Sr. 1800[L]--Chicory comes into use in Holland as a substitute for coffee. 1800[L]--De Belloy's coffee pot, made of tin, later of porcelain, appears--the original French drip coffee pot. 1800[L]-1900[L]--There is a return in England to the style of coffee-serving pot having the handle at right angle to the spout. 1802--The first French patent on a coffee maker is granted to Denobe, Henrion, and Rouch for "a pharmacological-chemical coffee making device by infusion. " 1802--Charles Wyatt is granted a patent in London on an apparatus for distilling coffee. 1804[L]--The first cargo of coffee--and other East Indian produce--from Mocha, to be shipped in an American bottom, reaches Salem, Mass. 1806--James Henckel is granted a patent in England on a coffee dryer, "an invention communicated to him by a certain foreigner. " 1806--The first French patent on an improved French drip coffee pot for making coffee by filtration, without boiling, is granted to Hadrot. 1806--The coffee percolator (really an improved French drip coffee pot) is invented by Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), an expatriated American scientist, in Paris. 1809--The first importation of Brazil coffee by the United States arrives at Salem, Mass. 1809--Coffee becomes an article of commerce in Brazil. 1811--Walter Rochfort, a London grocer and tea dealer, obtains a patent in London on a compressed coffee tablet. 1812--Coffee in England is roasted in an iron pan or hollow cylinder made of sheet iron; and then is pounded in a mortar, or ground in a hand-mill. 1812--Anthony Schick is granted an English patent on a method, or process, for roasting coffee, for which specifications were never enrolled. 1812--Coffee is roasted in Italy in a glass flask with a loose cork, held over a clear fire of burning coals and continually agitated. 1812--The import duty, on coffee in the United States is increased to ten cents a pound as a war-revenue measure. 1813--A United States patent is granted Alexander Duncan Moore, New Haven, Conn. , on a mill for grinding and pounding coffee. 1814--A war-time fever of speculation in tea and coffee causes the citizens of Philadelphia to form a non-consumption association, each member pledging himself not to pay more than twenty-five cents a pound for coffee, and not to use tea unless it is already in the country. 1816--The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to five cents a pound. 1817[L]--The coffee biggin (said to have been invented by a man named Biggin) comes into common use in England. 1818--The Havre coffee market for spot coffee and to arrive is established. 1819--Morize, a Paris tinsmith, invents a double drip reversible coffee pot. 1819--Laurens is granted a French patent on the original pumping-percolator device in which the boiling water was raised by steam pressure and sprayed over the ground coffee. 1820--Peregrine Williamson, Baltimore, is granted the first United States patent for an improvement on a coffee roaster. 1820--Another early form of the French percolator is patented by Gaudet, a Paris tinsmith. 1822--Nathan Reed, Belfast, Me. , is granted a United States patent on a coffee huller. 1824--Richard Evans is granted a patent in England for a commercial method of roasting coffee, comprising a cylinder sheet-iron roaster fitted with improved flanges for mixing, a hollow tube and trier for sampling the coffee while roasting, and a means for turning the roaster completely over to empty it. 1825--The pumping percolator, working by steam pressure and by partial vacuum, comes into vogue in France, Germany, Austria, and elsewhere. 1825--The first coffee-pot patent in the United States is issued to Lewis Martelley, New York. 1825--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Hawaii from Rio de Janeiro. 1827--The first patent for a really practicable French coffee percolator is granted to Jacques Augustin Gandais, a manufacturer of plated jewelry in Paris. 1828--Charles Parker, Meriden, Conn. , begins work on the original Charles Parker coffee mill. 1829--The first French patent on a coffee mill is granted Colaux et Cie, Molsheim, France. 1829--Établissements Lauzaune begin the manufacture of hand-turned cylinder coffee roasting machines in Paris. 1830--The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to two cents a pound. 1831--David Selden is granted a patent in England for a coffee-grinding mill having cones of cast-iron. 1831--John Whitmee & Co. , England, begin the manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery. 1831--The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to one cent a pound. 1832--A United States patent is granted to Edmund Parker and Herman M. White, Meriden, Conn. , on a new household coffee and spice mill. (Chas. Parker Co. Business founded same year. ) 1832--Government coffee cultivation by forced labor is introduced into Java. 1832--Coffee is placed on the free list in the United States. 1832-33--United States patents are granted to Ammi Clark, Berlin, Conn. , on improved coffee and spice mills for household use. 1833--Amos Ransom, Hartford, Conn. , is granted a United States patent on a coffee roaster. 1833-34--A complete English coffee-roasting-and-grinding plant is installed in New York by James Wild. 1834--John Chester Lyman is granted a patent in England on a coffee huller employing circular wooden disks with wire teeth. 1835--Thomas Ditson, Boston, is granted a United States patent on a coffee huller. Ten others follow. 1835--The first private coffee estates are started in Java and Sumatra. 1836--The first French coffee-roaster patent is issued to François Réné Lacoux, Paris, on a combination coffee roaster and grinder made of porcelain. 1837--The first French coffee substitute is patented by François Burlet, Lyons. 1839--James Vardy and Moritz Platow are granted an English patent on a form of urn percolator employing the vacuum process of coffee making, the upper vessel being made of glass. 1840--Central America begins shipping coffee to the United States. 1840[L]--Robert Napier, of the Clyde engineering firm of Robert Napier & Sons, invents the Napierian vacuum coffee machine to make coffee by distillation and filtration, but the idea is never patented. (See 1870. ) 1840--Abel Stillman, Poland, N. Y. , is granted a United States patent on a family coffee roaster having a mica window to enable the operator to observe the coffee while roasting. 1840--The English begin to cultivate coffee in India. 1840--Wm. McKinnon & Co.. Aberdeen, Scotland, begin the manufacture of plantation machinery. (Established 1798. ) 1842--The first French patent on a glass coffee-making device is granted to Mme. Vassieux of Lyons. 1843--Ed. Loysel de Santais, Paris, is granted a patent on an improved coffee-making device, the principle of which is later incorporated in a hydrostatic percolator making 2, 000 cups an hour. 1846--James W. Carter, Boston, is granted a United States patent on the Carter "pull-out" coffee roaster. 1847--J. R. Remington, Baltimore, is granted a United States patent on a coffee roaster employing a wheel of buckets to move the green coffee beans singly through a charcoal-heated trough in which they are roasted while passing over the rotating wheel. 1847-48--William Dakin and Elizabeth Dakin are granted patents in England for a roasting cylinder lined with gold, silver, platinum, or alloy, and traversing carriage on a railway to move the roaster in and out of the heating chamber. 1848--Thomas John Knowlys is granted a patent in England on a perforated roasting cylinder coated with enamel. 1848--Luke Herbert is granted the first English patent on a coffee-grinding machine. 1849--Apoleoni Preterre, Havre, is granted a patent in England on a coffee roaster mounted on a weighing apparatus to indicate loss of weight in roasting, and automatically to stop the roasting process. 1849--Thomas R. Wood of Cincinnati is granted a United States patent on Wood's improved spherical coffee roaster for use on kitchen stoves. 1850--John Gordon & Co. Begin the manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery in London. 1850[L]--The cultivation of coffee is introduced into Guatemala. 1850[L]--John Walker introduces his cylinder pulper for coffee plantations. 1852--Edward Gee secures a patent in England for an improved combination of apparatus for roasting coffee; having a perforated cylinder fitted with inclined flanges for turning the beans while roasting. 1852--Robert Bowman Tennent is granted a patent in England on a two-cylinder machine for pulping coffee. Others follow. 1852--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Salvador from Cuba. 1852--Tavernier is granted a French patent on a coffee tablet. 1853--Lacassagne and Latchoud are granted a French patent on liquid and solid extracts of coffee. 1855--C. W. Van Vliet, Fishkill Landing, N. Y. , is granted a patent on a household coffee mill employing upper breaking, and lower grinding, cones. Assigned to Charles Parker, Meriden, Conn. 1856--Waite and Sener's Old Dominion pot is patented in the United States. 1857--The Newell patents on coffee-cleaning machinery are issued in America. Sixteen patents follow. 1857--George L. Squier, Buffalo, N. Y. , begins the manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery. 1859--John Gordon, London, is granted an English patent on a coffee pulper. 1860[L]--Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java coffee, the pioneer ground-coffee package, is put on the New York market by Lewis A. Osborn. 1860--Marcus Mason, an American mechanical engineer in San José, Costa Rica, invents the Mason pulper and cleaner. 1860--John Walker is granted a patent in England on a disk pulper for pulping Arabian coffee. 1860--Alexius Van Gulpen begins the manufacture of a green-coffee-grading machine at Emmerich, Germany. 1861--An import duty of four cents a pound on coffee is imposed by the United States as a war-revenue measure. 1862--The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased to five cents a pound. 1862--The first paper-bag factory in the United States, making bags for loose coffee, begins operation in Brooklyn. 1862--E. J. Hyde, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent on a combined coffee roaster and stove, fitted with a crane on which the roasting cylinder is revolved and swung out horizontally from the stove. 1864--Jabez Burns, New York, is granted a United States patent on the Burns coffee roaster, the first machine that did not have to be moved away from the fire for discharging the roasted coffee--marking a distinct advance in the manufacture of coffee-roasting apparatus. 1864--James Henry Thompson. Hoboken, and John Lidgerwood, Morristown, N. J. , are granted an English patent on a coffee-hulling machine. 1865--John Arbuckle introduces to the trade at Pittsburgh roasted coffee in individual packages, the forerunner of the Ariosa package. 1866--William Van Vleek Lidgerwood, American chargé d'affaires, Rio de Janeiro, is granted an English patent on a coffee-hulling-and-cleaning machine. 1867--Jabez Burns is granted United States patents on a coffee cooler, a coffee mixer, and a grinding mill, or granulator. 1868--Thomas Page, New York, begins the manufacture of a pull-out coffee roaster similar to the Carter machine. 1868--Alexius Van Gulpen, in partnership with J. H. Lensing and Theodore von Gimborn, begins the manufacture of coffee-roasting machines at Emmerich, Germany. 1868--E. B. Manning, Middletown, Conn. , patents his tea-and-coffee pot in the United States. 1868--John Arbuckle is granted a United States patent for a roasted-coffee coating consisting of Irish moss, isinglass, gelatin, sugar, and eggs. 1869--Élie Moneuse and L. Duparquet, New York, are granted three United States patents on a coffee pot, or urn, formed of sheet copper and lined with pure sheet block tin. 1869--B. G. Arnold, New York, engineers the first large green-coffee speculation; his success as an operator winning for him the title of King of the Coffee Trade. 1869--Henry E. Smyser, assignor to the Weikel & Smith Spice Co. , Philadelphia, is granted his first United States patent on a spice box used also for coffee. 1869--Licenses to sell coffee in London are abolished. 1869--The coffee-leaf disease is first noticed in Ceylon. 1870--John Gulick Baker, Philadelphia, one of the founders of the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. Of Pennsylvania, is granted a patent on a coffee grinder introduced to the trade by the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. As its Champion No. 1 mill. 1870--Delephine, Sr. , Marourme, is granted a French patent on a tubular coffee roaster that turns over the flame. 1870--Alexius Van Gulpen, Emmerich, Germany, brings out a globular coffee roaster having perforations and an exhauster. 1870--Thos. Smith & Son, Glasgow, Scotland, (Elkington & Co. , successors), begin the manufacture of the Napierian vacuum coffee-making machines for brewing coffee by distillation. 1870--First United States trade-mark for essence of coffee is registered by Butler, Earhart & Co. , Columbus, Ohio. 1870--The first coffee-valorization enterprise in Brazil results in failure. 1871--J. W. Gillies, New York, is granted two patents in the United States for roasting and treating coffee by subjecting it to an intervening cooling operation. 1871--First United States trade-mark for coffee is issued to Butler, Earhart & Co. , Columbus, Ohio, for Buckeye, first used 1870. 1871--G. W. Hungerford is granted United States patents on coffee-cleaning-and-polishing machines. 1871--The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to three cents a pound. 1872--Jabez Burns, New York, is granted a United States patent on an improved coffee-granulating mill. Another in 1874. 1872--J. Guardiola, Chocola, Guatemala, is granted his first United States patents on a coffee pulper and a coffee drier. 1872--The import duty on coffee in the United States is repealed. 1872--Robert Hewitt, Jr. , New York, publishes the first American work on coffee, _Coffee: Its History, Cultivation, and Uses_. 1873--J. G. Baker, Philadelphia, assignor of the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. Of Pennsylvania, is granted a United States patent on a grinding mill later known to the trade as Enterprise Champion Globe No. 0. 1873--Marcus Mason begins the manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery in the United States. 1873--Ariosa, first successful national brand of package coffee is put on the United States market by John Arbuckle of Pittsburgh. (Registered 1900. ) 1873--H. C. Lockwood, Baltimore, is granted a United States patent on a coffee package made of paper and lined with tin-foil, with false bottom and top. 1873--The first international syndicate to control coffee is organized in Frankfort, Germany, by the German Trading Company, and operates successfully for eight years. 1873--The Jay Cooke stock-market panic causes the price of Rios in the New York market to drop from twenty-four cents to fifteen cents in one day. 1873--E. Dugdale, Griffin, Ga. , is granted two United States patents on coffee substitutes. 1873--The first "coffee palace, " the Edinburgh Castle, designed to replace public-houses for workingmen, is opened in London. 1874--John Arbuckle is granted a United States patent on a coffee-cleaner-and-grader. 1875--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Guatemala. 1875-76-78--Turner Strowbridge, of New Brighton, Pa. , is granted three United States patents on a box coffee mill first made by Logan & Strowbridge. 1876--John Manning brings out his valve-type percolator in the United States. 1876-78--Henry B. Stevens, Buffalo, assignor to George L. Squier, Buffalo, is granted important United States patents on coffee-cleaning-and-grading machines. 1877--The first German patent on a commercial coffee roaster is issued in Berlin to G. Tuberman's Son. 1877--A French patent is granted Marchand and Hignette, Paris, on a sphere or ball coffee roaster. 1877--The first French patent on a gas coffee roaster is issued to Roure of Marseilles. 1878--Coffee cultivation is introduced into British Central Africa. 1878--_The Spice Mill_, the first paper in America devoted to the coffee and spice trades, is founded by Jabez Burns of New York. 1878--A United States patent is issued to Rudolphus L. Webb, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark of New Britain, Conn. , on an improved box coffee grinder for home use. 1878--Chase & Sanborn, the Boston coffee roasters, are the first to pack and ship roasted coffee in sealed containers. 1878--John C. Dell, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent on a coffee mill for store use. 1879--H. Faulder, Stockport, Lancaster, Eng. , is granted an English patent on the first English gas coffee roaster, now made by the Grocers Engineering & Whitmee, Ltd. 1879--A new gas coffee roaster is invented in England by Fleury & Barker. 1879--C. F. Hargreaves, Rio de Janeiro, is granted an English patent on machinery for hulling, polishing, and separating coffee. 1879--Charles Halstead, New York, is the first to bring out a metal coffee pot with a china interior. 1879-80--Orson W. Stowe, of the Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Co. , Southington, Conn. , is granted United States patents on an improved coffee and spice mill. 1880--Great failures in the American coffee trade as a result of syndicate planting and buying of coffees in Brazil, Mexico, and Central America. 1880--Coffee pots with tops, having muslin bottoms for clarifying and straining, are first made by Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co. In the United States. 1880--Peter Pearson, Manchester, Eng. , is granted a patent in England on a coffee roaster wherein gas is substituted for coke as fuel. 1880--Henry E. Smyser, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent on a package-making-and-filling machine, forerunner of the weighing-and-packing machine, the control of which by John Arbuckle led to the coffee-sugar war with the Havemeyers. 1880--Fancy paper bags for coffee are first used in Germany. 1880-81--G. W. And G. S. Hungerford are granted United States patents on machines for cleaning, scouring, and polishing coffee. 1880-81--The first big coffee-trade combination in North America, known as the "trinity" (O. G. Kimball, B. G. Arnold and Bowie Dash, all of New York), has a sensational collapse, its failure being the result of syndicate planting and buying of coffees in Brazil, Mexico, and Central America. 1881--Steele & Price, Chicago, are the first to introduce all-paper cans (made of strawboard) for coffee. 1881--C. S. Phillips, Brooklyn, is granted three patents in the United States for aging and maturing coffee. 1881--The Emmericher Machinenfabrik und Eisengiesserei at Emmerich, Germany, begins the manufacture of a closed globular roaster with a gas-heater attachment. 1881--Jabez Burns is granted a United States patent on an improved construction of his roaster, comprising a turn-over front head, serving for both feeding and discharging. 1881--The Morgan brothers, Edgar H. And Charles, begin the manufacture of household coffee mills, subsequently acquired (1885) by the Arcade Manufacturing Co. , Freeport, Ill. 1881--Francis B. Thurber, New York, publishes the second important American work on coffee, _Coffee from Plantation to Cup_. 1881--Harvey Ricker, Brooklyn, introduces to the trade a "minute" coffee pot and urn, known as the Boss, name subsequently changed to Minute, and later improved and patented (1901) as the Half Minute coffee pot--a filtration device employing a cotton sack with a thick bottom. 1881--New York Coffee Exchange is incorporated. 1882--Chris. Abele, New York, is granted a atent in the United States on an improvement on a coffee roaster, similar to the original Burns machine (on which the 1864 patent had expired) known as the Knickerbocker. 1882--The Hungerfords, father and son, bring out a coffee roaster, similar to the first Burns machine, in competition with Chris. Abele. 1882--A German patent is granted to Emil Newstadt, Berlin, on one of the earliest coffee-extract-making machines. 1882--The first French coffee exchange, or terminal market, is opened at Havre. 1882--New York Coffee Exchange begins business. 1883--The Burns Improved Sample Coffee Roaster is patented in the United States by Jabez Burns. 1884--The Star coffee pot, later known as the Marion Harland, is introduced to the trade. 1884--The Chicago Liquid Sack Co. Introduces the first combination paper and tin-end can for coffee in the United States. 1885--F. A. Cauchois introduces into the United States market an improved porcelain-lined coffee urn. 1885--Property of New York Coffee Exchange is transferred to the Coffee Exchange, City of New York, incorporated by special charter. 1880--Walker, Sons & Co. , Ltd. , begin experiments in Ceylon with a Liberian disk coffee pulper; fully perfected in 1898. 1886-88--The "great coffee boom" forces the price of Rio 7's from seven and a half to twenty-two and a quarter cents, the subsequent panic reducing the price to nine cents. Total sales on the New York Coffee Exchange. 1887-88, amount to 47, 868, 750 bags; and prices advance 1, 485 points during 1886-87. 1887--Beeston Tupholme, London, is granted a patent in England on a direct-flame gas coffee roaster. 1887--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Tonkin, Indo-China. 1887--Coffee exchanges are opened in Amsterdam and Hamburg. 1888--Evaristo Conrado Engelberg, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil, is granted a United States patent on a coffee-hulling machine (invented in 1885); and the same year, the Engelberg Huller Co. , Syracuse, N. Y. , is organized for the purpose of manufacturing and selling Engelberg machines. 1888--Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Netherlands, is granted a patent in Spain on a direct-flame gas coffee roaster. 1888--A French patent is granted to Postulart on a gas roaster. 1889--David Fraser, who came to the United States in 1886 from Glasgow, Scotland, establishes the Hungerford Co. , succeeding to the business of the Hungerfords. 1889--The Arcade Manufacturing Co. , Freeport, Ill. , brings out the first "pound" coffee mill. 1889--Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Netherlands, is granted patents in Belgium, France, and England, on his direct-flame gas coffee roaster. 1889--C. A. Otto is granted a German patent on a spiral-coil gas coffee machine to roast coffee in three and a half minutes. 1890--A. Mottant, Bar-le-Duc, France, begins the manufacture of coffee-roasting machines. 1890[L]--Coffee exchanges are opened in Antwerp, London, and Rotterdam. 1890--Sigmund Kraut begins the manufacture of fancy grease-proof paper-lined coffee bags in Berlin. 1891--The New England Automatic Weighing Machine Co. , Boston, begins the manufacture of machines to weigh coffee into cartons and other packages. 1891--R. F. E. O'Krassa; Antigua, Guatemala, is granted an important English patent on a machine for pulping coffee. 1891--John List, Black Heath, Kent, Eng. , is granted an English patent on a steam coffee urn described as an improvement on the Napierian system. 1892--T. Von Gimborn, Emmerich, Germany, is granted an English patent on a coffee roaster employing a naked gas flame in a rotary cylinder. 1892--The Fried. Krupp A. G. Grusonwerk, Magdeburg-Buckau, Germany, begins the manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery. 1893--Cirilo Mingo, New Orleans, is granted a United States patent on a process for maturing, or aging, green coffee beans by moistening the bags. 1893--The first direct-flame gas coffee roaster in America (Tupholme's English machine) is installed by F. T. Holmes at the plant of the Potter-Parlin Co. , New York, which places similar machines on daily rental basis throughout the United States, limiting leases to one firm in a city, obtaining exclusive American rights from the Waygood, Tupholme Co. , now the Grocers Engineering & Whitmee, Ltd. , London. 1893--Karel F. Hennemann, the Hague, Netherlands, is granted a United States patent on his direct-flame gas coffee roaster. 1894--The first automatic weighing machine to weigh goods in cartons is installed in the plant of Chase & Sanborn, Boston. 1894--Joseph M. Walsh, Philadelphia, publishes his _Coffee; Its History, Classification and Description_. 1895--Gerritt C. Otten and Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Netherlands, are granted a United States patent on a coffee roaster. 1895--Adolph Kraut introduces German-made double (grease-proof lined) paper bags for coffee in America. 1895--Marcus Mason, assignor to Marcus Mason & Co. , New York, is granted United States patents on machines for pulping and polishing coffee. 1895--Thomas M. Royal, Philadelphia, is the first to manufacture in the United States a fancy duplex-lined paper bag. 1895--Édelestan Jardin publishes in Paris a work on coffee, entitled _Le Caféier et le Café_. 1895--The Electric Scale Co. , Quincy, Mass. , begins the manufacture of pneumatic weighing machines; business continued by the Pneumatic Scale Corp. , Ltd. , Norfolk Downs, Mass. 1896--Natural gas is first used in the United States as fuel for roasting, being introduced under coal roasting cylinders in Pennsylvania and Indiana by improvised gas-burners. 1896-1897--Beeston Tupholme is granted United States patents on his direct-flame gas coffee roaster. 1897--Joseph Lambert of Vermont begins the manufacture and sale in Battle Creek, Mich. , of the Lambert self-contained coffee roaster without the brick setting then required for coffee roasting machines. 1897--A special gas burner (made the basis of application for patent) is first attached to a regular Burns roaster. 1897--The Enterprise Manufacturing Co. , Pennsylvania, is the first regularly to employ electric motors for driving commercial coffee mills by means of belt-and-pulley attachments. 1897--Carl H. Duehring, Hoboken, N. J. , assignor to D. B. Fraser, New York, is granted a United States patent on a coffee roaster. 1898--The Hobart Manufacturing Co. , Troy, Ohio, puts on the market one of the first coffee grinders connected with an electric motor and driven by a belt-and-pulley attachment. 1898--Millard F. Hamsley, Brooklyn, is granted a United States patent on an improved direct-flame gas coffee roaster. 1898--Edwin Norton of New York is granted a United States patent on a vacuum process of canning foods, later applied to coffee. Others follow. 1898--J. D. Olavarria, a distinguished Venezuelan, first advocates a plan for restriction of coffee production, and for regulation of coffee exports from countries suffering from overproduction. 1898--A bear campaign forces Rio 7's down to four and a half cents on the New York Coffee Exchange. 1899--The bubonic-plague boom temporarily halts the downward trend of coffee prices. 1899--The Canister Co. , Phillipsburg, N. J. , begins the manufacture of square and oblong fiber-bodied tin-end cans for coffee. 1899--Soluble coffee is invented in Chicago by Dr. Sartori Kato, a chemist of Tokio. 1899--David B. Fraser, New York, is granted two patents in the United States, one for a coffee roaster and one for a coffee cooler. 1899--Ellis M. Potter, New York, is granted a United States patent on a direct-flame gas coffee roasting machine embodying certain improvements on the Tupholme machine, whereby the gas flame is spread over a large area, so avoiding scorching and securing a more thorough and uniform roast. 1900--The Burns direct-flame gas coffee roaster with a patented swing-gate head for feeding and discharging at the center, is first introduced to the trade. 1900--First gear-driven electric coffee grinder is introduced into the United States market by the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. Of Pennsylvania. 1900--The Burns swing-gate sample-coffee roasting outfit is patented in the United States. 1900--Hills Bros. , San Francisco, are the first to pack coffee in a vacuum under the Norton patents. 1900--Charles Morgan, Freeport, Ill. , is granted a United States patent on a glass-jar coffee mill, with removable glass measuring cup. 1900--R. F. E. O'Krassa, Antigua, Guatemala, is granted an English and a United States patents on machines for shelling and drying coffee. 1900--Chemically purified and neutralized rosin as a glaze (_harz-glasur_) for roasted coffee, designed to keep it fresh and palatable, is first discovered and applied in Germany. 1900--Charles Lewis is granted a United States patent on his Kin Hee filter coffee pot. 1900-1901--A new era in coffee is inaugurated when Santos permanently displaces Rio as the world's largest source of supply. 1901--Kato's soluble coffee is put on the United States market by the Kato Coffee Company at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo. 1901--American Can Co. Begins the manufacture and sale of tin coffee cans in the United States. 1901--Improved all-paper cans for coffee (made of strawboard or chip-board, plain or manila-lined) are introduced into the United States market by J. H. Kuechenmeister of St. Louis. 1901--The first issue of _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_, devoted to the interests of the tea and coffee trades, appears in New York. 1901--Coffee cultivation is introduced into British East Africa from Réunion Island. 1901--Robert Burns of New York is granted two United States patents on a coffee roaster and cooler. 1901--Joseph Lambert of Marshall, Mich. , introduces to the trade in the United States a gas coffee roaster, one of the earliest machines employing gas as fuel for indirect roasting. 1901--T. C. Morewood, Brentford, Middlesex, Eng. , is granted an English patent on a gas coffee roaster with a removable sampling tube. 1901--F. T. Holmes joins the Huntley Manufacturing Co. , Silver Creek, N. Y. , which then begins to build the Monitor coffee roaster for the trade. 1901--Landers, Frary & Clark's Universal percolator is patented in the United States. 1902--The Coles Manufacturing Co. (Braun Co. , successors) and Henry Troemner, Philadelphia, begin the manufacture and sale of gear-driven electric coffee grinders. 1902--The Pan-American Congress, meeting in Mexico City, proposes an international congress for the study of coffee, to meet in New York, October, 1902. 1902--An international coffee congress is held in New York, October 1 to October 30. 1902--_Robusta_ coffee is introduced into Java from the Jardin Botanique at Brussels. 1902--The first fancy duplex paper bag made by machinery from a roll of paper is produced by the Union Bag & Paper Corp. 1902--The Jagenberg Machine Co. Begins the introduction into the United States of a line of German-made automatic packaging-and-labeling machines for coffee. 1902--T. K. Baker, Minneapolis, is granted two United States patents on a cloth-filter coffee maker. 1903--A United States patent on a coffee concentrate and process of making the same (soluble coffee) is granted to Sartori Kato of Chicago, assignor to the Kato Coffee Company of Chicago. 1903--F. A. Cauchois introduces Coffey's soluble coffee to the United States coffee trade, the product being ground roasted coffee mixed with sugar and reduced to a powder. 1903--Overproduction in Brazil causes Santos 4's to drop to 3. 55 cents on the New York Exchange, the lowest price ever recorded for coffee. 1903--John Arbuckle, New York, is granted a United States patent on a coffee-roasting apparatus, employing a fan to force the "hot fire gases" into the roasting cylinder. 1903--George C. Lester, New York, is granted a United States patent on an electric coffee roaster. 1904--Dr. E. Denekamp is granted a United States patent on a rosin glaze for roasted coffee, designed to preserve its flavor and aroma. 1904--The so-called "cotton crowd, " under the leadership of D. J. Sully, forces green-coffee prices up to 11. 85 cents, all records for business on the New York Coffee Exchange being smashed by the sale of over a million bags on February 5. 1904--Sigmund Sternau, J. P. Steppe, and L. Strassberger, assignors to S. Sternau & Co. , New York, are granted a United States patent on a coffee percolator. 1904-05--Douglas Gordon, assignor to Marcus Mason & Co. , New York, is granted United States patents on a coffee pulper and a coffee drier. 1905--The A. J. Deer Co. , Buffalo (now at Hornell, N. Y. ), begins the sale of its Royal electric coffee mills direct to dealers, on the instalment plan, revolutionizing the former practise of selling coffee mills through the hardware jobbers. 1905--The Henneman direct-flame gas coffee roaster, a Dutch machine, is introduced into the United States market by C. A. Cross, Fitchburg, Mass. 1905--H. L. Johnston is granted a United States patent on a coffee mill which he assigns to the Hobart Manufacturing Co. , Troy, Ohio. 1905--Frederick A. Cauchois introduces his Private Estate coffee maker, a filtration device employing Japanese filter paper. 1905--Finley Acker, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent on a coffee percolator, employing "porous or bibulous paper" as a filtering medium and having side perforations. 1905--A coffee exchange is opened in Trieste, Austria-Hungary. 1905--The Kaffee-Handels Aktiengesellschaft, Bremen, is granted a German patent on a process for freeing coffee from caffein. 1906--H. D. Kelly, Kansas City, Mo. , is granted a United States patent on the Kellum Thermo Automatic coffee urn, employing a coffee extractor in which the ground coffee is continually agitated before percolation by a vacuum process. Sixteen patents follow. 1906--G. Washington, an American chemist (born in Belgium of English parents), living temporarily in Guatemala City, invents a refined (soluble) coffee. 1906--Frank T. Holmes, Brooklyn (assignor to the Huntley Manufacturing Co. ), is granted a patent for an improvement on a coffee-roasting machine. 1906--Captain Moegling's electric-fuel coffee roaster, invented in 1900, is given a practical demonstration in Germany. 1906--Ludwig Schmidt, assignor to the Essmueller Mill Furnishing Co. , St. Louis, is granted a United States patent on a coffee roaster. 1906-07--Brazil produces a record-breaking crop of 20, 190, 000 bags, and the State of São Paulo inaugurates a plan to valorize coffee. 1907--The Pure Food and Drugs Act comes into force in the United States, making it obligatory to label all coffees correctly. 1907--Desiderio Pavoni, Milan, is granted a patent in Italy for an improvement on the Bezzara system of preparing and serving coffee as a rapid infusion of a single cup. 1907--P. E. Edtbauer (Mrs. E. Edtbauer), Chicago, is granted a United States patent on a duplex automatic weighing machine, the first simple, fast, accurate, and moderate-priced machine for weighing coffee. 1908--Dr. John Friederick Meyer, Jr. , Ludwig Roselius, and Karl Heinrich Wimmer, are granted a United States patent on a process for freeing coffee of caffein. 1908--Brazil begins a propaganda for coffee in England by subsidizing an English company organized for that purpose. 1908--Porto Rico coffee planters present a memorial to the Congress of the United States asking for a protective tariff of six cents a pound on all foreign coffee. 1908--The revivification of the valorization coffee enterprise is accomplished by a combination of bankers and the Brazil Government, with a loan of $75, 000, 000 placed through Hermann Sielcken with banking houses in England, Germany, France, Belgium, and the United States. 1908--J. C. Prims, of Battle Creek. Mich. , patents a corrugated-cylinder improvement for a gas-and-coal coffee roaster of small capacity (50 to 130 pounds) designed for retail stores. 1908--An improved type of Burns roaster, comprising an open perforated cylinder with flexible back head and balanced front bearing, is granted a patent in the United States. 1908--I. D. Richheimer, Chicago, introduces his Tricolator, an improved device employing Japanese filter paper. 1908-11--R. F. E. O'Krassa, Antigua, Guatemala, is granted several English patents on machines for hulling, washing, drying, and separating coffee. 1909--The G. Washington refined (prepared) soluble coffee is put on the United States market. 1909--The A. J. Deer Co. Acquires the Prims coffee roaster and re-introduces it to the trade as the Royal coffee roaster. 1909--The Burns tilting sample-coffee roaster is patented in the United States for gas or electric heating units. 1909--Frederick A. Cauchois of New York is granted a United States patent on a coffee urn fitted with a centrifugal pump for repouring. 1909--C. F. Blanke, St. Louis, is granted two United States patents on a china coffee pot with a dripper bag. 1910--The German caffein-free coffee is first introduced to the trade of the United States by Merck & Co. , New York, under the brand name Dekafa, later changed to Dekofa. 1910--B. Belli publishes in Milan, Italy, a work on coffee entitled _Il Caffè_. 1910--Frank Bartz, assignor to the A. J. Deer Co. , Hornell, N. Y. , is granted two United States patents on flat and concave coffee-grinding disks provided with concentric rows of inclined teeth, used in electric coffee mills. 1911--All-fiber parchment-lined Damptite cans for coffee are introduced by the American Can Company. 1911--The coffee roasters of the United States organize into a national association. 1911--Robert H. Talbutt, Baltimore (assignor to J. E. Baines, trustee, Washington) is granted a United States patent on an electric coffee roaster. 1911--Edward Aborn, New York, introduces his Make-Right coffee filter, and is granted a United States patent on it. 1912--Robert O'Krassa, Antigua, Guatemala, is granted four United States patents on machines for washing, drying, separating, hulling, and polishing coffee. 1912--The C. F. Blanke Tea & Coffee Co. , St. Louis, brings out Magic Cup, later known as Faust Soluble, coffee. 1912--The United States government brings suit to force the sale of coffee stocks held in the United States under the valorization agreement. 1912--John E. King, Detroit, is granted a United States patent on an improved coffee percolator employing a filter-paper attachment. 1913--F. F. Wear, Los Angeles, Cal. , perfects a coffee-making device in which a metal perforated clamp is employed to apply a filter paper to the under side of an English earthenware adaptation of the French drip pot. 1913--F. Lehnhoff Wyld, Guatemala City, and E. T. Cabarrus organize the "Société du Café Soluble Belna, " Brussels, Belgium, to put on the European market a refined soluble coffee under the brand name Belna. 1913--Herbert L. Johnston, assignor to the Hobart Electric Manufacturing Co. , Troy, Ohio, is granted a United States patent on a machine for refining coffee. 1914--The Association Nationale du Commerce des Cafés is established at 5 Place Jules Ferry, Havre, to protect the interests of the coffee trade of all France. 1914--The Kaffee Hag Corporation, capital $1, 000, 000, is organized in New York to continue marketing in the United States the German caffein-free coffee under its original German brand name. 1914--Robert Burns of New York, assignor to Jabez Burns & Sons, is granted a United States patent on a coffee-granulating mill. 1914--The Phylax coffee maker, employing an improved French-drip principle, is introduced to the trade by the Phylax Coffee Maker Co. , Detroit (succeeded in 1922 by the Phylax Company of Pennsylvania). 1914--The first national coffee week is promoted in the United States by the National Coffee Roasters Association. 1914-15--Herbert Galt, Chicago, is granted three United States patents on the Galt coffee pot, all aluminum, having two parts, a removable cylinder employing the French-drip principle, and the containing pot. 1915--The Burns Jubilee (inner-heated) gas coffee roaster is patented in the United States and put on the market. 1915--The National Coffee Roasters Association Home coffee mill, employing a set screw operating on a cog-and-ratchet principle, is introduced to the trade. 1915--The second national coffee week is held in the United States under the auspices of the National Coffee Roasters Association. 1916--The Federal Tin Co. Begins the manufacture of tin coffee containers for use in connection with automatic packing machines. 1916--The National Paper Can Co. , Milwaukee, introduces to the United States trade a new hermetically sealed all-paper can for coffee. 1916--A United States patent is granted to I. D. Richheimer, Chicago, for an improvement on his Tricolator. 1916--The Coffee Trade Association, London, is formed to include brokers, merchants, and wholesale dealers. 1916--The Coffee Exchange, City of New York, changes its name to the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, admitting sugar trading. 1916--Saul Blickman, assignor to S. Blickman, New York, is granted a United States patent on an apparatus for making and dispensing coffee. 1916--Orville W. Chamberlain, New Orleans, is granted a United States patent on an automatic drip coffee pot. 1916--Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind. , is granted two United States patents on cutting-rolls to cut, and not to grind or crush, coffee, later marketed by the B. F. Gump Co. , Chicago, as the Ideal steel-cut coffee mill. 1916-17--The first hermetically-sealed all-paper cans for coffee are introduced to the United States trade, patented in 1919 by the National Paper Can Co. , Milwaukee. 1917--The Baker Importing Co. , Minneapolis and New York, puts on the United States market Barrington Hall soluble coffee. 1917--Richard A. Greene and William G. Burns, New York, assignors to Jabez Burns & Sons, are granted patents in the United States on the Burns flexible-arm cooler (for roasted batches), providing full fan-suction connection to a cooler box at all points in its track travel. 1918--John E. King, Detroit, Mich. , is granted a United States patent on an irregular-grind of coffee, consisting of coarsely grinding ten percent of the product and finely grinding ninety percent. 1918--The Charles G. Hires Co. , Philadelphia, brings out Hires soluble coffee. 1918--I. D. Richheimer, promoter of the original soluble coffee of Kato, and the Kato patent, organizes the Soluble Coffee Company of America to supply soluble coffee to the American army overseas; after the armistice, licensing other merchants under the Kato patents, or offering to process the merchants' own coffee for them, if desired. 1918--The United States government places coffee importers, brokers, jobbers, roasters, and wholesalers under a war-time licensing system to control imports and prices. 1918-19--The United States government coffee control results in the accumulation at Brazil ports of more than 9, 000, 000 bags; in spite of which, Brazil speculators force Brazil grades up 75 to 100 percent. , costing United States traders millions of dollars. 1919--The Kaffee Hag Corporation becomes Americanized by the sale of 5, 000 shares of its stock sold by the alien property custodian and by the purchase of the remaining 5, 000 shares by George Gund, Cleveland, Ohio. 1919--William A. Hamor and Charles W. Trigg, Pittsburgh, Pa. , assignors to John E. King, Detroit, Mich. , are granted a United States patent on a process for making a new soluble coffee. The process consists in bringing the volatilized caffeol in contact with a petrolatum absorbing medium, where it is held until needed for combination with the evaporated coffee extract. 1919--Floyd W. Robison, Detroit, is granted a United States patent on a process for aging green coffee by treating it with micro-organisms to improve its flavor and to increase its extractive value. The product is put on the market as Cultured coffee. 1919--William Fullard, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent on a "heated fresh air system" for roasting coffee. 1919--A million-dollar propaganda for coffee is begun in the United States by Brazil planters in co-operation with a joint coffee-trade publicity committee. 1920--The third national coffee week is observed in the United States, this time under the auspices of the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee. 1920--Edward Aborn, New York, is granted a United States patent on a Tru-Bru coffee pot, a device embodying striking improvements on the French filter principle. 1920--Alfredo M. Salazar, New York, is granted a United States patent on a coffee urn in which the coffee is made at the time of serving by using steam pressure to force the boiling water through the ground coffee held in a cloth sack attached to the faucet. 1920--William H. Pisani, assignor to M. J. Brandenstein & Co. , San Francisco, is granted a United States patent on a vacuum process for packing roasted coffee. 1921--The Comité Français du Café is founded in France to increase the consumption of coffee. 1922--The São Paulo legislature at the solicitation of the Sociedade Promotora da Defeza do Café passes a bill increasing the export tax on coffee from Santos to 200 reis per bag to continue the propaganda for coffee in the United States for three years. [L] Approximate Date. [M] Legendary. [Illustration] A COFFEE BIBLIOGRAPHY _A list of references gathered from the principal general and scientific libraries--Arranged in alphabetic order of topics_ TOPICS AND SUBDIVISIONS ADULTERATIONBOARD OF HEALTH REGULATIONSBOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONCHEMISTRY ANALYSIS, GENERAL CAFFEIN CAFFEIN-FREE COFFEE CAFFEOL GREEN COFFEE ROASTED COFFEECHICORY CHICORY IN COFFEECOFFEE HOUSESCULTURE AND PREPARATION GENERAL REGIONAL SOILSDISEASES AND ENEMIESGENERAL WORKSLITERATURE, POETRY, ROMANCEMANUFACTURING PROCESSES BREWING GLAZING MISCELLANEOUS MODIFICATIONS POLISHING AND COLORING ROASTING AND GRINDINGMEDICINAL QUALITIES AND USES ANTISEPTIC AND DISINFECTANT GENERALPHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS GENERAL USE AND MISUSE OF CAFFEIN-FREE COFFEE OF CHEWING COFFEE OF DIFFERENT CONSTITUENTS OF GREEN COFFEE OF LEAVES OF COFFEE TREE OF ROASTED COFFEE OF SMOKING COFFEE ON CHILDREN ON DIFFERENT ORGANS AND SYSTEMSSUBSTITUTES GENERAL MALT COFFEETAXATION, JURISPRUDENCE, ETC. TRADE AND STATISTICS EXCHANGE TABLES GENERAL REGIONALVALORIZATION ADULTERATION ADULTERATION of coffee. Report of the proceedings of a public meeting held at the London Tavern, March 10, 1851. _London_, 1851. DAFERT, FRANZ W. Las sustancias minerales del cafeto. _San José_, 1896. 33 pp. _Also_, Anales del Instituto médico nacional, 1897, III: 25, 41, 62, 78. GRAHAM, T. And others. Chemical report on the mode of detecting vegetable substances mixed with coffee for purposes of adulteration. _London_, 1852. 22 pp. (Board of Inland Revenue). LES FRAUDES du café dévoilées per un amateur. _Paris. _ SIMMONDS, P. L. Coffee as it is and as it ought to be. _London_, 1850. _Periodicals_ BERTARELLI, E. Su una sofisticazione del caffè torrefatto mediante aggiunta di acqua e borace. Giornale di Farmacia, 1900, 338-343. _Also_, Rivista d'Igiene e Sanità pubblica, 1900, XI: 467-472. CABALLERO, F. G. Inconvenientes del uso del café puro y del que se toma con léche; sofisticacion de los componentes de esta bebida, etc. Boletin de Medicina y Cirugia, 1851, 2 ser. I: 177-185. CASAÑA, J. Acerca del producto llamado legumina y sofisticaciones del café. Anales de la real Academia de Medicina, 1905, XXX: 359-364. CHIAPPELLA, A. R. Il caffè macinato che si consuma in Firenze--Alcune sofisticazioni non ancora descritte. Annali d'Igiene sperimentale, 1904, n. S. XIV: 427-448. ---- Le sofisticazioni del caffè che si consuma in Firenze. Società toscana d'Igiene, 1905, n. S. V: 110-116. CHEVALLIER, J. B. Café indigène. Annales d'Hygiène, 1853, XLIX: 408-412. COFFEE and its adulterations. Lancet, 1851, I: 21, 465; 1853, I: 390, 477; 1857, I: 195. _Also_, Pharmaceutical Journal, 10: 394-396. COLLIN, E. Del caffè e sue falsificazioni. Giornale di Farmacia, di Chimica e di Scienze affini, 1879, XXVIII: 529-535; 1880, XXIX: 20-22. CORIEL, F. Analyse d'un café artificiel torréfié. Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, 1897, 6. Ser. VI: 106-108. CRIBB, C. H. Note on (1) samples of coffee containing added starch; (2) a sample of artificial coffee berries. Analyst, 1902, XXVII: 114-116. CROMBIE, S. Examination of ground coffee as found in shops. Physician and Surgeon, _Ann Arbor_, 1882, IV: 401. DOOLITTLE, R. E. Coffee sophistications. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII: Supplement to no. 6, 62-65. DRAPER, J. C. Coffee and its adulterations. New York Academy of Medicine. Bulletin, 1869, III: 210-218. DUBRISAY. Falsifications des cafés, procédés employés à cet effet; moyens de reconnaître et de reprimer la fraude. Recueil des travaux du Comité consultatif d'Hygiène publique de France, 1888, XVIII: 19-33. DUCROS, H. A. De quelques falsifications du café Moka. Institute égypt. Bulletin, 1901, 4. Ser. Pp. 293-306. EDSON, C. Report on colored imitation Java coffee. Sanitary Engineer, 1883-4, IX: 614. ESTUDIO del cafeto. Anales del Instituto médico nacional, 1897, III: 139-144. FALSIFICATION du café. Annales d'Hygiène, 1864, 2. Ser. XXII: 437-443. FRICKE, E. Neuere Kaffeeverfälschung. Zeitschrift für Medizinalbeamte, 1889, II: 178. GIRARDIN, J. Rapports sur un café avarié par l'eau de mer et sur poudre destinée à remplacer le café. Annales d'Hygiène, 1834, XI: 87-103. GRIEBEL, C. And BERGMANN, E. Ueber eine neue Kaffeeverfälschung. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911, XXI: 481-484. HARNACK, E. Ueber die besonderen Eigenarten des Kaffeegetränkes und das Thurmsche Verfahren zur Kaffeereinigung und verbesserung. Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1911, LVIII: 1868-1872. HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Green and roast coffees, the adulteration and misbranding thereof. American Grocer, 1913, Nov. 19, pp. 19-20. HESSE, P. Ueber eine Kaffeefarbe. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911 XXI: 220. JAMMES, L. Le café torréfié, en grains, factice. Revue d'Hygiène, 1890, XII: 1044-1050. MOCHA coffee. Scientific American, 1903, LXXXIX: 81. MUNITA, V. Apuntes acerca de las adulteraciones del café y medios para reconocerlas. La Gaceta de Sanidad militar, 1883, IX: 286, 394. NOTTBOHM, F. E. And KOCH, E. Arsenhaltige Kaffeeglasierungsmittel. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911, XXI: 288-290. OTTOLENGHI, D. Sopra una frequente sofistcazione del caffé in polyere. Atti della reale Accademia dei Fisiocritici di Siena, 1903, 4. Ser. XV: 381-389. PARECER do commissão encarregada pela Sociedade pharmaceutica lusitana de investigar se uma determinada èspecie de café é prejudicial á saude 185. _Also_, Correio medica de Lisboa, 1874, III: 136, 147. RAUMER, E. VON. Beobachtungen über Kaffeeglasuren seit dem Inkrafttreten der Kaffeesteuer. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs-und Genussmittel, 1911, XXI: 102-109. REISS, F. Ueber eine mechanische Verfälschung der Kaffeesahne. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1906, XI: 391-393. SOCCIANTI, L. Caffè adulteraro con sostanze nocive. Rivista d'Igiene e Sanità pubblica, 1895, VI: 497-499. SORMANI. Di un nuova falsificazione del caffè. Giornale della reale Società italiana d'Igiene, 1882, IV: 401. SPENCER, G. L. And EWELL, E. E. Tea, coffee, and cocoa preparations. U. S. Dept. Of Agriculture. Division of Chemistry. Bulletin, XIII, pt. 7. VARIOUS "coffees. " Lancet, 1915, II: 1006. VOGEL VON FERHEIM, A. Zur Frage der Zulässigkeit der Verwendung der sagenannten tauben oder Strohfeigen bei der Feigen Kaffeefabrikation. Oesterreichische Sanitätswesen, 1903, XV: 101-102. WIECHMANN, F. Coffee and its adulterations. School of Mines Quarterly, 1897-8, I: 8-15. BOARD OF HEALTH REGULATIONS SCHNEIDER. Der Kaffee, als Gegenstand der medicinischen Polizei. Zeitschrift für die Staatsarzneikunde, 1829, IV: 303-327. SCHÜTZE. Kaffee, Thee und Chocolade, als Nahrungsmittel und in sanitäts-polizeilicher Hinsicht. Viertel jahrsschrift für gerichtliche Medizin und öffentliches Sanitätswesen, 1860, XVII: 168-228. WEITENWEBER, W. R. Medicinisch-poliseiliche Bemerkungen über den Caffee. Medicinische Jahrbücher des kaiserl. Königl. österreichischen Staates, 1848, LXVI: 42, 151. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION COFFEA _stenophylla_. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, Bull. Of Misc. Information, 1898:27. COOK, ORATOR FULLER. Dimorphic branches in tropical crop plants: cotton, coffee, cacao, the Central American rubber tree, and the banana. _Washington_, 1911. 64 pp. (U. S. Plant Industry Bureau. Bulletin, 198. ) DAFERT, FRANZ W. Mittheilung aus dem Landwirthschaftsinstitut des Staates São Paulo, Brasilien. Der Nahrstoff des Kaffeebaumes. Landw. Jahrb. 1894, XXIII:27-45. DOUGLAS, JAMES. Lilium sarniense: or, a description of the Guernsay-lilly. To which is added the botanical dissection of the coffee berry. _London_, 1725. 59 pp. LAROQUE, JEAN. Voyage de l'arabie heureuse, par l'Ocean Oriental, & le détroit de la Mer Rouge. Fait par les François dans les années 1708, 1709 and 1710. Avec la relation d'un voyage fait du port de Moka à la cour du roy d'Yemen dans la 2. Expedition des années 1711, 1712 and 1713. Un mémoire concernant l'arbre et le fruit du café. _Paris_, 1716. 403 pp. Also in English, _London_, 1726. LA ROQUE. Gruendliche und sichere Nachricht vom Cafee- und Cafee-Baum. _Leipzig_, 1717. LIBERIAN coffee. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, Bull. Of Misc. Information, 1895:296-299. MCCLELLAND, T. B. The botany of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXII:28-35. MARIANA, J. Les caféiers; structure anatomique de la feuille. _Paris_, 1908. NATURAL caffein-free coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII:230-233. NATURAL history of coffee, thee, chocolate, tobacco with a tract of elder and juniper berries. _London_, 1682. A NEW hybrid Ceylon coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXX; 232-233. SLOANE, Sir HANS. On the Bird the Cuntur of Peru and on the Coffee Shrub. _London_, 1694. WILDEMAN, É. DE. Notes sur quelques espèces du genre Coffea L. Cong, internat. D. Botanique. Actes, 1900, I:221-238. CHEMISTRY ANALYSIS, GENERAL ALLEN, A. H. Commercial organic analysis. _London_, 1892, (v. 3 pt. 2 contains a chapter on vegetable alkaloids, including coffee. ) ANDALORI, ANDRÉ. Il café descritto ed esaminato. _Messine_, 1702. BOUSSINGAULT, J. B. J. D. Sur les matières sucrées contenues dans le fruit du caféier. Ann. Inst. Nat. Agron. , 1878-79, IV: 1-4. CAFFÈ DI GIRASOLE: analisi chemiche, consigli agronomici, etc. _Padova_, 1881. COFFEE and chicory. Science readers and diagrams. Ser. 6, no. 3. GALEANO, JOSEPH. Il caffè, con piu diligenza esaminato. _Palerme_, 1674. GRIEBEL, C. Ueber den Kaffeegerbstoff. _München_, 1903. KÖNIG, J. Chemie der menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. 4th ed. _Berlin_, 1904. See v. 2, index for Kaffee, Koffeïn. LOCKE, EDWIN A. Food values. _New York_, 1911. Coffee analysed p. 54. LYTHGOE, HERMANN CHARLES. Report on tea and coffee. _Washington_, 1905. MARCHAND, N. L. Recherches organographiques et organogéniques sur le Coffea arabica L. _Paris_, 1864. SESTINI, J. Il caffé; lettura fatta nell' institutio tecnico di Fochi. _Firenze_, 1868. STANDARDS of purity for food products. Tea, coffee and cocoa products. U. S. Dept. Of Agriculture. Office of the Secretary. Circ. 19, p. 16. THORPE, EDWARD. Dictionary of applied chemistry. _London and New York_, 1912. See pp. 97-103. WANKLYN, JAMES ALFRED. Tea, coffee, and cocoa: a practical treatise on the analysis of tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, maté (Paraguay tea). _London_, 1874. 59 pp. WARNIER, W. L. A. Bijerage tot de kennis der koffie, mededeeling uit het laboratorium van het Kolonial museum te Haarlem. _Amsterdam_, 1899. 23 pp. WEYRICH, R. Ein Beitrag zur Chemie des Thees und Kaffees. _Dorpat_, 1872. WILEY, H. W. Coffee and tea. In his, 1001 Tests of food, beverages and toilet accessories, pp. 10-18. WINTON, ANDREW L. The microscopy of coffee. In his, Microscopy of vegetable foods, _New York_, 1916. 2 ed. Pp. 427-438. Reprinted, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, XXI: 22-28. _Periodicals_ ALLEN, A. H. Note on the examination of coffee. Analyst, 1880, V: 1-4. BAU, A. The determination of oxalic acid in tea, coffee, marmalade, vegetables and bread. Z. Nahr. Genussm, 1920, 40: 50-66. BERTRAND, GABRIEL. Sur la composition chimique du café de la Grande Comore. Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1901, CXXXII: 162-164. BINZ, C. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Kaffeebestandtheile. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1878, IX: 31-51. BÖTSCH, K. Zur Kenntniss der Saligeninderivate. Monatshefte für Chemie (Sitzungs berichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften) 1880, I: 621-623. CANADA (DOMINION). INLAND REVENUE DEPARTMENT LABORATORY. Coffee: results of analysis. _Ottawa_, 1888. Bulletin, 3. 8 pp. ; 1891, Bulletin, 29. 19 pp. ; 1892, Bulletin 31. 13 pp. ---- Ground coffee: results of analysis. _Ottawa_, 1904, Bulletin, 100. 7 pp. ; 1909, Bulletin, 172. 37 pp. ; 1910, Bulletin, 216. 22 pp. CAZENEUVE, P. And HADDON. Sur l'acide cafétannique. Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1897, CXXIV: 1458-1460. CHARAUX, CHARLES. Sur l'acide chlorogénique. Fréquence et recherché de cet acide dans les végétaux. Extraction de l'acide caféique et rendement en l'acide caféique de quelques plantes. Journal de Pharmacie et de Chemie, 1900, 7. Ser, II: 292-298. THE CHEMISTRY of a cup of coffee. Lancet, 1913, II, no. 2: 1563-1565. Reviewed in, Journal of Economics, 1914, VI: 466-467; Literary Digest, 1914, XLVIII: 376-377. DOOLITTLE, R. E. And WRIGHT, B. B. Some effects of storage on coffee. American Journal of Pharmacy, 1915, LXXXVII: 524-526. EHRLICH, J. Coffee in the laboratory. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXX: 569-570. ERNI, H. The chemico-physiological relations of tea, coffee and alcohol. Nashville Monthly Record of Medical and Physical Science, 1858-9, I: 641-656. FRANKEL, E. M. Coffee by-products. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 43-44. ---- Coffee identification. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 158 159. FRANKEL, F. HULTON. Calories in a cup of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 446-447. GEISER, M. Welche Bestandteile des Kaffees sind die Träger der erregenden Wirkung? Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1905, LIII: 112-136. GORTER, K. Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Kaffees. Annalen der Chemie, 1907, CCCLVIII: 327-348; 1908, CCCLIX: 217-244; 1910, CCCLXXII: 237-246. Also, East Indies, Dutch. Dept. Van Landbouw. Bulletins, 14, 33. GRAF, L. Ueber Bestandtheile der Kaffeesauen. Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie, 1901, pp. 1077-1082. ---- Ueber den Zusammenhang von Coffeïngehalt und Qualität bei chinesischem Thee. Forschungs-Berichte über Lebensmittel, 1897, IV: 88. GUIGUES, P. Note sur l'origine du café. Bulletin des Sciences pharmacologiques, 1903, VII: 350-357. HANAUSEK, T. F. Bemerkung zu dem Aufsatz von F. Netolitzky: Ueber das Vorkommen von Krystallsandzellen im Kaffee. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911, XXI: 295. ---- Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Frucht und des Samens von Coffea arabica L. Zietschrift für Nahrungsmittel Untersuchung und Hygiene, 1890, IV: 237-257. HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Scientific study of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 557-558. HEHNER, O. An analysis of coffee leaves. Analyst, 1879, IV: 84. HOWARD, C. D. Report on tea and coffee. U. S. Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, 1907, CV: 41-45. HUSSON, C. Étude sur le café, le thé, et les chicorées. Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1879, 5. Ser. XVI: 419-427. JAFFA, M. E. Report on tea and coffee, 1910, with list of references. U. S. Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, 1911, CXXXVII: 105-108. LANCET special analytical sanitary commission on the composition and value of coffee extracts, The Lancet, 1894, II: 43-45. LEPPER, H. A. Report on coffee. Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural chemists, 1920, 4: 211-216. LEVESIE, O. Beiträge zur Chemie des Kaffees. Archiv der Pharmacie, 1876, 3 ser. VIII: 294-298. LIEBIG, J. Von. Chemistry of a cup of coffee. Every Saturday, I: 135. LOOMIS, H. M. Report on tea and coffee. Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1920, 3: 498-503. MASON, G. And SAVINI E. Experiments with coffee. Staz. Sper, agrar. Ital. , 1918, 51: 413-4. MAZZA, C. Sull' esame batteriologico della polvere che si trova negli spacci di caffè, con spéciale riguardo al bacillo della tubercolosi. Rivista d'Igiene e Sanità pubblica, 1897, VIII: 8-20. PALADINO, PIETRO. Sopra un nuovo alcaloide contenuto nel caffè. Gazette Chimica Italiana, XXV: 104-110. Summarized in, Beilstein's Organische Chemie, 1897, III: 888. PARET, S. A. Quelques résultats obtenus par l'emploi du valerianate de caféine (thèse). _Paris_, 1874. PAYEN, ÉDOUARD. Mémoire sur le café. Comptes vendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1846, XXII: 724-732; XXIII: 8-15, 144-251. PRATT, DAVID S. The microscopy of tea and coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 419-421. PRESCOTT, A. Chemistry of tea and coffee. Popular Science Monthly, XX: 359. ROBIQUET, VON, and BOUTRON. Ueber den Kaffee. Annalen der Chemie, 1837, XXIII: 93-95. ROBISON, FLOYD W. What do we know about coffee? Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 556-562. SAYRE, L. E. A pharmacologist on coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXII: 521-527. ---- Coffee, its standardization and application to pharmacy. Merck's Report, 1907, XVI: 61-63. SOME new facts about coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 436-437. STREET, JOHN PHILLIPS. About hygienic coffees. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 52-54. ---- Hygienic coffee analyses. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 42-43. ---- Recent coffee analyses. Modern Hospital, 1916: 330-332. Reprinted in Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. XXX: 570-572. TATLOCK, R. R. And THOMSON, R. T. The analysis and composition of coffee, chicory, and coffee and chicory "essences. " Journal of the Society of Chemical Industries, 1910, XXIX: 138-140. TRIGG, CHARLES W. Caffetannic acid a bugaboo. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 437-439. ---- Coffee oil and fats. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 230-231. ---- Coffee carbohydrates. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1919, XXXVI: 246-247. TUSINI, F. Sul riconoscimento delle varie specie di grani di caffè, mediante la misurazione delle cellule del reticolo albuminoideo e dello spermoderma. Archivio di Farmacologia sperimentale e Science affini, 1903, II: 215-217. VAUTIER, E. The wastes of coffee. Mitt. Lebensm. Hyg. , 1921, 12: 35-37. VAN DER WOLK, P. C. New researches into some statistics of Coffea. Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammungs- und Vererbungslehre, 1914, XI: 355-359. VLAANDEREN, C. L. And MULDER, G. J. Säuren des Kaffee's. Jahresbericht der Chemie, 1858: 261-264. WARNIER, W. L. A. Contributions à la connaissance du café. Recueil de Travaux chimiques du Pays-Bas de la Belgique, 1899, 2. Ser. III: 351-357. WILLCOX, O. W. Coffee aroma secret out. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: 343-344. ---- Tannin in coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: 485. WILLCOX, O. W. And RENTSCHLER, M. J. Scientific analysis of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. 1910. XIX: 440-443; 1911, XX: 30-34, 109-111, 194-195, 355-356. WOODMAN, A. G. Report on tea, coffee, and cocoa products, 1909. U. S. Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, 1910, CXXXII: 134-136. CAFFEIN CLAUTRIAU, G. 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V. 6: 646. ROBIN, L. Mémoire sur le café, sur sa culture, son commerce, ses propriétés physiologiques, thérapeutiques et alimentaires. _Abbeville_, 1864. ROQUES, JOSEPH. Traité historique de l'origine et de progres du café, tant dans l'Europe, de son introduction en France et de l'etablissement de son usage à Paris. _Paris_, 1715. RUMFORD, Count (BENJAMIN THOMPSON). Of the excellent qualities of coffee, and the art of making it in the highest perfection. Essay XVIII. Pp. 155-207. SPLITZERBER. Drey Tractate von Café, Thé und Chocolate. _Budissin_, 1688. SPON, J. De l'usage du caphé, du thé, et du chocolat. _Paris_, 1671. TARR, A. De coffea. _Pestini_, 1836. Hungarian text. THOMPSON, BENJAMIN. (See RUMFORD, Count. ) THOMPSON, WILLIAM GILMAN. Coffee. Composition; method of preparation; physiological action; adulteration; substitutes. In his, Practical dietetics, 1909. Pp. 252-257. THURBER, FRANCIS BEATTY. Coffee: from plantation to cup. _New York_, 1881. 416 pp. TOGNI, M. Raccolta delle singolari qualitá del caffè. _Venetia_, 1675. VAN DEN BERG, NORBERT PIETER. Historical-statistical notes on the production and consumption of coffee. _Batavia_, 1880. 92 pp. VILARDEBO, J. El tabaco y el café. _Barcelona_, 1888. 142 pp. WALSH, JOSEPH M. Coffee: its history, classification and description. _Philadelphia_, 1894. 309 pp. WELTER, H. Essai sur l'histoire du café. _Paris_, 1868. _Periodicals_ AHLENIUS, KARL. Kaffe, te och rörsocker, deras ursprungliga hem och viktigaste produktionsområden. Ymer, 1903, XXIII: 242-268. BANNISTER, RICHARD. Sugar, coffee, tea and cocoa, their origin, preparation, and uses. Journal of the Society of Arts, XXXVIII: 1000-1014. BRANSON, W. P. Coffee. Journal of the Society of Arts, 1874, XXII: 456-461. COFFEE. Leisure Hour, 1882, XXXI: 45-48. COFFEE King. Chambers' Journal, LXXXII: 23. COFFEE infusion. Medical Standard, 1913, XXXVI: 52-56. DE JUSSIEU. Histoire du café. Histoire de l'Académie Royal des Sciences, 1713; Mémoires, 1716: 291. DEWEY, STODDARD. How coffee came to Paris. English Illustrated Magazine, 1898, XX: 312-315. FERRIS, W. M. Coffee. Nation, XXXIV: 192; Leisure Hour, XXXI: 45. GUÉRIN, P. Le café. Revue Scientifique, 1908, ser. 5. X: 486-494. HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Some coffees of today. Good Housekeeping, 1913, LVII: 264-268. HERAUD, AUG. FRED. Le café. Science et Nature, Feb. 28, 1885, p. 209. HISTORY and cultivation of coffee. Godey's Lady's Book, LIV: 51. HOFFMAN, PAUL. Aus dem ersten Jahrhundert des Kaffees. Zeitschrift für Kulturgeschichte, 1901, VIII: 405-441, IX: 90-104. JACKSON, J. R. Coffee. Nature, 11: 126; Blackwells' Magazine, LXXV: 86; Household Words, V: 562; Penny Magazine, 1: 49. LESSON, RENÉ-PRIMEVÈRE. Précis historique, botanique, médical et agronomique sur le café. Annual Mar. Et Col. , 1820: 842. MARSHALL, W. B. Coffee, its history and commerce; an outline. American Journal of Pharmacy, 1902, LXXIV: 361-374. OM Kaffe, dess historica och användning. Helsovännen, 1887, II: 157-163. PICTORIAL History of coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 26-28; 124-127; XXXV: 116-125; 526-534; 1919, XXXVI: 322-324; 515-516; XXXVII: 140-145. TUCKERMANN, C. K. Coffee drinking in eastern Europe. North American Review, 1889, CXLVIII: 643-645. UKERS, WILLIAM H. Better teas and coffees. Good Housekeeping, 1911, LIII: 495-498. Reprinted, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1911, XXI: 274-276. ---- A talk on coffee. Good Housekeeping, 1908, XLVI: 532-536. ---- Tea and coffee economies. Joe Chapple's News Letter, 1913, I: 9. Reprinted, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: 476-477. WORLD'S drink. Review of Reviews, 1909, XXXIX: 109-110. LITERATURE, POETRY, ROMANCE ABD-AL-KÂDIR, ANSÂRI DJEZERI HANBALI. Des preuves les plus fortes en faveur de la légitimité de l'usage du café, in chréstomathie arabe, par Sylvestre de Sacy. _Paris_, 1806. BAROTTI, L. Il caffé (poem). Esprit des Journaux, 1681, 110-120. BLONDEAU. Étrennes littéraires aux grands hommes ou l'empire du café, poême en 10 chants. _Paris_, date unknown. ---- L'empire du café et le rapport de son influence sur l'esprit les moeurs et l'économie animale, poême en 4 chants. _Paris_, 1824. BOUQUET blanc et le bouquet noir, Le, poisie en 4 chants. 60 pp. BRADY. CYRUS TOWNSEND. A corner in coffee. _New York_, 1904. CAFFEE die schonste Panacee, in einem Lobgedicht über die wunder baie Heikraft des nectarischen Caffeetranks. 1775. 23 pp. CHARACTER of a coffee house, with the symptoms of a town-wit. _London_, 1673; in Harleian Miscellany, VI: 429. CHARACTER of coffee and coffee houses. Hazlitt's Handbook to Popular Literature, 1661. COFFEE and crumpets; a poem. Frasers' Magazine, XV: 316. COFFEE houses vindicated: in answer to the late published character of a coffee house. _London_, 1675; also in Harleian Miscellany, VI: 433. COFFEE scuffle; occasioned by a contest between a learned knight and a pitifull pedagogue, with the character of a coffee house. Printed and are to be sold at the Salmon coffee house, neer the stocks market, (London), 1662. Verses by Woolnoth or Sir J. Langham and Evans, a school-master. DE GOURCUFF, O. Le café, épître attribué a Senecé. _Nantes_, 1888. 19 pp. DE MERY, C. Le café, poême: accompagné de documents historiques sur le café, sur son origine, sur son commerce et sur les peuples d'Orient qui font specialement usage du café. _Rennes_, 1837. 204 pp. D'ISRAELI, ISAAC. Curiosities of literature. _London_, 1824. Contains article on, Introduction of tea, coffee and chocolate, in which the following items are mentioned: (1) An Arabic and English pamphlet on The nature of the drink, kouhi or coffee, pub. At _Oxford_, 1569; (2) A cup of coffee, or coffee in its colours, a satirical poem (quoted), 1663; (3) A broadside against coffee or the marriage of the Turk (quoted), 1672; (4) The women's petition against coffee, 1674. DRUMONT, E. Les cafés et les restaurants d'autrefois. Magasin Littéraire, X: 264. EXCELLENT virtue of that sober drink coffee, The. Popular ballad of the 17th century. Broadsheet. GEYER, E. E. An potus café dicti vestigia in Hebræos sacræ scripturæ codice reperiantur? Dissertation. _Wittebergiæ_, 1740. GOLDONI, CARLO. La bottega di caffè. _Venice_, 1750. LAGUERRE, J. N. Essai sur le café. _Paris_, 1818. LE PAGE, AUG. Les cafés politiques et littéraires de Paris. 1874. MASSIEU, G. Carmen caffaeum. _Paris_, 1740. MELAYE, S. Éloge du café. (A song. ) _Paris_, 1852. 4 pp. MILLER, JAMES. The coffee-house. A dramatick piece. _London_, 1737. 38 pp. POEM in Latin, A, on coffee; is found in the Abbé Olivier's, Collection of modern Latin poets; and in, Étrennes à tous les amateurs du café, _Paris_, 1790, in which a French translation is printed facing the Latin text; _also_ Il caffè, in Poemetti Italiana, vol. 3, 1797. REBELLIOUS antidote: or a dialogue between coffee and tea: _verse_, 1685. ROSSEAU, J. B. Le caffé, comédie. 1695. 56 pp. SCHOTEL, G. D. J. Letterkundige bijdragen tot de geschiedenis van den tabak, de koffij en de thee. _'s Gravenhage_, 1848. 215 pp. ST. SERFE, THOMAS. Taruga's wiles, or the coffee house; a comedy. _London_, 1668. SMYTH, PHILIP. The coffee house; a characteristic poem. _London_, 1795. STEELE, SIR RICHARD. On characters in coffee houses. Spectator, No. 49. VOLTAIRE, F. M. A. DE. The coffee-house; or, Fair fugitive. A comedy. _London_, 1760. WARD, EDWARD. The humours of a coffee house. _London_, 1714. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES BREWING ABORN, EDWARD. Better coffee making. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, Supplement to No. 6, XXIII: 49-52; 1913, XXV: 568-574; 1919, XXIX: 553-556. ---- Better coffee for the army. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 622-624. ---- On boiling coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1919, XXXVI: 48-49. ---- Coffee-making developments. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1914, XXVII: 550-556. ---- On coffee grinding and brewing. Yesterday, today and tomorrow in better coffee making. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 570-576. BACON, RAYMOND F. Efficiency of coffee-making devices. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 427-429. BEST method of making coffee. Journal of Home Economics, 1914, VI: 480-481. BONNETTE. Préparation du café en campagne, filtré "en rognon" adapté à une marmite de campement. Revue d'Hygiène, 1911, XXXIII: 459-462. _Also_, in Spanish, Revista de Sanidad militar, 1911, ser. 3, I: 427-429. BOYES, E. 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Dissertation sur le café et sur les moyens propres à prevenir les effets qui resultant de sa préparation, communément vicieuse, et en rendre la boisson plus agréable et plus salubre. _Paris_, 1797. GIRAUD, A. Cafés de Paris, procédés uniques pour la préparation du café, glorias, grogs a l'americaine. _Paris_, 1853. 75 pp. HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Coffee making comparisons. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXII: 336-337. How to make a cup of coffee. Godey's Lady's Book, LXIII: 107. _Also_, Sharpe's London Magazine, XLIV: 259. MASSON, Abbé. Le café, ses propriétés, manière nouvelles de la préparer. _Epernay_, 1885. 24 pp. MASSON, P. Le parfait limonadier, ou la manière de préparer le thé, lecaffé, le chocolat. _Paris_, 1705. MEITZKY, J. H. De vario coffeæ potum parandi modo. _Wittebergiæ_, 1782. T. , C. DE. Café français: recette économique. _Paris_, 1824. WILHELM, R. C. "Drip" method the best. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 338-339. WILLCOX, O. W. About coffee-making methods. 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Question médico-politique, si l'usage de café est avantageux à la santé, et s'il peut se conciler avec le bien de l'état dans les provinces belgique. 1781. FONTAINE. Hernie traité par l'infusion de café. _Paris_, 1865. LANDARRHILCO, OSMIN. Nouvelles propriétès thérapeutiques du café vert dans les affections du foie, les coliques hépatiques et le diabètè. _Montpellier_, 1888. LECONTE, A. H. Emploi du café thérapeutique. _Strasbourg_, 1859. MAGRI, D. Virtu del Kafe, bevanda introdotta nuovamente nell' Italia. 2 ed. _Roma_, 1671, 16 pp. MARVAUD, ANGEL. Les boissons aromatiques. Le café. In his, Les aliments d'épargne, _Paris_, 1874. 2 pt. , pp. 292-320. MUNDAY (MUNDY), HENRY. Opera omnia--Physica de aere vitali, esculentis, et potutentis, cum appendice de pasergris in victu et chocolatu, thea, coffea, tobaco. _Leyden_, 1685. PETIT, H. De la prolongation de la vie humaine par le café. 2 éd. _Paris_, 1862. RICHET, CH. Les poisons de l'intelligence, l'alcool, le chloroforme, le haschich, l'opium, le café. _Paris_, 1877. TRIFET, A. Du café, de ses effets sur l'homme. _Paris_, 1847. VILLEMUS, A. Du café et de ses principales applications thérapeutiques. _Paris_, 1875. VIREY, J. J. Nouvelles considérations sur l'histoire et les effets hygiéniques du cafés et sur le genre coffea. _Paris_, 1816. WEISS, C. C. Coffee arabica nach seiner zerstörenden Wirkung auf animalische Dünste als Schutzmittel gegen Contagion vorschlagen. _Friberg_, 1832. _Periodicals_ ALLEGED medicinal properties of the husk of the coffee bean, The Lancet, 1902, II: 944. BALZAC. Traité des excitants modernes. Alcool, sucre, thé, café, tabac. Extrait fact. De la Revue de Paris. 1852. BENEFICIAL effects of coffee as a drink. Review of Reviews, 1906, XXXIII: 245-246. BOLTENSTERN, VON. Zur Bewerkung des Kaffees als Volksgenussmittel. Deutsche Arzte-Zeitung, 1905, 457-461. CARON, D. A. Coffee and milk as a diet. 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SECRETARIA DE COMMERCIO SE ORRAS PUBLICAS. Estatistica especial da lavoura de café nos municipios de Aracariguama, Atibaia, Bananal, Pilar, Sertãozinho e Redempcão. _São Paulo_, 1900. 33 pp. Supplemento do Boletin da Agricultura, 1900, ser. I: VI. ---- Estatistica especial da lavoura de café nos municipios de Apiahy, Batates. Caconde, Campos Novos do Paranapanema, Dourado, Fartura, Faxina, Itarare, Jaboticabal, Mocóca, Monte-Mór, Natividade, Nazareth, Pirassununga, Porto-Feliz. Remedios da Ponte do Tieté, São Pedro do Turvo. Sarapuhy, Serra Negra e Yporanga. _São Paulo_, 1901. 177 pp. Supplemento do Boletin da Agricultura, 1901, ser. 2: IV. SEEGER, EUGENE. Coffee crop of Brazil. U. S. Consular Reports, 1898, LVII, No. 218: 334-336. TRANSPORTING Brazil coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXII: 214-224. WARD, ROBERT DE C. A visit to the Brazilian coffee country. National Geographic Magazine, 1911, XXII: 908-931. WILLIAMS, J. H. The Brazil coffee situation. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 221-222. WINDELS, J. H. A coffee buyer's life in Brazil. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXX: 538-545. COLOMBIA DICKSON, SPENCER S. Colombia. Report on the coffee trade of Colombia. _London_, 1903. 8 pp. Great Britain. Foreign Office. Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Miscellaneous series, No. 598. COSTA RICA COSTA RICA. CONTABILIDAD NACIONAL. Exportacion de la cosecha de café. COSTA RICA. DEPARTMENTO NACIONAL DE ESTADISTICA. Diagrams de los promedios obtenidos en la venta del café de Costa Rica en Londres en los años de 1890 a 1899. _San José_, 1900. ---- Exportaciones de café de la República de Costa Rica. _San José_, 1900. 14 pp. Alcance á La Gaceta, 1900, No. 99. ----Fluctuaciones de los precios del café en Hamburgo, 1880-1899. _San José_, 1900. COSTA RICA. SECRETARIA DE RELACIONES EXTERIORES. Estudio é informe sobre el café de Costa Rica. 1900. 48 pp. EAST INDIES DEKKER, EDUARD DOUWES. Max Havelaar; or The coffee auctions of the Dutch Trading Company; by Multaluli, (pseud. ); trans. From the original ms. By Baron Alphonse Nahuijs. _Edinburgh_, 1868. VERWANGING van de gedwongen koffieteelt door eene vrije volkskoffie-cultuur. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië new ser. 2, V: 252-261. FINLAND GRANROTH, ELIAS G. Om café och de inhemska wäxter, som pläga brukas i dess ställe. _Abo_, 1755. 18 pp. FRANCE ARREST DU CONSEIL D'ESTAT DU ROY, qui permet aux directeurs interessez en l'armement du vaisseaux la Paix, de vendre les balles de caffé dont il est chargé. _Paris_, 1720. 4 pp. ---- Qui accorde à la Compagnie des Indes le privilege exclusif de la vente du caffé. _Paris_, 1723. 4 pp. ---- Pour la prise de possession par la Compagnie des Indes du privilege de la vente exclusive du caffé, sous le nom de Pierre le Sueur. _Paris_, 1723. 7 pp. ---- Qui ordonne que les commis et employez de la Compagnie des Indes pour l'exploitation des privileges du tabac et du café, procederont aux visites et executions au sujet des toiles et etoffes des Indes et du Levant. _Paris_, 1723. 7 pp. ---- Que declare commune en faveur des habitants de Cayenne et de St. Domingue, la declaration du 27. Septembre 1735. _Paris_, 1735. 3 pp. ---- Portant reglement sur les caffez provenant des plantations et cultures des Isles Françoises de l'Amérique. _Paris_, 1736. 4 pp. DAROLLES, E. Le café sur le marché française. _Paris_, 1885. DÉCLARATION DU ROY, Qui regle la manière dont la Compagnie des Indes fera l'exploitation de la vente exclusive du caffé. Donneé à Versailles le 10. Octobre 1723. _Paris_, 1723. 15 pp. ---- Concernant les cafez provenant des plantations et culture, de la Martinique et autres Isles Françoises de l'Amérique. Donnée a Fontainebleau le 27. Septembre 1732. _Paris_, 1732. 9 pp. GERMANY SCHÖNFELD, KARL. Der Kaffee-Engrosshandel Hamburgs. _Heidelberg_, 1903. 135 pp. GREAT BRITAIN GREAT BRITAIN. BOARD OF TRADE. Tea and coffee, 1888, 1893, 1899-1900, 1903, 1908, 1910. Statistical tables showing the consumption of tea and coffee in the principal countries of Europe, in the United States and in the principal British self-government dominions, and also showing the principal sources of supply. Parliament, House of Commons. Reports and papers, 1889, No. 12; 1894, No. 329; 1900, No. 351; 1901, No. 363; 1903, No. 304 (reprinted, London, 1905, 47 pp. ); 1908, No. 378 (reprinted, London, 1911, 58 pp. ); 1911, No. 275 (reprinted, London, 1911, 19 pp. ). GREAT BRITAIN. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. Copy of diagrams showing the consumption from 1856 to 1888 of tea, coffee, cocoa, and chicory, of alcoholic beverages, and of tobacco, compared with the increase of population. _London_, 1889. House of Commons, paper 121. LIFEBELT COFFEE COMPANY, LTD. The statutory meeting of the company. _London_, 1909. 2 pp. OBERPARLEITER, K. Der Londener Kaffeemarkt. 1912. GUIANA, DUTCH ROEF-PRAATJE, tusschen verscheiden persoonen, over de tegenswoordige staat van Surinamen en de laage prys der producten; waarin klaar aangetoond word de verkeerde gewoontens, wegens het verkoopen der coffy by inschryving, tot merkelyk nadeel der houders en geïntresseerdens der Surinaamsche obligaties. _Amsterdam_, 1774. 175 pp. HAWAII HAWAII (Republic) LABOR COMMISSION. Report on the coffee industry. _Honolulu_, 1895. 33 pp. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS. The Hawaiian Islands, their resources, agricultural, commercial and financial. Coffee, the coming staple product. _Honolulu_, 1896. 95 pp. Also, _Washington_, 1897. 32 pp. INDIA CLIFFORD, FREDERICK. Indian coffee: its present production and future prospects. Journal of the Society of Arts, 1887, XXXV: 519-534. INDIA. COMMERCIAL INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT. Note on the production of coffee in India. INDIA. STATISTICAL DEPARTMENT. Production of coffee in India. 19--. MEMMINGER, LUCIEN. The Indian coffee trade crisis. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917. XXXII: 506-510. SCHUURMAN, G. E. Eenige beschouwingen over verkoop van gouvernements koffie in India. _Rotterdam_, 1877. 13 pp. JAVA KAMERWIJSHEID (Relating to forced native labor in the island of Java) 1879. 31 pp. Reprint from Algemeen Dagblad van Nederlandsche Indië, Sept. 16, 18, 22, 24, 25, 1879. DE KOFFIECULTUUR op Java. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Indië, new ser. 2, No. 5: 660-667. KUNEMAN, J. De gouvernements koffie-cultuur op Java. _'s Gravenhage_, 1890. 201 pp. ROSE, G. F. C. Eenge opmerkingen naar aanleiding van de conclusive van de neerderheid der commissie nit de Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal over de nitkomsten van het onderzoek betreffende de koffij kultuur op Java. 1874. 39 pp. SUERMONDT, G. , and LONDON, H. H. Correspondentie. De West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij verdedigd tegen den schrijver van de koloniale kronijk in de Economist. 1868. 15 pp. ---- West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij verdedigd tegen de aanvallen van Volksblad en Arnhemsche Courant. _Amsterdam_, 1865. 44 pp. ---- West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. Toegelicht. Supplement van den eersten druk met voorrede. _Amsterdam_, 1865. 19 pp. VAN DEN BERG, NORBERT PIETER. Koffieproductie en koffieuitvoer. _Batavia_, 1884. 8 pp. VAN VLIET, L. VAN W. De koffij-enquête in verband met de ontworpen West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. _Amsterdam_, 1871. 35 pp. LIBERIA ELLIS, GEORGE W. Coffee industry in Liberia. U. S. Monthly Consular and Trade Reports, 1904, No. 291: 21-22. MORREN, F. W. Cultuur bereiding en handel van Liberia Koffie. _Amsterdam_, 1894. 36 pp. MEXICO HINOJOSA, G. Cultivo del café. _México_, 1883. 8 pp. (Mexico. Ministro de Fomento. ) ROMERO, M. Coffee and india rubber culture in Mexico; preceded by geographical and statistical notes on Mexico. _New York_, 1898. 416 pp. TERRY, L. M. Coffee culture in Mexico. Overland Monthly, 1901, new ser. XXXVII: 702-709. NETHERLANDS AMSTERDAM. VEREENIGING VOOR DEN KOFFIEHANDEL. Statistiek van koffie in Nederland. _Amsterdam_, 1914. GROENEVELD, J. Tremijnzaken in koffie te Rotterdam. _Rotterdam_, 1893. 15 pp. JACOBSON, J. "Ernstig bedreigd" "Opgeroepen, " een woord naar aanleiding van "Ernstig bedreigd" door den heer J. Jacobson en de daarop gevolgde geschriften van de heeren G. H. Mees en A. Plate, door en Nederlandes. _Amsterdam_, 1879. 12 pp. JETS over de koffij-veilingen der Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij. _Rotterdam_, 1847. 24 pp. NETHERLANDS (KINGDOM) Laws, statutes, etc. Wij Willem, bij de gratie Gods, konig der Nederlanden ... Enz. , enz. , enz. Allen den genen, die deze zullen zien ... Salut! doen te weten: Alzoo wij, tot stijving der inkomsten van den staat, noodzakelijk geoordeeld hebben, dat de koffij binnen ons rijk gebruikt ... Aan eene belasting op de consumptie worde onderworpen. _'s Gravenhage_, 18--. 8 pp. SUERMONDT, G. , and LONDON, H. H. West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. Het advys der Kamer van Koophandel te Batavia, de Ond Koopman, enz. Wederlegd. _Amsterdam_, 1866. 127 pp. WAANDERS, F. G. Van B. De koffiemarkt. _The Hague_, 1882. 27 pp. PORTO RICO PORTO RICAN coffee. Outlook, Mar. 24, 1906, LXXXII: 632; May 5, 1906, LXXXIII: 46-47. UNITED STATES. PRESIDENT, 1901-1909 (ROOSEVELT) Message from the President of the United States relative to his visit to the island of Porto Rico. _Washington_, 1906. 200 pp. 59th Congress, 2d Session, Senate document 135. Message, dated Dec. 11, 1906, accompanied by petitions in relation to the coffee trade, etc. , and losses by the hurricane of 1899; and the sixth annual report of the governor, Beekman Winthrop, dated July 1, 1906. VAN LEENHOFF, JOHANNES W. The condition of the coffee industry in Porto Rico. _Mayaguez_, 1904. 2 pp. Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. Circular No. 2. WEYL, W. E. Labor conditions in Porto Rico. U. S. Bureau of Labor. Bulletin, 1905, XI: 749-753. SPAIN SPANIEN. Bestimmungen über die Einfuhr von Kaffee und Kakao aus Fernando Po. Deutsche Handels-Archiv. 1901. 141. TONKIN ROTTACH, EDMOND. L'organisation économique de l'Indochine et le café au Tonkin. Société de Géographic commerciale de Paris. Bulletin, 1913, XXXV: 643-660. UNITED STATES AMERICAN tea and coffee trade from 1847 to 1916. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 28. COFFEE EXCHANGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. Annual Report. COFFEE trade of the United States. Chamber of Commerce, _New York_. Annual Report 1908-1909, pt. 1: 23-29. COFFEE Trade of the United States for the past six years. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 326-329. COFFEE TRADE of the United States since 1821. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 336-338. CUNNINGHAM, E. S. Export of Mocha coffee to the United States. U. S. Consular Reports, 1899, LXI: 625-628. OUR fastest growing coffee port, including handling green coffee at San Francisco. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 524-528. RENAISSANCE of tea and coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1919, XXXVI: 218-229. SLOSS, R. New York coffee party. Everybody's Magazine. 1913, XXVIII: 772-783. TEA, coffee, wines, etc. ; consumption of tea, coffee, wines, distilled spirits, and malt liquors in the U. S. Since 1870, per capita of population. _Washington_, 1896-1899. U. S. Agriculture Dept. Yearbook, 1895: 552; 1896: 595; 1897: 754; 1898: 723. UNITED STATES. BUREAU OF STATISTICS. Imports of coffee and tea. 1790-1896. _Washington_, 1896. _Also_, Monthly Summary of Finance and Commerce, 1896, new ser. IV: 670-690. WAKEMAN, ABRAM. History and reminiscences of lower Wall St. And vicinity. _New York_, 1914. 216 pp. VALORIZATION ALTSCHUD, F. Die Kaffeevalorisation. Jahrbüch für Gesetzgebubg, 1910, 2. ATTACKING Brazil's coffee trust. Literary Digest, 1912, XLIV: 1242-1244. BRAZIL'S failure to control the price. American Geographic Society. Bulletin, 1909, XLI: 220-222. CAMPISTA, DAVID. Valorisação do café e Caixa de conversão. _Rio de Janeiro_, 1906: 53. CHANTLAND, WILLIAM T. Valorization of coffee. A detailed report of the transactions and facts relating to the valorization of coffee. _Washington_, 1913. 15 pp. U. S. 63rd Congress, 1st session. Senate Document, 36. COFFEE combine at bay. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXII: 497-513. COFFEE valorization and the Sherman law. Journal of Political Economy, 1918, XXI: 162-163. COFFEE valorization scheme and the coming harvest, The. Economist, 1909, LXVIII: 910-911. DE CARVALHO, J. C. O café do Brazil, estudos a favor da propaganda para a augmento do consumo e valorisação do café do Brazil no estrangeiro. _Rio de Janeiro_, 1901. 41 pp. ---- O café, sua historia, des valorisação e propaganda pada o augmento do consumo na Europa o algodão, a industria da tecelagem do algodão, sua origem, appareicimento e desenvolvimento na America do Sul. Conferencias publicas realissadas na séde la Sociedade nacional de agricultura. _Rio de Janeiro_, 1900. 53 pp. DENIS, PIERRE. La crise du café au Brésil et la valorisation. Revue politique et parlementaire, 1908, LVI: 494-520. FERREIRA RANGEL, SYLVIO. Valorisação de café. _Rio de Janeiro_, 1906. 18 pp. _Also_, A Lavoura, IX: 81-90. FERRIN, A. W. Brazilian plan of limiting shipments. Moody's Magazine, 1912, XIII: 409-414. HOW the coffee trust has held its grip. Current Literature, 1912, LIII: 52-54. HUEBNER, G. G. Making green coffee prices. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912. XXI: 442-449. HUTCHINSON, LINCOLN. Coffee valorization in Brazil. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1909, XXIII: 528-535. KURTH, HERMANN. Die Lage des Kaffeemarktes und die Kaffeevalorisation. Inaugural dissertation, _Jena_, 1907. 34 pp. LALIÈRE, A. La valorisation du café. Revue économique internationale, Feb. 15-20, 1910, VII, pt. 1: 316-350. LÉVY, MAURICE. La valorisation du café au Brésil. Annales des Sciences politiques, 1908, XXIII: 586-603. MACFARLANE, JOHN J. Coffee valorization analysed. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1910, XIX: 103-110. MCKENNA, W. E. Cause of advance in price. Public, 1912, XV: 508. OLAVARRIA, I. A. Liga de los paises cafeteros. _Caracas_, 1898. 20 pp. PAYEN, ÉDOUARD. Au Brésil: la valorisation du café. Questions diplomatique et coloniales, XXIV: 728-740. RAISING prices by destruction. Nation, 1909. LXXXVIII: 520-521. RAMOS, F. FERREIRA. La valorisation du café au Brésil. 1907. RATZKA-ERNST, CLARA. Welthandelsartikel und ihre Preise. Eine Studie zur Preisbewegung und Preisbildung. Der Zucker, der Kaffee und die Baumwolle. _München_, 1912. 244 pp. SCHMIDT, FRITZ. Die Kaffeevalorisation. Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik, 1909, ser. 3, XXXVIII: 662-670. SIELCKEN, HERMANN. Coffee valorization explained. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1911, XXI: 471-481. ---- A defense of valorization. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII, Supplement to no. 6: 17-21. SLOSS, R. Why coffee costs twice as much. World's Work, 1912, XXIV: 194-205. SUIT against the coffee trust. Nation, 1912, XCIV: 508-509. SYNDICAT général de défense du café et des produits coloniaux. Bulletin, _Paris_, 1911, II: No. 6. THEISS, LEWIS EDWIN. Why the price of coffee increases. Showing how a few rich men, who want to be richer, are pushing up the price of coffee. Pearson's Magazine, 1911, XXVI: 456-463. TURMANN, MAX. Un état qui fait du commerce. Le Brésil et la valorisation du café. La Revue hebdomadaire, 1909, VIII: 450-470. UKERS, WILLIAM H. The great coffee corner. Saturday Evening Post, 1909, CLXXXI: 5-7. VALORIZING coffee. Review of Reviews, 1912, XLVI: 21-22. VALUE of coffee. Current Literature, 1903, XXXV: 746-747. WESSELS, L. De opheffing van het monopolie en de vervanging van de gedwongen koffie-cultuur op Java door een staatscultuur in vrijen arbeid. _'s Gravenhage_, 1890. 72 pp. WILEMAN, J. P. Unparalleled valorization. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1911, XX: 444-445. ZUR Frage der Kaffee-Valorisation. Deutsche Wirtschafts-Zeitung, 1913, IX: 237-243. [Illustration] INDEX NOTE. As this is a book about coffee, the entries in the Indexrefer--unless otherwise specified--to that general subject, and moreparticularly to _Coffea arabica_; other varieties are distinguished bytheir scientific or trade names. Thus, "Adulteration" refers to theadulteration of coffee; and "Adulterants, " to the substances used forthat purpose. _Abbreviations Used_ _bev. _ signifies beverage_biog. _ " biographyC. Or c. " coffee_C. _ " _Coffea__chk. _ " coffee-house keeper_d. _ " died_hyb. _ " hybrid_ill. _ " illustration_inv. _ " invention_newsp. _ " newspaper_pamph. _ " pamphlet_pat. _ " patent, patentee_per. _ " periodical_pseud. _ " pseudonym_q. _ " quoted_v. _ " vessel, ship Italicized words are either scientific terms or titles of publications. Titles of books are followed by the name of the author, if known; otherpublications are distinguished as broadsides, newspapers, pamphlets, orperiodicals. Geographical names are distributed under various topics, such as"Acreage, " "Coffee houses, " "Consumption, " "Cultivation, " "Exports, ""Imports, " "Production, " and the like. _A Mon Café_, Ducis, 548 Abbas, wife of, 21 Abbey, Charlotte, _q. _, 177 Abbey, Roswell, _pat. _, 245 Abbey, Freeman & Co. , 482 Abd-al-Kâdir, 14, 431 Abd-al-Kâdir ms. , 31, 431, 542, 543 Description, 541 Abele, Chris, _pat. _, 630, 638, 644, 645; _d. _ (1910), 641 _Abeokutæ, C. _, 142 Java, 216 _Abeokutæ_ × _liberica_, _hyb. _, 146 Abigail, 13 Aborn, A. C. , _q. _, Cost card for roasters, 392 Aborn, Edward, 439, 514, 651, 701, 713, 714, 716, _q. _, 715 Aborn, W. H. , 715 About, Edmund F. V. , _q. _, 685 Abraham, 18 Abyssinian c. , 353, 376, 377 _Account of his Journeys, An_, Olearius, _q. _, 22 Ach (chemist), 186 Ach, F. J. , 488, 509, 511, 513, _q. _, 408 Acidity, percentages in c. , 719 Acid c. 's, 397 Acids, 159, 168 Acker, Finley, _pat. _, 472, 645, 649, 701 Acker, Merrall & Condit Co. , 478, 494, 498 Ackland, James, _chk. _, 118 Acreage Africa, British East, 230, 285 Argentina, 236 Australia, 238, 284 Brazil (sq. Miles), 277 Ceylon, 236, 283 Ecuador, 236, 278 Federated Malay States, 238, 284 Guadeloupe, 233 Guatemala, 219 Guiana, British, 279 Haiti, 220, 281 Hawaii, 241 India, 226, 227, 282 Jamaica, 232, 281 Java, 215 Leeward Islands, 282 Mauritius, 285 Nyasaland, 230, 285 Philippines, 284 Porto Rico, 223 Salvador, 219, 280 Uganda, 230, 285 Venezuela, 212 Yemen, 230 Adams, _chk. _, 559 Adams, Abigail, _q. _, 467, 468 Adams, Isaac, _pat. _, 245 Adams, John, 110, 113, 593 Adams, Pygan, 609 Adams & Son, 710 Addison, Joseph, 75, 80, 84, 557, 558, 560, 572, 575, 576, 577, 578, 593 _Addison, Life of_, Johnson, _q. _, 561 Adjudication (N. Y. Exch. ), 334 Adulterant Act, British, 404 Adulterants, 153, 169, 170, 404 Adulteration, 404 Italy, 686 Reasons for, 170 U. S. Law affecting, 410 rulings against, 337 Advertisements Arbuckle's (1861), 496 Boston (1748), 467 Cauchois's Private Estate, 498 Coffee-house Boston, 112 New York (1781), 119, 120 Coffee mills (1665), 617 Divination by coffee grounds, 558 First (Abd-al-Kâdir's, 1587), 431 First American-newspaper, 468 First newspaper (1657), 56, 432 Of coffee only, _ill. _, 434 First printed (1652), _q. _, 54, 432, 459, 461 London coffee-house, _q. _, 582 Newspaper and periodical, 432-434 Piazza coffee room, _q. _, 581 Song by Zecchini, 549 Turks Head coffee house, 582 Advertising, 431-465 Booklets (J. C. T. P. C. ), 455 Brands, 455, 462-465 Early history, 431-434 Evolution of, 434, 435 France, 680 Government propaganda, 444-459 Injudicious, 435, 537, 438, 461 Joint coffee trade, 439, 445-459, 514, 515 Lantern slides, 443 Motion pictures, 443, 445 Package-coffee, 440-443 Retail, 443, 444 Trade, 442 Trade journalists as experts, 431 United States, 434-465 Advertising charts, 440, 441 _Advice against the plague_, Harvey, 58 Advisory Board, C. (_see_ Gov't control) _Affinis, C. _, _hyb. _, 146 Aga, Soliman, 33, 92 Aging Artificial, 157, 158, 471, 474 Natural, 156, 157, 167, 342, 345, 353 Agriculture, U. S. Dept. , 722 _Aigentliche Beschreibung der Raisis, etc. _, Rauwolf, _q. _, 12 Aiken, G. , 612 Akers, Frederick, 498, 499 Alameda (brand), 441 Albanese, 185 Albertenghi, 558 Alcoholic beverages Coffee replaces in Am. Colonies, 696 Sold in London c. Houses, 61, 78, 81 Alcholism, effect of c. On, 182 Aldhabani (_see_ Gemaleddin) _Ale wives' complaint against c. Houses_ (_pamph. _), 72 Alexander, S. R. , 485 Alexander & Baldwin, 488 Alhadrami, Muhammed, 16 _Al-Haiwi_ (_The Continent_), Rhazes, 11 Alison, Archibald, 102 Alkaloids in c. , 159, 160, 161 All Souls' college, Oxford, 41 Allain, F. V. , 487 Allanston, _q. _, 179 Allen, _q. _, 159 Allen, Ida C. Bailey, _q. _, 723 Allen, James Lane, _q. _, 564 Allom, Thomas, 663 Alpini (Alpinus), Prospero 43, 431, 541, 543; _q. _, 2, 12, 26, 41 _Alt und neu Wien_, Bermann, _q. _, 51 Altenberg, Peter, _q. _, 549 Altitudes Best, 198, 200 Bolivia, 236 Brazil, 205 Colombia, 208 Costa Rica, 225 Guatemala, 219 Hawaii, 239 Honduras, 234 Indo-China, French, 237 Jamaica, 233 Java, 216 Mexico, 222 Nicaragua, 227 Peru, 236 Salvador, 217 Venezuela, 212, 263 Yemen, 231 _Alumini Etonenses_, Harwood, _q. _, 581 _Amarella, C. _, _hyb. _, 140 Amber (essence of) in c. , 695 Ambergris in c. , 709 _Ambrosia Arabica, Caffè Discorso_, Rambaldi, 558, _q. _, 696 American Can Co. , 472, 473 _Am. Chem. Journal_, _q. _, 165 American Coffee Co. , 521 _American Grocer_, _per. _, 526 _American Hist'l Register_, _q. _, 126 _Am. Journ. Ophthalmology_, _q. _, 182 American Legion, _v. _, 316 American Mills, 502 American Sugar Refining Co. , 689 Ames, Allan P. , 448 Amman & Co. , C. , 477 Amsinck, Gustave, 479 Amsinck & Co. , G. , 479, 484, 485, 534 Amurath III, 20, 664 Amurath IV, 20, 38 _Analyst_, _per_, _q. _, 165 _Anatomy of Melancholy, The_, Burton, _q. _, 543, 38 Ancilloto, Marco, 27 _"----" and Other Poets_, Untermeyer, _q. _, 553 Anderson, _pat. _, 247 Anderson, Adam, _q. _, 72, 73, 74 Anderson, E. D. , 472 Anderson, Mrs. _chk. _, 86 Andreas, A. T. , _q. _, 106 Andrews, William Ward, _pat. _, 627, 700 Andrews & Co. , C. E. , 506 Andry, Doctor, 694 Anecdotes, 565-585 Addison, Joseph, 576 Bacon, Sir Nicholas, 570 Bismarck, 565, 570 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 94, 593 Brillat-Savarin, 565 Champmeslé, 91 Cibber, Colley, 579 Compton, Bishop of London, 570 de Sévigné, Mme. , 91, 565 Dryden, John, 574, 575 Fontenelle, 565 Foote, Samuel, 580, 581 Garrick, David 569, 579, 580 Goldsmith, Oliver, 573, 574 Grévy, Jules, 566 Hannes, Dr. , 572 Hogarth, William, 580 Inchbald, Mrs. , 576 Jeffreys, Judge, 570 Johnson, Samuel, 567, 568, 569 Kant, Immanuel, 562 Kemble, John, 581 London coffee-house, 567-585 Louis XIV and DuBarry, 566 Lowther, Sir James, 584 Macklin, Charles, 580, 581 Milton, John, 584 Napier, Robert, 700 Page, Judge, 570 Phipps, Sir William, 111 Pope, Alexander, 575, 576, 577, 578 Racine, 91 Radcliff, Dr. , 572 Roach, Tiger, 579, 580 Roubiliac, 583 Saint-Foix, 566, 567 Savage, Richard, 570 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 581 Sloane, Sir Hans, 582 Steele, Sir Richard, 570 Swift, Jonathan, 570, 578, 579 Talleyrand, Prince, 565 Thurlow, Lord, 572 Voltaire, 178, 565 Ware (Brit. Architect), 584 Anezi c. , 351, 368 Angel & Co. , A. , 340 _Angustifolia, C. _ _hyb. _, 140 Ankola c. , 355, 371 _Annales_, Liebig, _q. _, 711 _Annales Politiques et Littéraires_, _per. _, _q. _, 175 _Annals_ (of Phila. ), _q. _, 120 _Annals on Applied Biology_, _q. _, 155 Anne, Queen, 82 _Année Littéraire_, _q. _, 6 Anstead, R. D. , _q. _, 155 Anthony, Frank M. , 479 _Antiquarian Rambles in the Streets of London_, Smith, _q. _, 569, 570 Antiseptic, C. As an, 180, 182 Apel, Paul E, 506 Apparatus (_see_ Machinery) Appenzeller, John C. , 503 Applegate, John, 492 Apples in c. (Russia), 686 Apreece, 581 Araba (driver), 658 _Arabia, Description of_, Niebuhr, _q. _, 22 _Arabian Chrestomathy_, de Sacy _q. _, 2 Arabian c. (_see_ Mocha) _Arabian Nights, The_, 31 _Arabica, C. _ (see note, p. 769) Arbitration (N. Y. Exch. ), 333 _Arbor yemensis fructum cofè ferens, etc. , The_, Douglas, 42, 543 Arbuckle advertising, 462-465 Arbuckle, Charles, 521, 522 Arbuckle, Christina, 524 Arbuckle, John, 440, 469, 470, 496, 523, 524; _biog. _, 517, 521; _d. _, (1912) 524; _pat. _, 647 Arbuckle, John (Mrs. ), 523 Arbuckle Brothers, 443, 470, 480, 482, 499, 502, 522, 523 Coating coffee, 396 Plant, 524-526 Business, 521-526 Arbuckle Farm, 524 Arbuckles, The, 519 Arbuckles & Co. , 507, 522, 524, 635 Arbuthnot, Dr. , 81, 84, 578, 579 Arcade Manufacturing Co. , 645, 653 _Archives of Psychology_, _q. _, 186 Arcularius, James L. , 499 Arding, Dr. Charles, 118 Arduino, Pier Teresio, _pat. _, 651 Arias, 220 Ariosa (brand), 440, 441, 469, 470, 524 Origin of name, 522 Ariza & Lombard, 488 Arkell, Bartlett, 538 Arkell, W. J. , 538 Arlington, Earl of, 582 Arliss, George, 130; _q. _, 556 Armstrong, Dr. , 578, 580 479, 491, 518, 527; _biog. _ 517 Arnold, Francis B. , 477, 479, 491, 518 Arnold & Co. , B. G. , 479, 480 491, 528 Arnold, Dorr & Co. , 479, 482, 518 Arnold, Hines & Co. , 482 Arnold, Mackey & Co. , 477, 479 Arnold, Sturgess & Co. , 479 _Arnoldiana, C. _, 142 Java, 216 Aroma Advertising value, retail, 423 Best grinds to preserve, 719, 720 Cause of, 163, 165 Chaff rich in, 708 Cup-testing for, 356 Preservation of, 170, 712, 717 Aroma Coffee & Spice Co. , 502 Aron & Co. , J. , 340 _Arroba_ (weight), 268 Art collections Berlin museums, 46 Boston Mus. Of Fine Arts, 612 Bostonian Society, 613 London Beaufoy (Guildhall Mus. ), 62, 582, 602 British Museum, 604 Guildhall Museum, 602, 603 Armstrong & Barnewall, 476 Arne, Dr. , 579 Arnold, _q. _, 136 Arnold, Benjamin Green, 469, London Victoria and Albert Museum, 601, 603 New York Clearwater (Met. Mus. ), 609 Halsey (Met. Mus. ), 609 Metropolitan Museum Pictures, 591 Service, artistic and historical, 599, 600, 607, 608, 612 Paris: Clunny Museum, 600 Portland: Maine Hist. Soc. 614 Potsdam museums, 46 Salem (Mass. ): Essex Inst. , 614 Sam Ireland's, 593 Vienna: Austrian Art Soc. , 590 Washington Peter (U. S. Nat'l Mus. ), 599 Arthur, _chk. _, 588 _Arthur's_, Lyons, _q. _, 563 _Aruwimensis, C. _, 144 Java, 216 Ashcroft, John, _pat. _, 157 Trade mark, 470 Ashland, James, 477 Ashley, James, _chk. _, 582 Astbury, 604, 612 Astor Library, 124 Atha, F. P. , 509; _q. _, 422 _Athenae Oxiensis à Wood_, _q. _, 41 Atlas Mills, 498 Attal (Arabian bale), 266 Atwood & Co. , 509 Atwood & Holstad, 509 Aubrey, John, 557; _q. _, 40, 53, 56, 59, 60 Auctions Amsterdam, 44 First (1711), 213 London, 327 Netherlands E. Indies, 312 Augagneuri, C. , 147 Auger & Co. , B. E. , 487 Austin, Nichols & Co. , 494, 499 Australian c. , 355, 376 _Autobiography_, Haydon, _q. _, 583 Autocrat (brand), 441 Automatic Weighing Machine Co. , 470 Avicenna (Ibn Sina), 11, 17, 431; _q. _, 12 à Wood, Anthony, _q. _, 41 Ayduis, 14 Ayer Bangies c. , 355, 371 Ayer & Son, N. W. , 448 Aymar & Co. , 476 Babillard, _q. _, 559 Bach, Johann Sebastian. 46; _q. _, 595-599 Bache, Theophylact, 475 Bacon, Francis, 543, 557; _q. _, 38 Bacon, Sir Nicholas, 570 Bacon, Raymond F. , _q. _, 714 Bacon, Williamson, 480 Bacon & Co. , Williamson, 480 Bacon, Stickney & Co. , 508 Bacteria, Effect of c. On, 180, 181 "Bad" coffee, 22 Bagnell, 579 Bags, paper (_see_ Containers) Bahias (c. ), 341, 343, 367 Baillon, 558 Baiz, Jacob, 485 Baiz & Wakeman, 478 Baker (chemist), _q. _, 165 Baker, John Gulick, _pat. _, 469, 639 Baker, Roger, 117 Baker, T. K. , _pat. _, 647 Baker, William E. , _pat. _, 649 Baker & Co. , 649 Baker & Sons, Joseph, 640 Baker & Young, 485 Baker Importing Co. , 539 Baker _vs. _ Duncombe (_pat. _ suit), 649 Baldi, _q. _, 184 Baldwin, Captain, 538 Baldy & Co. , J. B. , 506 Bales, Arabian, 266, 268 Balis (c. ), 355, 374 Balliol college, Oxford, 40, 41 Ballot-box, origin of, 60 Ballou & Cosgrove, 488 Baltagi, 22 Balzac, Honoré de, 102, 556; _q. _, 557 _Balzac_, Lawton, _q. _, 557 Ban, 26, 35 Bananas and c. (_bev. _), 694 Banesius (_see_ Nairon) Bangs, John Kendrick, _q. _, 564 Bank of New York, 120 Bank of Pennsylvania, _ill. _, 129 Banks, H. W. , 479 Banks & Co. , H. W. , 478, 479, 485 Baptized by Clement VIII, 26 Barbados c. , 351, 362 Barbaro, Angelo Maria, 28 Barbor, _inv. _, 637 Barclay, Florence L. , _q. _, 563 Barclay & Hasson, 508 Barker, _pat. _, 640 Barmaids, 75 Barnardini, _q. _, 186 Barnes, Dr. , _q. _, 176 Barnes, Sir Edward, 237 Barnicle, Michael, 482 Baro, José, 651 Barotti, L. , 548 Barquisimento, _v. _, 349 Barr, Thomas T. , 482 Barr & Co. , T. M. , 529 Barr & Co. , T. T. , 477, 482 Barr, Lally & Co. , 482 Barrington Hall (brand), 441 Barrington Hall Soluble (brand), 539 Barrowby, Dr. , _q. _, 580 Barth, G. W. , 639 Barthez, 566 Bartlett (artist), 668 Bartow, H. , 497 Baruch & Co. , 488 Batavia c. , 355, 373 Baudelaire, 565 _Baukobensis, C. _, 216 Bay, Gottfried, 644 Bayne, Daniel K. , 478 Bayne, L. P. , 478 Bayne, Jr. , William, 448, 473, 478, 535 Bayne, Sr. , William, 478 Bayne & Co. , William, 485 Beach & Co. , J. D. , 508, 509 Beaham-Moffatt Mfg. Co. , 508 Bean broth, Javanese, 11 Beans as friendly tokens, 655 Beard, Eli, 496 Beard, Samuel S. , 496 Beard & Co. , Samuel S. , 482, 496 Beard & Cummings, 482, 494, 496, 507 Beard & Howell, 496 Beard, Sons & Co. , S. M. , 499 Beards & Cottrell, 482, 496 Beaufoy Catalogue, Burn, _q. _, 583 Beaumarchais, 94 Beauvarlet, J. , 587 Beccaria, Cesare, 30, 558 Becker, Joseph, 482 Beckley, S. W. , 507 Beckmann, Alfred H. , _q. _, 418 Bedford, Duke of, 576, 593 Beecher, C. McCulloch, 491 Beede, N. B. , 508 Beekmans, The, 475 Beer, _q. _, 182 Beer, Coffee, 710, 711 Beeson, Emmet G. , _q. _, 679 Bégon, 6 Behrens & Co. , A. , 482 Belcher, Jonathan, _chk. _, 112 Belgians, King of, 672 Bell & Co. , J. H. , 502 Bell, Conrad & Co. , 485 Bell, Conrad & Webster, 502 Belli, 549, 557 Bello (Bellus), Onorio, 31 Belna (brand), 539 Bencini, Antoni, _pat. _, 625 Benedicenti, _q. _, 186 Benedict & Co. , 485 Benedict & Gaffney, 494, 498, 499 Benedict & Thomas, 494, 501 _Bengalensis, C. _, 146 Bengiazlah, 17; _q. _, 17 Bennet, Henry, 582 Bennett, J. Hughes, _q. _, 181 Bennett, James, 482 Bennett, William, 482 Bennett & Becker, 482, 499 Bennett & Son, William Hosmer, 478, 482 Bennett, Schenck & Earle, 499 Bennett, Sloan & Co. , 498, 499 Bentley, Benton & Co. , 482 Berchoux, 548 Berg, Thomson & Davis, 502 Berhard, Charles, 505 Berkeley, Bishop, 550 Bermann, M. , _q. _, 51 Bernard, Claude M. V. , _pat. _, 629 Bernard (Dean of Derry), 573, 574 Bernhardt, Sarah, 565 Bernheimer, _q. _, 163 Bernier, 31, 543, 594; _q. _, 616 Berry (_see_ Fruit) Berry, Benjamin, 508 Berry & Sons, N. , 501 Berthier, 102 Berytus (Beirut), Bishop of, _q. _, 42 Besant, Sir Walter, _q. _, 75, 78 Bethmont, 566 Betrand, _q. _, 163 Better C. -making Com. , 439 Recommendations, 713, 715 Better coffee-making publicity Favored by N. C. R. A. , 513 Beurre, Café avec, 683 Beverage Buds as basis, 694 Chemical analysis, 714 Consumption in U. S. , 689 Definition, U. S. Dep't of Agr. , 722 Discovery (13th century), 655 Evolution of, 693 Fruit and bananas, 694 History, early, 11-23 Hull and pulp as basis, 15 Husks as basis, 26 Origin First reliable date (1454), 16 Legendary, 11, 13, 16 _Beverages Past and Present_, Emerson, _q. _, 566 Bey, Kair, 71 _Bible_, 12, 13 Bibliothéque Nationale, 16 Bichivili, _q. _, 22 Bichivili manuscript, 542 Bickford, Clarence E. , 487, 488 Bickford & Co. , C. E. , 488 Biddulph, William, _q. _, 36, 543 Biggin, Coffee, 624 Origin of name, 699 (_See also_ Infusion devices) Bill & Co. , Alexander H. , 501 Binz, _q. _, 182, 183 _Biographic Universelle_, Michauds, _q. _, 8 Bishop, J. Leander, _q. _, 105, 115 Bishop, Nathaniel, _chk. _, 109 Bisland & Brown, 497 Bismarck, Prince, 565, 566 Bitter (_see_ Flavors) Bitter c. 's, 397 Bjorstjerne Bjornson, _v. _, 316 Blackall, Alfred H. , 501, 502 Blair, Henry, 496, 526 Blair, Henry B. , 494 Blair, Sidney O. , 502 Blake, Charles F. , 482 Blake, Walter F. , 535 Blake & Bullard, 482 Blakeman, C. R. , 479 Blanc, Louis, 103 Blanchard & Bro. , 501 Black bean, 329 Scale, 330 Black broth, Lacedemonian, 13, 36, 38, 40, 58 Blanco, Guzman, 529 Blaney, Henry R. , _q. _, 110 Blanke, C. F. , _pat. _, 651 Blanke Tea & Coffee Co. , C. F. , 502, 539 Blending, 396-400 Retail, 418-421 Blending machinery, 383, 385 Blends, 722, 723 French preferences, 680 Package coffees, 408 Restaurants, 399 Blickman, Saul, _pat. _, 652 Bliss, Dallett & Co. , 482 Blodgett, Albro, 507 Blodgett, Henry P. , 507 Blodgett-Beckley Co. , 507 Blohm & Co. , 340 Blook & Varwig, 503 Bloom, Daniel, _chk. _, 118 Bloom Bros. , 488 Blossoms, Bridal flowers in Antilles, 565 Chemistry of, 155 Blotting-paper filters, 708 Blount, Sir Henry, 40, 54, 543; _q. _, 13, 38, 56 Blue Mountain c. , 350, 362 Blunt, Anne, _chk. _, 56 Board of Experts favored, 513 Boardman, George, 508 Boardman, Howard F. , 508 Boardman, Thomas J. , 508 Boardman, William, 508 Boardman, William F. J. , 508 Boardman & Sons, Wm. , 508 Boardman & Sons Co. , Wm. , 508 Boaz, 13 Boconos c. , 349, 350, 365 Bodanzky, Arthur, 597 Bodleian library, 53 Boekit Gompong c. , 355, 372 Boengie c. , 355, 374 Boerhaave, Prof. , 543 Bogotas (c. ), 348, 349, 363 Bohier & Weikel, 501 Boiling, Discussed (Trigg), 720 N. C. R. A. Recommendations, 721 Boindin, Abbie Alary, 554 Boinest, Walter B. , 498 Bolivian c. , 350, 367 Bon, 12, 26, 35, 41 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 94, 96, 100, 485; _q. _, 566 Bondzynski, 185 Bonifeur, Café (Guadeloupe), 257 Bonnard, 98 _Bonnieri, C. _, 147 Caffein content, 161 Bontius, Jac. , _q. _, 2 Book, Nicholas, _inv. _, 617 Booker, 69 Booklets, advertising, 455 Booms, Ceylon (1845), 237 U. S. (1814), 468 Booms and Panics, 527-530 Booth, A. F. , 508 Booth, Otis W. , 480 Booth & Linsley, 477, 480 Boquette c. , 348, 361 Borino & Bro. , 486 Boscul (brand), 441 Bossi, Vernetti & Bartolini, 651 Boston coffee party, 467, 468 _Boston News Letter_, _newsp. _, 433 Boston tea party, 106, 110, 689 Boswell, James, 81, 89; _q. _, 567, 568, 583 Botanical description, 12, 26, 41, 131-138, 248, 249 Classification, 132 Species, number of, 132 Microscopic, 149-152 Botanical gardens (_see_ Gardens) Botanists disagree, 132 Botany of coffee, 131-148 _Bottega di caffé_ (comedy), Goldoni, 28 Bouche, Charles J. , 505 Boucher, François, 588 Boulton & Co. , H. L. , 340 Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, 482 Bounties, Guadeloupe, 234 Australia (proposed), 239 Bour, J. M. , 507 Bour Co. , 443, 506, 507 Bourai c. , 351, 368 Bourbon c. , 353, 378 Bourbon, Grand, c. , 352, 353 Bourbon Le Roy c. , 352, 353 Bourbon rond, 352, 353 Bourbon-Santos c. , 260, 341, 342, 366 Bourdon, Isid, _q. _, 565 Bourne, H. R. Fox, _q. _, 54 Bovee & Co. , Wm. H. , 506 Bowdoin, Gov. (_see_ Chicory), 468 Bowers, B. O. , 480 Bowman, _chk. _, 53, 54 Bowman, John, _pat. _, 637 Bown, W. J. H. , 510 Bown & Bro. , W. T. , 507 Bowring & Co. , 488 Boyd & Co. , G. , 501 Braas, Joseph, 507 Brancho, João Alberto C. , 9 Bradford, Cornelius, _chk. _, 119, 120 Bradford, John R. (Mrs. ), 614 Bradford, Phebe C. , 614 Bradford, William, _chk. _, 127, 128, 129 Bradley, Prof. R. , 42 Bradley, Richard, _q. _, 58 Brady, Cyrus Townsend, 563 Brady, Dr. , _q. _, 177 Bramhall Deane Co. , 634 Brand advertising, 455, 462-465 Brand, Carl W. , 448, 507, 514 Brandenburg, Elector of, 45 Brandenstein, Edward, 506 Brandenstein, M. J. , 506 Brandenstein, Manfred, 506 Brandenstein & Co. , M. J. , 471, 488, 506 Brands, 434, 435, 440, 441, 462, 465, 469, 470, 474, 496, 522-524, 538, 539 Brasher, Abraham, 609 Brasher, Ephraim, 609 Brass, Italico, 556 Braun Co. , 472, 646 Brayley (topographer), 582 Brazil Coffee Co. , 478 Brazil coffee delegation, 514 Brazil-grading, 331 Brazil Trading Co. , 485 Brazils (c. ), 341-345, 366 Breakfast (brand), 524 Bregolini, Ubaldo, 27 Brett, Colonel, 576 Breur, Moller & Co. , 340 Brewing, Altitude limit 9, 000 feet, 715 Art of Calkin's patent, 702 Muller's patent, 702 Below boiling point, 515, 707, 714, 717 Care in, 723 Chemistry of, 168, 718-720 Clarifying, 704, 705 Comparison of methods, 720, 721 Evolution of, 702, 704 Filtration _vs. _ percolation, 515 Incorrect methods injurious, 179 N. C. R. A. Recommendations, 717 Research, Un. Of Kansas, 714 Scientific, 718-722 Thurber's method, 712 Brewing devices (1760-1855), 620-629 Acker's (1884), 645 American colonial, 709 Andrews' reversed Fr. Drip (1841), 627 Best materials, 717, 721, 722 Blickman's (1916), 652 Care of, 722 Casseneuve's reversed Fr. Drip, 623 Cauchois's porcelain-lined urn, 645 Cauchois's centrifugal pump, 651 Chapman's tea or coffee pot, 649 Chronology (1879-1921), 643-654 Combined making and serving pot, 616 Comparative test (1915), 714 (1917), 716 Criterion, 674 Earthenware, painted (Abyssinia), 655 First (boiler), 615, 616 First French patent (1802), 621, 699 First U. S. Patent (1825), 469, 624, 625, 699 Fountain, 674 German patents (1877-85), 638 Levant (1691), 696 Le Brun's Cafetiére, 710 Manning's combined, 637 Martelley's patent (1825), 699 Moneuse's urn (1869), 639 Muller's Art of Making Coffee, 653 Napier-List machine, 700 Parker's steam-fountain, 705 Platow, 674 Rabaut's reversed Fr. Drip (1822), 623 Savage's tea or coffee pot (1904), 649 Sené's, "without boiling" (1815), 623 Still's steam coffee-maker (1902), 647 Syphon (Napier), 674 Verithing (Summerling's), 674 White's urn (1908), 651 Wyatt's distillation apparatus, 699 Brewing methods, Abyssinia, 655 American colonies, 708, 709 Arabia, 658-663, 695 Australia, 692 Austria, 671, 672 Belgium, 672 Brazil, 691 Bulgaria, 678 Canada, 686, 687 Ceylon, 670 China, 670 Cuba, 692 Denmark, 678 England (1662), 696; (1722), 697; (19th cent. ), 704-707 Europe, 670-686 (19th century), 704-708 Finland, 678 France, 678-683 (1669), 696; (1711-1812), 696-698; (19th cent. ), 707, 708 Buc'hoz's recipe, 708 Germany, 684, 685 Great Britain, 672-678 Greece, 685 India, 670 Italy, 686, 696 Japan, 670 Java, 670 Levant (1691), 696 Martinique, 692 Mexico, 687 Netherlands, 686 New Orleans, 689, 690 New York, 690 Hotel Ambassador, 691 Waldorf-Astoria, 690, 691 New Zealand, 692 Oriental, early, 31, 694, 695 Paris, 670 Panama, 692 Persia, 670 Philippines, 692 Portugal, 686 Scandinavia, 686 Roumania, 686 Russia, 686 Servia, 686 Spain, 686 Switzerland, 686 Turkey, 31, 665, 667, 668 U. S. , 687, 691, 709-723 Jabez Burns' method, 712 Vienna, 670, 671, 672 Brewing process Goldsworthy's (1920), 702 Brews, Composition of, 721 _Brief and merry history of England_, _q. _, 77 _Brief description, etc. , A_, _pamph. _, _ill. _, 70, 71 Briggs, James H. , 477 Briggs & Meehan, 477 Brillat-Savarin, 565; _q. _, 557, 697 Brisbane, _v. _, 316 British E. India Co. , 75, 82, 106, 601 _British Pharmaceut. Codex_, _q. _, 183 Broadbent, Humphrey, _q. _, 293, 618, 697 Broadhurst, (tenor), 582 _Broad-side Against C. , A; or, the Marriage of the Turk_, _q. , ill. _, 69, 70 Broad-sides and pamphlets, 58, 60, 61, 64, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 432, 433, 434 Brock, J. , 503 Brokers Abyssinia, 308, 310 Arabia, 310, 312 New York, 336, 337 (_see also_ Dealers, wholesale) Bronson, Jr. , A. E. , _pat. _, 647 Bronson, Zenos, _pat. _, 245 Bronson-Walton Co. , 647 Brougier, _pat. _, 167 Brown, Agnes, 526 Brown, Arthur W. , 482 Brown, James, 497 Brown, Tom, _q. _, 75, 572, 574 Brown & Jones, 497 Brown & Scott, 497, 499 Brownejohn, William, _chk. _, 118 Browning, Charles H. , _q. _, 126 Bruce, James, _q. _, 693 Bruckman & Co. , L. , 496 "Bruderherz" (Kolschitzky), 51 Bruff, Sr. , Thomas, _pat. _, 468, 621 Brûleau, Café, 106 Bruning, William H. , _pat. _, 653 Bruno, Bishop Joachim, 9 Bubonic-plague boom (1899-1901), 529 Bucararamangas (c. ), 348, 364 Buck, John H. , _q. _, 607 Buckeye (brand), 470 Buc'hoz, Pierre Joseph, _q. _, 708 Budan, Baba, 5, 225 Budenbach, T. O. , 497 Budgell, 576, 578 Buds, beverage from, 694 Buffon, 98 Buitzenzorg c. , 355, 373 _Bukabensis, C. _, 146 Bulfinch, Charles, 113 Bullard & Co. , C. G. , 485 _Bullata, C. _, _hyb. _, 140 Bulson, A. E. J. , _q. _, 182 Bun, 1, 3, 12 Bun safi (cleaned beans), 266 Buna, 41 Bunca, 12, 25 Buncha, 12 Bunchum, 11, 12, 25 Bunchy, 38 Bunge, Edouard, 532, 534 Bunn, 3, 12, 17, 35 Bunn, El, 662 Bunnu, 25, 38 Burbank, Luther, 161 Bureaus Bus. Research (_see_ Harvard) Chemistry, U. S. , 144 Burke, Edmund, 81, 574 Burke, Richard, 573, 574 Burman, _q. _, 183 Burmester, H. W. , 488 Burn, J. H. , _q. _, 62 Burns, A. Lincoln, 526, 527; _q. _, 391, 394 Burns, George, _chk. _, 121 Burns, Henry, 508 Burns, Jabez. , 494, 496, 630; _biog. _, 517, 526; _d. _ (1888), 526, 637; _pat. _, 469, 634, 644, 645; _q. _, 634, 635, 636, 637, 712 Starts _Spice Mill_, _per. _, 470 Burns, Jabez (Mrs. ), 526 Burns Jr. , Jabez, 526, 527 Burns, Robert, 526, 527; _pat. _, 647, 652 Burns, William G. , 526, 527; _pat. _, 652, 653 Burns & Brown, 495 Burns & Sons, Inc. , Jabez, 526 Burr, Aaron, 123 Burstone mills, 637 Burton, Robert, 543, 557; _q. _, 13, 38 Bush Terminal Stores, _ill. _, 322 Bute, Lord, 572 Butler, Dr. , _q. _, 179 Butler, Earhart & Co. , 469, 508 Butler, Crawford & Co. , 508 Button, _chk. _, 575, 578 Buying Abyssinia, 308, 310 Arabia, 310, 312 Brazil, 303-308 Netherlands E. Indies, 312 Buying and selling green c. , 303-312 Byerly, Thomas, 585 Byerley, Sir John, 585 Cabarets à caffè, 33 (_See also_ Coffee houses) Cabarrus, E. T. , 538 Cable-break panic (1884), 528 Cadwallader, _pseud. _, 581 Café à la crème, 708 à la minute, 708 au lait, 691, 696 avec beurre, 683 bonifleur (Guadeloupe), 257 brûleau, 106 complet, 683 con léche, 691 de luxe (Guadeloupe), 257 en parché (Guadeloupe), 257 en pergamino (grade), 261 filtré, 675 gloria, 683 mazagran, 92, 655, 682 melangé, 671 nature, 683 sultan, 658 sultane, 694 _Café, The_, _per. _, 34 _Café, literary, artistic, and commercial, The_, _per. _ (French), 34 _Caféier et le Café, Le_, Jardin, _ill. _, _q. _, 2, 6, 14, 31 32, 33, 629 Cafés Berlin Admiral's, 684 Bauer, _ill. _, 684 Des Westens, 684 "Groessenwahn", 684 Josty's, 684 Kranzler's, _ill. _, 684 Victoria, 684 Hague, The St. Joris, 686 London Gatti's, _ill. _, 675, 677 Kardomah (chain), 675 London Café Co. , 674 Monico, _ill. _, 675, 677 Nero, 674 Pioneer, 677 Popular, 675, 677 Ritz, 678 Trocadero, 657 Naples Toledo, 686 New York Fleischmann's, 690 Paris Paix, de la, 683 Prévost, 683 Régence, de la, 683 Venice Florian's, 686 (_See also_ Coffee houses; Hotels; Restaurants; Taverns) Cafés chantants (_see_ Coffee houses) Caffè, 3 _Caffè, Il_, Belli, 549 _Caffè, Il_ (almanac, 1829), 558 _Caffè, Il_, _per. _, (1764-66), 30, 558 _Caffè, Il_, _per. _, (1850-52), 558 _Caffè, Il_, _per. _, (1884-89), 558 _Caffè Pedrocchi, Il_, _per. _, (1885), 558 Caffearine, 159 Caffein, 159, 161, 162, 166, 167, 175, 176, 179, 182, 437, 711, 718, 721 Analyses for, 172 Chaff contains, 708 Harmless in moderation, 717 Hollingworth's experiments, 187, 188 Loss in roasting, 167 Physiological action, 183-188 _Robusta, C. _, 145 Solubility, 160 Caffein content (_C. Arabica_), 161 Caffein-free c. , _ill. _, 142, 404 Artificial, 161, 162, 163, 721 Natural, 161, 162, 721 Varieties, 147 Caffetannic acid, 158, 159, 166, 174, 721 Analysis for, 173 Lead number, 514 Misnomer, 716, 718, 719 Physiological action, 182 Caffinets (_see_ Coffee houses) Caffeol, 163, 164, 719, 720 Physiological action, 183 Caffeone, 163 Cage, R. H. , 505 Cage & Drew, 505 Cage, Drew & Co. , Ltd. , 505 Cahoa, 1, 2 Cahouah, 15 Cahove, 91 Cahua, 1, 38 Cahue, 1, 2 Cahve, 31 Cahwa, 45 Caleb, Negus, 5 Calkin, Benjamin H. , _pat. _, 652, 702 Calorific value of c. , 180 Calvados, 682 _Campaigning with Grant_, Porter, _q. _, 563 Campbell (chemist), _q. _, 163 Campbell, _chk. _, 576 Campbell, Charles, 482 Campbell's _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, _q. _, 570 Campen, Christopher, _q. _, 12 Canadian Bank of Commerce, 488 Canby, Edward, 509 Canby, Frank L. , 509 Canby, Ach & Canby, 508, 509 Candle, Sales by, 571 _Canephora, C. _ Botanical description, 145 Caffein content, 161 Ceylon, 236 Java, 216 Varieties, 146 Cannon & Co. , F. , 485 Canova, 28, 29 Cans (_see_ Containers) Cantatas Bach's, _q. _, _ill. _, 595-599 Fuzelier's, music by Bernier, _q. _, 594 Cantino, Cesare, 549 Caouhe, 2 Caova, 2, 26, 41 Caphe, 1, 38 Capodimonte c. -pot, 607 Capitazias, 306 (_See_ Porthandling charges) Capuchin, Café, 683 Caracanda Frères, 338 Caracas c. , 348, 364 Caracol (grade), 261 Caracollilo (grade), 264 Caramel in c. , 718 Carazo, Padre, 225 Carbohydrates, 165 Cardamom in c. , 657, 696, 709 Caret, _q. _, 555 Carey, 80, 576 Carey & Co. , 480 Cargoes Damaged, 321, 322 Record (Brazil to U. S. ), 315, 316 Carhart & Bro. , 482 Carit & Co. , S. A. , 487 Carjat, 103 _Carmen Caffaeum_, Massieu, _q. _, 543-547 Carne, John, _q. _, 668-670 Carnegie, Andrew, 521 Carpenter, Samuel, 126 Carr, Chase & Raymond, 501 Carret & Co. , J. E. , 340 Carruthers, 549 Carson & Co. , W. K. , 485 Carte, D'Oyly, 678 Carter, James, _pat. _, 469 Carter, James W. , 494; _pat. _, _q. _, 629 Carter Bros. & Co. , 507 Carter, Macy & Co. , 480 Carter, Mann & Co. , 501 Cartons (_see_ Containers) Casanas, Ben. C. , 503, 513, 535; _q. _, 415 Case, Howard E. , 496 Caseneuve, _pat. _, 623, 699 Casilla (grade), 261 Castel, _q. _, 548 Castle Bros. , 488 Caswell, George W. , 505, 506 Caswell Co. , George W. , 506 _Catalog, Hudson-Fulton Celebration_, _q. _, 607, 609 _Catalogue of the Rarities to be seen at Adam's_, 559 _Catalogue of Traders' Tokens_, Burn, _q. _, 62 Catch crops, 203 Cauchois, Frederick A. , 498, 701; _pat. _, 472, 645, 649, 651 Cauphe, 38 Cavanaugh, Rearuck & Co. , 502 Cave, 31 Caveah, 2 Cavee, 26 Cavekane, 32 Cazeneuve, _q. _, 159 Celebes c. , 355, 374 Centlivre, Susannah, _q. _, 554 Central American coffee San Francisco's fight for trade, 489-491 Central Americans (c. ), 347, 359-361 Certified Java and Mocha (brand), 524 Ceylons (c. ), 351, 352, 370 Chaa (tea), 35 Chabert, Josephine, 518 Chabraeus, 543 Chaff Removal deprecated, 714 Rich in caffein and aroma, 708 Chain-stores, 415, 417, 418 Chamber of Commerce (New York), 119, 120 Chamberlain, George A. , _q. _, 563 Chamberlain, Orville W. , _pat. _, 652 Chamberlaine, John, _q. _, 432 Champmeslé, 91 Champney, Elizabeth W. , _q. _, 563 Chaouah, 1, 2, 35 Chaova, 41 Chapin, Harold, 556, 563 Chapman, D. J. , 501 Chapman, J. W. , _pat. _, 649 _Character of a coffee house, The_ (broadside) _q. _, 66-68 Characteristics Complete reference table, 358-378 Governing influences, 156 Green and roasted, 341-378 Leading growths (chart), 191 Charcoal, C. Classed as, 20 Charles II, 20, 41, 59, 71, 72, 74, 82, 109, 554 Proclamation against c. Houses, 73 Charlet, 593 Chase, Caleb, 501 Chase & Co. , Geo. C. , 499 Chase & Sanborn, 435, 470, 471, 485, 498, 501 Chase, Raymond & Ayer, 501 Chatfield-Taylor, H. C. , _q. _, 556 Chatterton, Thomas, 80, 85, 88 Chattopádhyáya Virendranath, _q. _, 1, 2 Chaube, 2, 25, 41 Checking the roast, 387, 391 Cheek, Joel O. , 509, 513, 515 Cheek-Neal Coffee Co. , 443, 509 Cheek, Norton & Neal, 509 Cheetham, Jr. , William H. , 501 Chelsea bunhouse (London), 560 Chemical analysis Bean, 171-173 Beverage, 714 Chemistry, 155-173 U. S. Bureau of, 338, 391, 396 Cheribon c. , 355, 373 Chess in c. Houses, 96, 98, 104 Chesterfield, Lord, 576 Chesterton, Gilbert K. , 553 Chestnut, _q. _, 155 Chevalier, Aug. , 142 Cheyne, George, _q. _, 59 Chiapas c. , 345, 358 Chibouk, 663 Chicago Liquid Sack Co. , 471 Chicago Theatre Society, 555 Chicory Botanical description, 170 Chemical analysis, 170 Extracts of c. , use in, 109 First use (Holland, 1750), 170 Introduced into U. S. (1785), 468 Microscopic exam. , 152, 153 Substitute for c. , 46 Chicory in coffee, 404 France, 678 Great Britain, 673 Paris and Vienna, 670, 671 Scandinavia, 686 Children, effect on, 177, 178 Childs (grocer, St. Louis), 631 China & Java Export Co. , 488 Chlorogenic acid. 718, 719 Choate, Joseph H. , 690 Chocolate Discovery of, 12 Introduction into North Am. , 106 Prices, London (1662), 59 Sold in London (1657), 56 Sold in London c. Houses, 41, 61, 78, 80 Chocolate Cream (brand), 441 Chocolate houses (_see_ Coffee houses) Chocolate pots, 609 Cholera, effect on, 181 Chops Brazil, 306 New York, 321 _Chréstomathie Arabe_, de Sacy _q. _, 2, 17, 663 Christian beverage, 26 Chronology, A coffee, 725-737 Chubuck & Saunders, 508 Churchill, 579, 580 Churchill & Co. , Frederick A. , 502 Cibber, Colley, 579; _q. _, 575, 577 Cinnamon in c. , 105, 696, 709 Cinnamon roast, 388 Cincinnati, Society of the, 120 Cincinnati Spice Mills, 503 Cipriani, 84, 583 _City, The_, _q. _, 86 City Coffee Works, 492 _City Directory, New York_ (1848, 1854), _q. _, 494 (1861) _q. _, 496 City Dock Co. (Santos, Brazil), 303 City roast, 388 Clarification, 704, 705 Clark, Ammi, _pat. _, 625 Clark, Charles A. , 506, 514 Clark & Host Co. , 506 Clarke Bros. & Co. , 508 Clay bowls, 616 Cleaning machinery, 246, 248, 257, 383, 385 Hungerford's patents, 644 Clearing Ass'n, N. Y. Exch. , 331, 335 Clearwater, Judge, 609 Clement VIII, Pope, 26 Climate, Best for c. , 198 Closset, Emile, 507 Closset, Joseph, 507 Closset & Devers, 507 Closset Bros. , 507 Cloves in c. , 696, 709 Clubs Boston First, 111 Merchants, 111 London Court de Bone Compagnie, 60 Evolution of, 75 Hanover, 577 Literary, 583 London coffee-house Bread Street, 60 Devil Tavern, 60 Friday Street, 60 Mermaid Tavern, 60 Rota, 59, 60, 583 Turk's Head, 81 Turk's Head Society, 583 White's, 87 New York Coffee House, 690 South America, 690 Phila. , supersede c. Houses, 130 _Clubs and Club Life in London_, Timbs, _q. _, 570-585 Coal roasting, 385, 386 Coarse (_see_ Grinds) Coated c. Rulings (U. S. ) against, 337 Coatepec c. , 345, 358 Coating, 166, 396 Condemned by N. C. R. A. , 513 Reasons for, 170 Coatzacoalcos c. , 345, 358 Coava, 36 Cobáns (c. ), 347, 359 Cobbett, William, _q. _, 561, 562 Cochrane, _q. _, 185 Cocoa, first used in Europe, 25 Coffa, 2, 36, 38 Coffalic acid, 719 Coffao, 2 Coffe, 2 _Coffee_, Keable, _q. _, 181, 182 _Coffee, A short historical account of_, Bradley, 42 _Coffee and Repartee_, Bangs, _q. _, 564, 565 _Coffee Book, The_, _q. _, 714 _Coffee cantata_, Bach, 46 Coffee Club (U. S. ), 453 _Coffee Club, The_, _per. _, _q. _, 177 _Coffee from Plantation to Cup_, Thurber, _q. _, 182, 712 _Coffee Grinding and Brewing_, N. C. R. A. , 715 Coffee house, most beautiful, 599 _Coffee house, The_ (comedy) Rosseau, 88 _Coffee house, The new and curious_, _per_, 45 _Coffee house or newsmongers' hall_, (broadside), 68, 69 Coffee-house keepers, London Proposed newspaper monopoly, 74 Tokens, _ill. _, 56, 62, 74, 89, 582, 602, 603 Coffee houses, 293 Advantages, 72 Algeria, 656 Arabia, 658 Augsburg, first (1713), 45 Berlin Arnoldi, 45 City of Rome, 45 English, 45 Falck's (Jewish), 45 First (1721), 45 Miercke, 45 Royal, 45 Schmidt, 45 Widow Doebbert's, 45 Boston, 108-113 American, 108, 111 Auctions held in, 112 British, 108 Crown, _ill. _, 108 Exchange, 112, 113 First, 108 Green Dragon, _ill. _, 109, 110, 111 Gutteridge, 108 London, 108, 116, 467 North-End, 112 Royal Exchange, 112 Stage coaches start from, 110, 112 Washington, 110 Brazil, 691 Cairo, number (17th century), 26 Chicago Exchange, 106 Lake Street, 106 Washington, 106 Constantinople, 663-667 Prices (1554), 19 Damascus, 668-670 First, 19 Gate of Salvation, 19 Roses, 19 Egypt, 656, 657 England First (1650), 41, 53 Decline, 75 Ordered suppressed, 72, 73 Proclamation by Charles II, 73 Proclamation rescinded, 73 Europe, first, 27 Exeter (Devon) Mol's, 42 France, 33, 682, 684 Germany, 683, 684 First (1675), 45 Hamburg, first (1675), 45 Italy, 27, 28 First, 27, 686 Leipzig, first (1694), 45 London, 53-89 Adam's (and museum), 559, 560 Baker's, 87 Baltic, 87 Batson's, 78 Bedford, 80, 84, 88, 576, 579, 580 Blue Hall, 575 Bowman's, 83 British, _ill. _, 79, 86 Button's, _ill. _, 80, 81, 83, 84, 570, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 593 Caledonien, _ill. _, 84, 593 Chapter, 78, 80, 88, 582 Child's, 78, 88, 560, 582 Cocoa-Tree, 78, 79, 87, 560 Decline of, 61, 62, 81, 82, 674, 675 Dick's, _ill. _, 87, 88, 555, 572 Dish of Coffee Boy, _ill. _, 603 Don Saltero's, _ill. _, 80, 86, 88, 558 Museum, 559 Edinburgh Castle, 75 Farr's, 54 Fire of 1666, 61, 62 First (1652), 42, 53, 54, 293 Folly (house-boat), 89 Garraway's (or Garway's) _ill. _, 56, 77, 80, 83, 561, 570, 571, 572 Gaunt's, 588 George's, 584, 585 Giles's, 560 Grecian, _ill. _, 61, 77, 80, 85, 560, 584 Groom's, 572 Hamlin's, 78 Jacob's, 42 Jamaica, 83 Jenny Man's, 560 Jerusalem, 88 Joe's, 571 Jonathan's, 88, 554, 560, 572 Little Man's, 79, 88 Lloyd's, _ill. _, 75, 80, 85, 572 London 88, 582 Man's, 61, 88 Miles's, 583 Nando's, 80, 88, 572, 585 New England and North and South American, 88 New Lloyd's, 86 New Man's, 88 New Slaughter's, 84 News centers, use as, 77 North's, 78 Number (1715), 74 Old Man's, 77, 79, 88 Old Slaughter's, 84 "On the Pavement", 583 Rosée's, 42 Peele's, 80, 88, 585 "Penny universities", 3 Percy, 89, 585 Piazza, 80, 89, 581 Piazza coffee room, 580, 581 Rainbow, 62, 77, 89, 572 Read's, 74 Red Cow, 83, 574 Robins's, 63 Robinson's, 570 Rochford's, Mrs. , 79 Rose, 84, 574 Royal Swan (and museum), 559 Second, 54 Shakespeare, 84 Slaughter's, _ill. _, 80, 84, 85, 580, 583, 584, 593 Smyrna, 79, 80, 89, 573 Squire's, 86 St. James's, 75, 78, 79, 80, 88, 558, 560, 562, 573, 574, 588 Stone's, 675 Thomas's, 84 Tiltyard, 78 Tom King's, 89, 581 Tom's, _ill. _, 80, 85, 575, 576, 579, 580, 593 Turk's Head, 56, 59, 80, 81, 89, 582, 583 Turk's Head, Canada and Bath, 583 Virginia, 83 Welch (Daniels), 78 White's, _ill. _, 79, 87, 558, 587, 588 Burned (1733), 587 Widow Hambledon's, 575 Williams's, 78 Will's, 77, 79, 80, 83, 558, 560, 574, 575, 588 Young Man's, 78, 79, 88 Marseilles, first (1671), 32 Mecca Opposition, 17 Relicensed, 18 Milan Demetrio, 30 Netherlands, 44, 686 New England, 107-113 New Orleans, 106 New York, 115-124 Auctions held at, 118 Bank, 121, 124 Burns, _ill. _, 117, 121 City, 119 Civic forums, use as, 115, 117, 118, 120 Directory, use as, 120 Double R. , 690 Exchange, 118, 119 Exchange coffee room, 120 Exchanges, use as, 117, 118, 119, 120, 123 First (1696), 116 Decline, 123 Gentlemen's Exchange, 118 Keen and Lightfoot's, 120 King's Arms, _ill. _, 116, 117, 118, 121, 467 Merchants, _ill. _, 115, 118, 119, 122, 123, 593 Birthplace of Union (1774), 474 Congress of Deputies Suggested, 120 Memorial tablet (1914), 473, 474 Organizations meeting therein, 120 New, 117, 118 New England and Quebec, 121 New York, 120 Pequot, 611 Social centers, use as, 115 Tontine, _ill. _, 120, 121, 123, 593 Whitehall, 121 Nuremburg, first (1696), 45 Oxford Jacob's, 41, 53 Jobson's, 41 Tillyard's, 41 Padua: Pedroechi, _ill. _, 29, 30, 599 Paris, 91-104 Alcazar d'Hiver, 98 Anglais, 103 Bonnard's, 98 Beauvilliers', 102 Chartres, 102 Chat Noir, 104 Concert du XIX Siécle, 98 Concert Européen, 98 Des Mille Collonnes, _ill. _, 99 Development of. 94, 96 Durand, 104 Dutch, 103 Eldorado, 98 English, 103 Février's, 102 First (1672), 291, 670 Folles Bobino, 98 Foy, _ill. _, 97, 100 Gaieté, 98 Grand Commun, 102 Gregory's, 93 Guerbois, 104 Laurent, 103, 554 Lefévre's, 96 Le Gantois's, 93 Littéraire, 103 Madrid, 103 Magny's, 94, 96, 102 Maire's, 103 Maison Dorée, 103 Makara's, 93 Maliban's, 93 Mapinot, 102 Massé's, 102 Méot's, 102 Momus, 100 Number of, 93 (1843), 94 Paix, de la, 103 Pascal's (Fair of St. Germain), 33, 92 Paris, _ill. _, 101, 103 Procope, _ill. _, 94, 95, 98, 566 Rambuteau, 98 Régence, 96, 98 Riche, 103, 104 Rocher de Cancale, 104 Rotonde, 100, 102 Royal Drummer, _ill. _, 94 Stephen's, 93 Terre's, 103 Tortoni, 103 Tour d'Argent, 94 Trois Frères Provençaux, 102 Vachette, 102 Venua's, 102 Véry, 102 Voisin, 103 Persia, 21 Philadelphia, 125-130 Decline of, 130 Exchange (proposed), 130 Scene from _Hamilton_, _ill. _, 556 Exchanges, use as, 128 First (1700), 126 James, 127 London, _ill. _, 125, 126 Slave auctions, _ill. _, 128 Sunday closing, 129 Swearing, gaming, etc. , prohibited, 128 London (2nd), _ill. _, 127 Merchants, 125, 129, 130 Roberts', 127 Social centers, use as, 125, 130 Ye coffee house, 125, 126, 467 Post-office, use as, 126 Portugal, 686 Regensburg: first (1689), 45 Santo Domingo, first (1738), 34 Spain, 686 St. Louis: Leonhard's, 105 Stuttgart: first (1712), 45 Turkey, 32, 663-670 Closed, 20 Reopened, 21 United States (1700), 708 Venice, Abbondanza, 28 Angelo Custode, 28 Arabo-Piastrelle, 28 Arco Celeste, 28 Aurora Plante d'oro, 28 Buon genio-Doge, 28 Coraggio-Speranza, 28 Dame Venete, 28 Ducca di Toscana, 28 Florian, _ill. _, 27, 28, 29, 555 Fontane di Diana, 28 Imperatore Imperatrice della Russia, 28 Menegazzo, 28 Orfeo, 28 Pace, 28 Pitt. L'eroe, 28 Ponte dell' Angelo, 27 Quadri, 28 Redentore, 28 Re di Francia, 28 Regina d'Ungheria, 28 Spaderia, 27 Tamerlano, 28 Venezia trionfante, 28 Vienna, 671, 672 Blue Bottle, 50, 590 First, 51, 590 Kolschitzky's, 50 Mosee's, Franz, 51 Number of (1839), 52 Sacher, 50 Schrangl, 671 _Coffee houses vindicated_, _pamph. _, _q. _, 71, 72 _Coffee, Its History, Cultivation and Uses_, Hewitt, 480 Coffee kings First (Germany), 47 (U. S. ), 517 Last (U. S. ), 518 Coffee-makers' guild of Vienna, 51 _Coffee man's granado, The_ (Broad-side), 66 Coffee palaces (_see_ Coffee-houses) Coffee Pep (brand), 539 Coffee pots (_see_ Service) Coffee Roaster & Mill Mfg. Co. , 497 Coffee Roasters Traffic and Pure Food Association, 473 Coffee rooms (Norway), 686 _Coffee scuffle, The_ (broadside), _q. _, 64 Coffee shops (houses), London, 674 Coffee-smellers (Germany), 47 _Coffee, tea, and chocolate, Concerning the use of_, Dufour, 34 _Coffee, tea, and chocolate, The manner of making_, Dufour, 34 Coffee tree, Kentucky, 564 Coffee water (rosa-folis), 695 Coffey, 41 Coffi, 2 Cognac in c. , 106, 686 Cogollo & Co. , 34 Coho, 1, 2, 38 Cohoo, 2 Cohove, 91 Cohu, 2 Coit & Son, Henry, 476 Coke roasting, 385, 386 Colaux & Cie, _pat. _, 625 Cole & Son, Stephen, 476 Coles Manufacturing Co. , 472, 646 Colet M. H. , _q. _, 594 Colgate, Charles C. , 492 Colgate, Samuel, 492 _Collection of Voyages and Travels, A_, _q. _ 23 Collins, William, 580 Coloring substances, 170 Colombians (c. ), 348-350, 363, 364 Colpani, 558 Columbia University, 186 _Columbian Centinel_, _newsp. _, _q. _, 434 _Columnaris, C. _, _hyb. _, 140 Comité Français du Café, 445 Commaille, _q. _, 165 Commercial Ass'n, Santos, 314 Commercial coffee chart, 191 Commercial Coffee Co. , 478 _Commercial Organic Analysis_, _q. _, 159 Commissario, 303, 304, 305, 306, 312, 491 Commissions New York, 334, 336 Santos, 304 Committee of Correspondence, 120, 474 Committee of One Hundred (1774), 120 Commonwealth and c. , 54, 59 Competition, retail, 426 Complet, Café, 683 Compton (Bishop of London), 570 Condorcet, 94 Confectionery, C. , 695 _Confessions_, Rousseau, 102 _Congensis, C. _, 147 _Congensis var. Chalotii_, 147 _Congensis_ × _Ugandæ_, _hyb. _, 146 Congo, Belgian, c. , 353, 377 Congo coffee, caffein content, 161 Congress of Deputies, 120 Conkling & Lloyd, 476 Con léche, Café, 691 _Connoisseur_ (London), _per. _, _q. _, 579 Conopios, Nathaniel, 40, 41, 43 _Conquest of Granada_, Dryden's (censured by Rota), 60 Conrad & Co. , J. H. , 502 Consolidated Coffee Co. , 508 Consortium of 1868, 476 Constantine, George, _chk. _, 61, 84, 584 (_See_ Jennings, George) _Constantinople, Illustrated_, Walsh, _q. _, 663, 664 _Constantinople in 1657, Relation of a Journey to_, Rolamb, _q. _, 23 _Constantinople, Old and New_, Dwight, _q. _, 664-667 Constituents of c. , Valuable, 693 _Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens_, Gilbert, _q. _, 40 Consumo (grade), 261 Consumption, 285-302 Argentina, 279, 286, 287, 291 Australia, 286, 287, 291 Balkan States, 290 Belgium, 285, 287 Canada, 286, 287 Chile, 286, 287, 291 Colombia, 278 Cuba, 286, 287, 291 Denmark, 287, 290 Europe (19th Century), 295, 296 Federated Malay States, 284 France, 285, 287, 290 Average annual, 678 Germany, 285, 287, 290 Great Britain, 285, 287 Guiana, French, 279 Italy, 285, 287, 290 Mexico, 280 Netherlands, 285, 287, 290 New Zealand, 285, 287, 291 Norway, 287, 290 Peru, 278 Portugal (1919), 290 Russia, 285, 287, 291 Salvador, 280 San Francisco, 487 Scandinavia, 285, 290 Spain, 285, 287, 290 Sweden, 287, 290 Switzerland, 285, 287, 290, 291 Table of World, 287 Tea and c. Comparisons, 288, 289 Union of South Africa, 286, 287, 291 United States, 106, 285, 287, 288, 293, 294 Popularity explained, 106 Prohibition; effect on, 689 World-war; effect on, 297 Venezuela, 278 Consumption per capita Foreign countries, 288-290 Groix, Island of, 176 Tables, 288 United States, 298, 299, 476 Methods of computing, 302 Containers, 402-404, 408-412, 470, 471 First paper and tin-end, 471 First strawboard (1881), 471 Leather bags, greased (1710), 620 Pots of various sizes (1790), 491, 492 Standardizing, 410 Vacuum, 471 Conti, Prince de, 590 Contracts, 329, 331 Cost-and-freight, 513, 515 In-store, 331 N. Y. Exchange, 333-335 To arrive, 335 Controversies England, 64-74 Commercial, U. S. , 438 Medical, Eng. , 58, 59 Political, Eng. (1666-72), 72, 73, 76 (_See also_ Opposition; Coffee houses) Conway, Charles, 499 Cooling, 381, 636, 641 Cooling machinery, 394, 395 Cooling machines Burns's flexible-arm, 652, 653 Emmerich automatic (1897), 639 German patents (1877-85), 638 Grohens's rotary, 646 Cook, O. F. , _q. _, 202, 223 Cooper, Charles, _q. _, 675 Cooper, Cornelius, 492 Cooper, L. S. , 495 Cooper & Co. , Nathaniel, 476 Coorg c. , 351, 379 Copha, 1, 2, 38 Cophie, 56, 58 Cophy, 56 Coppée, François, 565 Cordoba c. , 347, 358 Corinchies c. , 355, 371 _Corner in Coffee, The_, Brady, 563 Corners Arnold's (1869-1881), 517, 518 Blanco's (1895), 529 Kaltenbach's (1891-92), 476, 529 United States (1901), 530 Corn-poppers for roasting, 635 Correa & Sons, F. A. , 338 Corbett, Barney, 503 Corbett & Heekin, 503 Corbin, May & Co. , 485 Corinna (Mrs. E. Thomas), 575 Cornell & Smith, 508 Cost card for roasters, 392 Cost analysis, 407, 408 Retail, 418 Cost and freight brokers, 336, 337 Cost and profits, retail, 426, 427 Chart 428 Costa Ricas (c. ), 348, 361 Coste, Felix, 448, 457, 514 Cotovicus, 32, 696; _q. _, 20 Cottraux, E. P. , 505 Cottrell, 496 Couha, 2 Couguet, Dr. A. , _q. _, 26 Coventry, Sir William, _q. _, 72 Cowha, 2 Cowha, 2 Cowper, William, 88, 557; _q. _, 550, 572 Cradle of Am. Liberty, 293 Cramer. P. J. S. , _q. _, 133, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146, 147, 345 Crampton, G. E. , 501 Crawford, Thomas A. , 505 Crawley, Edwin, _pat. _, 642 Cream in c. , 399, 698 Crébilon, 94 Credit policy, retail, 428, 429 Creighton, Clarence, 477 Creighton & Ashland, 477 Creighton, Morrison & Meehan, 477 Creme, Café à la, 708 Crepaux, 708 Cripps, _q. _, 602 Crispe, Sir Nicholas, 54 Crocker, Nathaniel, 508 Cromwell, Henry, 575 Cromwell, Oliver, 72 Crooks & Co. , Robert, 485 Crooks & Co. , Samuel, 501 Cross & Co. , C. A. , 642 Crossman, George W. , 482, 518, 519 Crossman, W. H. , 482, 518, 519 Crossmnn & Bro. , W. H. , 482, 484, 518, 530 Crossman & Sielcken, 482, 519, 521 Crossman-Sielcken contract, 519 Crouse & Co. , Jacob, 508 Cruger, Henry, 475 Cruger, John, 475 Crusade (brand), 435 Cubans (c. ), 351, 361 Cucuras (c. ), 348, 349, 364 Cuchaletto (chocolate), 107 Sold in Boston (1670), 107 Culapius, S. , _pseud. _, _q. _, 181 Culbreth, _q. _, 181 Cultivation, 197-243 Crop maturity, 138 Early, 197 Spread of, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 (_see also_ Propagation) Cultivation (geographical) Abyssinia, 1 Africa, British Central, 9 Africa, British East, 9 Amazonas (began 1752), 9 Angola, 229 Arabia, 2, 5, 230, 231 Began (A. D. 575), 5, 230 Argentina, 236 Australia, 9, 238, 239 Bolivia, 236 Bourbon (Réunion), 9 Brazil, 9, 74, 75, 204-208, 275 Profits (1900), 205 California, Southern, 9 Celebes (began 1750), 9, 217, 283 Ceylon, 236, 237 Begun by Arabs (before 1505), 6, 43 Begun by Dutch (1658), 6, 43 Systematic (1690), 282 Colombia, 208-212 Costa Rica, 9, 135, 225, 280 Cuba, 9, 231, 232 Dominican Republic, 232 Ecuador, 230 Federated Malay States, 238 Fiji Islands, 243 France, 6 Guadeloupe, 233, 234 Guam, 242, 243 Guatemala, 9, 135, 219, 220 Guiana, British, 235, 236, 279 Guiana, Dutch, 235, 236, 279 Guiana, French, 235, 236 Haiti, 9, 220 Hawaii, 9, 239, 241 Honduras, 234 Honduras, British, 234, 235 Indo-China, French, 9, 237 India, 5, 9, 225-227, 282 Jamaica, 9, 74, 233 Java, 9, 43, 74, 213, 293 Liberia, 230 Martinique, 6, 7, 8, 9, 233 Mexico, 9, 220, 221, 222, 280 U. S. Interest, 221 Netherlands, 5, 6 Netherlands E. Indies, 6, 213-217, 283 New Caledonia, 243 Nicaragua, 227 Panama, 235 Pará, 9 Paraguay, 236 Peru, 236 Philippines, 9, 241, 242 Porto Rico, 9, 222, 223, 225 Queensland, 9 Rio de Janeiro, 9 Salvador, 217, 219, 279 Santo Domingo, 9 São Paulo, 205-208 South America (first), 279 Straits Settlements, 238 Sumatra, 216, 217, 283 Tahiti, 243 Tobago, 234 Tonkin, 9 Trinidad, 234 Uganda, 230 United States, 9 Venezuela, 9, 212, 213, 277 West Indies, 9 Western Hemisphere (first), 294 Cultured (brand), 474 Culver & Geiger, 509 Cumberland, _q. _, 573, 574 Cummings, W. A. , 496 Cunningham, 583 _Cup of c. , or c. In its colours, A_ (broadside), _q. _, 64 Cup-testing, 356, 357 San Francisco, 487, 488 Curaçoa c. , 351, 363 Cure-all, 58 Cure for drunkenness, 58, 61 _Curiosities of Literature_, D'Israeli, _q. _, 41 Curtis & Burnham, 508 Curtis Publishing Co. , 441 Cushing, _q. _, 179 _Customs and Fashions in Old New England_, Earle, _q. _, 709 Custom-house procedure, New York, 319 Cutler, Benjamin, 492 Cuyler, Philip, 475 C. W. (brand), 441 Cyrill, Patriarch, 40, 41 da Ponte, Lorenzo, 28 Dagoty, 589, 590 Dahlman, Henry, 506 Dahlman, John, 506 _Daily Post_ (Lond. ), _newsp. _, _q. _, 588 Dakin, Elizabeth, _pat. _, 633 Dakin, William, _pat. _, 633 Dakin & Co. , 633 Dakotan, _v. _, 316 D'Alembert, _q. _, 3 Dally, Gifford, 128 Dana, John Cotton, _q. _, 712 Dancourt, _q. _, 554 Daney, Sidney, _q. _, 8 Daniel, _chk. _, 78 Dannemiller, A. J. , _q. _, 409 Coffee-selling chart, 409 Dannemillers & Co. , 484 Danton, George Jaques, 94, 98 _Danvers' Letters_, _q. _, 2 d'Argenson, De Voyer, 594 Dark roast, 356, 387 Darouf (Arabian bale), 266 d'Arvieux, Chevalier, _q. _, 2 Dash, Bowie, 479, 497, 527 Dash, J. Bowie, 497 Dash & Co. , Bowie, 469, 477, 528 Dater, Henry, 482 Dater, Philip, 482 Dater & Co. , Philip, 482 Dauchet, 554 Daudet, Alphonse, 103 Daughty, Charles, M. , _q. _, 661-663 Daugleish, Dr. , 677 Dauphine of France, 600 Davenant, Sir William, 80, 576 Davenport & Morris, 485 David, 13 Davies, Tom, 567, 568 Davies & Co. , John L. , 502 Davies & Co. , Ltd. , Theo. H. , 488 Davis, S. L. , 499 Davis & Co. , Noah, 501 Dawson, August T. , _q. _, 711, 712 Dayton & Co. , 480 Dayton Spice Mills, 443 Dayton Spice Mills Co. , 508 De Belloy, Jean Baptiste, _inv. _, 94, 621, 622, 697, 698 de Boze, _q. _, 543 de Bussy, Th. Roland, _q. _, 656 de Chirac, 6 de Clieu, Mathieu Gabriel, 6, 7, 8, 233, 550 Memorial to, 9 Verses about, 8 Voyage to Martinique, 6, 7 _De Constantinople à Bombay, Lettres_, Della Valle, _q. _, 12 de Coverley, Sir Roger, 86 De Fremery & Co. , 488 de Goncourt, Jules, 102, 103 de Gourcuff, O. , 557 de Jour, Rouillé, 8 de Jussieu, Antoine, 6 _De la Café_, de Gourcuff, 557 de la Motte, Houdard, 554 De Lancey house, New York, 121 de Lannay, Count, 47 de Laval, Pyrard, _q. _, 2 de l'Écluse, Charles, 31 De Lessert & Co. , J. S. , 476 De Lima, D. A. , 482 De Lima, D. A. & J. , 482 De Lima & Co. , D. A. , 482 De Luxe, Café (Guadeloupe), 257 de Mattei, Natale, _pat. _, 653 De Mattia, _pat. _, 166 De Mattia Bros. , 686 de Maupassant, Guy, 565 de Mere, Mlle. , 91 de Monteith, Fulbert, _q. _, 22 de Musset, Alfred, 98, 102, 565; _q. _, 103 de Noailles, Duke, 567 de Nointel, 542 De Quincey, Thomas, _q. _, 562 de Pompadour, _ill. _, 588, 600 de Rabutin-Chantal, Marie, 91 de Sacy, Baron Antoine Isaac Silvestre, 17; _q. _, 2, 663 _De Saluberrimá Cahue seu Café_, etc. , Nairon, 16 de Santais, Edward Loysel, _pat. _, 629 De Sarlo, _q. _, 186 de Saxe, Marie-Josephe, 600 de Sévigné, Madame, 91, 565 de Thévenot, Jean, 31, 91 de Tournemine, 591 de Wildman, M. E. , _q. _, 132 Dealers, Wholesale New Orleans, 486, 487 New York, 475-482 Dearman, Richard, _pat. _, 621 Decaffeinated (_see_ Caffein-free) Declaration of Independence, 111 Decoction defined, 698 Decreuse, 589 Deep Sea Hotel (Arbuckle's), 524 Deer Co. , A. J. , 443, 472, 473, 643, 646 Defendorf, George, 492 Deffes, 594 Defoe, Daniel, 80; _q. _, 78, 79 Dehio, 186 del Castillo & Co. , Rafael, 340 Delafield, Henry, 476 Delafield, William, 476 Delille, Jacques, _q. _, 547 Dell, John C. , _pat. _, 644 Della Valle, Pierre (Pietro), 543; _q. _, 2, 12, 27 Delphine, Sr. , _pat. _, 639 Demidoff, Prince, 103 Democracy, Coffee and, 20, 21, 54, 72, 75, 293 Am. Colonies, 107 Boston, 111 England, 59 France, 100 Italy, 28 Demonstrations, etc. , Store, 425 Dennis, 575 Denobe, _pat. _, 621 Deodorant, 58, 180 Department stores, 415 Des Arts & Henser, 476 _Des Dames du Temps Jadis_, Villon, _q. _, 135 Descamps, 591 Desmoulins, Camille, 94, 100 Desserts, recipes, 723, 724 Destrée, _q. _, 186 Desvignes, _pat. _, 157 Detroit Testing Laboratories, 715 Developing point, 389 Deverall, R. R. & A. 501 Devers, A. H. , 507 _Dewevrei, C. _, 142 Java, 214 Diarrhea, effect of c. On, 181 _Diary_, Jourdain, _q. _, 1 _Diary and Correspondence_, Evelyn, _q. _, 40 Dickinson, Gilchrist, 476 _Dictionary_, d'Alembert, _q. _, 3 _Dictionary_, d'Arvieux, _q. _, 2 _Dictionary of Applied Chemistry_, _q. _, 164 _Dictionary, New English_, Murray, _q. _, 1 _Dictionary, Universal_, _q. _, 176 Diderot, Denis, 94; _q. _, 96, 98 Dieckmann & Co. , 488 Diefenthaler, Charles E. , 497 Diefenthaler, T. F. , 497 Dietl, 186 Dietz, F. C. , 508 Digestion, effect of c. On, 175, 177, 178-180 Diligence (infusion device), 620 Dilworth & Co. , J. S. , 507 Dilworth Bros. , 435, 507 Dimond & Gardes, 482 Dimond & Lally, 480, 482 Direct-flame roasting, 386, 641 Discovery of c. (_see_ Origin) Diseases and pests, 147, 148, 152, 203, 204 C. -berry beetle, 203 C. -leaf miner, 147, 203 Eel-worm disease, 204 Fungoid, 147, 148, 203 _Hemileia vastatrix_, 148, 152, 203 Insects, 203 Leaf blight Ceylon 203, 236, 237, 282, 283 Dominican Rep. , 281 Hawaii (1855), 241 India, 226 Philippines (1889), 242 _Pellicularia tokeroga_, 148 Root disease, 148, 204 _Sphaerostilbe flavida_, 204 Spot of leaf and fruit, 148 D'Israeli, I. , 557: _q. _, 41, 53, 72, 91 Distillation devices Napier-List (1891), 639 Napierian (1870), 639 Napier's vacuum (1840), 637 Wyatt's patent (1802), 621 Ditson, Thomas, _pat. _, 245 Dittman, Charles, 486 Dittman, Jr. , Charles, 487 Dittman Co. , Chas. , 486, 487 Divination by coffee grounds, 558 Divorce, C. And, 22 Doane & Co. , J. W. , 482, 484, 485 Dolton & Co. , Wm. , 508 _Domestick Coffee Man_, Broadbent, _q. _, 293, 697 Dominguez, Andres, 221 Donaldson, 578 Donovan, Prof. , _q. _, 704 Donmartin, _inv. _, 620, 697 Donns, _q. _, 8 Doolittle, _q. _, 167 Doran, John, _q. _, 705 Dorn, R. H. , 505 Dorr, S. H. , 535 Dorsay, Benjamin, 468 Dorset, Earl of, 584 Double roasting, 387 Douglas, James (Bishop of Salisbury), 42, 543, 574 Downer, Samuel A. , 502 Downer & Co. , 501, 502 Downtown Association, New York, 517 Drake, Samuel Gardner, _q. _, 108, 116 Drake & Co. , W. D. , 507 Dramatic Literature, C. In, 554-556 Draper & Co. , John H. , 482 Dressing machinery, 245 Drew, J. C. , 505 Drink (_see_ Beverage) Drinksum (brand), 524 Droste, H. R. , 503 Drouais, François Hubert, 589, 599 Drug stores, C. Sold in, 415 Drums (_see_ Containers) Drupes (_see also_ Botany; Fruit), 136 Dry method, 136, 249, 251 Dry roast, 389, 391 Dryden, John, 60, 77, 78, 80, 84, 574, 575, 583, 584 Drying, 251 Drying grounds, 251, 254 Drying machinery, 254, 255 Du Barry, Madame, _ill. _, 92, 563, 566, 588 Du Belloy, Archbishop, 697 Du Mont, 543 Du Tour, _q. _, 707, 708 Dubard, Prof. , _q. _, 147 _Dublin Philosophical Journal_, _per. _, _q. _, 704 Ducis, 548 Duehring, Carl H. , _pat. _, 642 Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre, 34, 432, 543, 557; _q. _ 2, 11, 13, 74, 98 Dugdale, E. , 470 Dumant, Pierre Étienne Louis, _q. _, 13 Duncan, James, _q. _, 59 Duncombe Mfg. Co. , F. A. , 649 Dunham, Charles A. , 508 Dunks, John, 118 Duparquet, L. , _pat. _, 469, 639 Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co. , 639, 644 Durand, Calvin, 502 Durand, H. C. , 502 Durand, H. C. & C. , 502 Durand & Co. , 502 Durand & Kasper, 502 Durand & Kasper Co. , 485 Durant, Nicholas Felix, _pat. _, 625, 634, 699 Durieux, Elizabeth, 178 Duryee, P. S. , _q. _, 420 Dutch (_see_ Netherlands) _Dutch New York_, Singleton, _q. _, 105, 115, 125, 709 Duties, Export Angola, 268 São Paulo, 315 Duties, Import Abyssinia, 310 Belgium, removed (1904), 296 England (1692, 1732), 74 United States, 296, 468 Porto Rico requests, 472 (_See also_ Chronology) Dwight, H. G. , _q. _, 664-667 Dwinell, James F. , 501 Dwinell & Co. , 501 Dwinell, Hayward & Co. , 501 Dwinell, Wright & Co. , 485, 501 Dwinell-Wright Co. , 501, 629 _Dybowski, C. _, 144 Java, 216 _Dybowski_ × _excelsa_, _hyb. _, 146 Dyer & Co. , 501 Dykes & Wilson, 480 Dymond & Gardes, 486 Eagle Coffee and Spice Mills, 503 Eagle Spice Co. , 507 Eagle Spice Mills, 503 Eames, Wilberforce, 474 Earle, Alice Morse, _q. _, 709 _Early History of Coffee Houses in England, The_, Robinson, _q. _, 11 East Indies (c. ), 350, 370-374 Eating coffee, 180, 615, 655, 693, 694 Eccles, William, 475 Eckert, _q. _, 164 Eckhardt, _pat. _, 167 Ecuadors (c. ), 350, 367 Eddy & Co. , L. B. , 508 Eder, _q. _, 179 Edmond, 102 Edtbauer, P. E. (Mrs. E. ), _pat. _, 472 Educational exhibits, 715 Edwards, Daniel, 53, 54, 459 Edwards, Hugh, 482 Edwards, J. M. , 479 Edwards & Co. , J. M. , 479 Edwards & Maddux, 479 Edwards & Raworth, 482 Edwards, Townsend & Co. , 507 Ekelund Charles, 509 Electric motors, 471, 646 Electric roasting, 386 Electric Scale Co. , 471 Electric signs, 443 Elephant (grade), 258 Elers, 604, 612 Elford, _chk. _, 83 Elford, _inv. _, 616, 617 Elford the younger, _q. _, 61 "Elixir of life", 174 Elkington & Co. Ltd. , 637, 639, 699 Elliott, _chk. _, 573 Ellis, Douglas, 557 Ellis, H. D. , _q. _, 602, 603, 604 Ellis Bros. , 485 Elmenhorst & Co. , 482 Ely & Co. , D. J. , 480 Ely & Co. , D. J. & Z. S. , 480 Emerson, E. , 501 Emerson, Edward R. , _q. _, 566 Emmerich Machine Factory and Iron Foundry, _pat. _, 638, 639 Emo, Angelo, 27 En pergamino (grade), 261 _Encyclopedia_, Diderot, 98 _Encyclopedia Britannica_, _q. _, 11, 200, 657 _Encyclopedia der Therapie_, _q. _, 185 _Encyclopedia of Domestic Economy_, _q. _, 704 _Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery_, _q. _, 710 Engelberg, Evaristo C. , _pat. _, 247 Engelberg, Huller Co. , 247, 471 Engelhard, Albert, 505 Engelhard, Jr. , Albert, 505 Engelhard, George, 505 Engelhard, R. W. , 505 Engelhard, Victor H. , 505 Engelhard, Jr. , Victor H. , 505 Engelhard & Sons, Inc. , A. , 505 English, Dr. , _q. _, 180 English c. -pots (1714-70), 620, 621 _English Factories in India_, Foster, _q. _, 2 Ennis, Frank, 515 Ensaccador, 304 Enterprise Coffee Co. , 485, 508 Enterprise Mfg. Co. Of Pa. , 469, 471, 639, 646 Eoff, Garrett, 612 _Epicure_, _per. _, 675 Eppens, Frederick P. , 482 Eppens, William H. , 482 Eppens, Smith & Co. , 482 Eppens, Smith & Wiemann, 482 Eppens Smith & Wiemann Co. , 485, 496, 499 Eppens Smith Co. , 494, 496, 499 Eppens-Smith Co. , 496, 499 Erdmann, _q. _, 163, 183 _Erecta, C. _, _hyb. _, 140 Esau, 13 Escoffier (chef), 678 Escott, _q. _, 87 Esménard, 548; _q. _, 8 Esperanza Coffee Co. , 497 Essential oil, 163, 164 Essmueller Mill Furnish'g Co. , 649 Estienne, Jacques, 548 Estrado & Co. , Pedro, 340 Établissements Lauzaune (_see_ Lauzaune) Etherege, Sir George, 569, 570 Ethridge, Tuller & Co. , 508 Etiquette Arabia, 658-663 Paris (17th century), 91 Turkey, 664-670 (_See also_ Manners and Customs) Etruscan Coffee Pot Co. , 645 Etymology, 1, 2, 3, 27 "European fiasco" (1888), 529 Evans, _pat. _, 158 Evans, David G. , 503 Evans, Gwynne, 503 Evans, Richard, _pat. _, 624 Evans & Co. , David G. , 502, 503 Evans & Walker, 508, 635 Evelyn, John, _q. _, 2, 40 _Evening World_, New York, _q. _, 553, 554 Ewé, 160 Ewell, _q. _, 165 Ex-sailing ships, 316 _Excellent Qualities of Coffee and the Art of Making It, The_, Rumford, 621, 622 _Excelsa, C. _, 142 French Indo-China, 237 Java, 217 _Excelsa_ × _liberica_, _hyb. _, 146 Excelsior Mills, 501, 502 Excelso (grade), 261 Excessive use, effect of, 179 Exchange, Foreign, 336 Exchanges, Coffee, 329-337 Amsterdam, 296, 491 Antwerp, 296, 491 Baltimore, 491 Hamburg, 296, 329, 491 Havre, 296, 329, 491 London, 296, 491 New York, 329-337, 471, 491 Change of name, 474 Clearing Ass'n, 331, 335 Contract, 321 Functions, 331-338 Incorporated (1881), 471 Initiation fee, 332 Membership, 333 Organized (1881), 528 Reincorporated (1885), 471 Rio gradings, 343 Robusta dealings prohibited, 341 Seats, Sales of, 332, 333 War-time suspension, 534-537 New Orleans, 491 Rotterdam, 296, 491 Royal (New York, 1752), 120 San Francisco, 491 Santos, 306, 308, 491 Trieste, 296, 491 _Excursions through Asia-Minor_, Fellows, _q. _, 667, 668 Experimental gardens (_see_ Gardens) Exports, 276, 277 Abyssinia, 228, 229, 276, 284, 285 Aden (1921), 276 Africa, British East, 276, 285 Arabia, 282 Borneo, Brit. North, 276, 284 Brazil, 190, 275-277, 295 First (1770), 204 Largest (1906-07), 275 Central America, first to U. S. , 469 Ceylon (1741-1900), 283 First (1721), 236 Largest (1873), 237 Colombia, 192, 276, 278 Costa Rica, 193, 276, 280 Cuba, 233, 282 Dominican Republic, 194, 233, 276, 281 Ecuador, 276, 278 Federated Malay States, 284 France (1921), 290 Germany (1920), 290 Gold Coast (1916-17), 276 Grenada (1916), 282 Guadeloupe, 234, 276, 282 Guatemala, 192, 276, 280 Guiana, 276, 279 Haiti, 194, 276, 281 Hawaii, 194, 241, 276, 284 Honduras, 276, 280 India, 276, 282 Indo-China, French, 237 Jamaica, 193, 276, 281 Java, 283, 294 Leeward Islands, 282 Mauritius, 285 Mexico, 193, 220, 276, 280, 281 Netherlands, 290 Netherlands E. Indies, 195, 276, 283, 295 New Caledonia, 243 Nicaragua, 276, 280 Nigeria, 276, 285 Nyasaland, 276, 285 Peru, 276, 278, 279 Philippines, 242, 284 Porto Rico, 194, 222, 276, 281 Portugal, 290 Producing countries (table), 276 Réunion, 276, 285 Salvador, 193, 276, 279, 280 Santos (1900-01), 472 Sarawak, 284 Sierra Leone, 285 Somali Coast (French), 276, 285 Somaliland, 276, 285 Straits Settlements, 238, 284 St. Vincent (1917), 282 Sumatra, 283 Tobago, 282 Trinidad, 282 United States, 301, 302 Venezuela. 190, 276-278 Extra (grade), 261 Extracts, Coffee, 169, 670, 712 First U. S. Trade-mark, 469 Eyre, Henry, 482 _Faba Arabica, Carmen_, Fellon, 543 Fair-price list (Phila. , 1776), 467 Fairy Cup (brand), 539 Fakr-Eddln-Aboubeckr ben Abid Iesi, 543 Fancies (Sumatra), 355 Faneuil Hall, Boston, 612 Faneuil, Peter, 612 Fantasia (grade), 261 Fantastic claims for c. , 58, 433 Advertising, 439 Faris, Charles, 612 Farquhar, _q. _, 587 Farr, James, _chk. _, 53, 54, 62 Farrell, C. P. , 508 Farrington, Campbell & Co. , 508 Fat content in c. , 164, 693, 715, 718, 719 Loss in roasting, 167 "Father of English C. Houses, " (Blount), 56 Fatigue, effect of c. On, 186 Fauldier, H. , _pat. _, 640 Faunce process, _pat. _, 160 Faust (brand), 441, 539 Fauvel, _q. _, 176 Fazenda (brand), 445 Fazendas (_see_ Plantations) Fazendeiros, 258, 303, 304 Federal Sugar Refining Co. , 123, 473 Fell & Bro. , C. J. , 501 Fellon, 543 Fellows, _q. _, 667 Fendler-Stüber method, 172 Fenjeyl (_see_ Findjan) Fenjyn (_see_ Findjan) Feré, _q. _, 186 Fermentation, 254 Fermented (_see_ Flavors) Ferrari, Mary, _chk. _, 118, 119 Ferris, P. J. , 508 Fertilizers Ashes, 201 Chemical determination, 155, 156 Coffee pulp, 156 Fertilizing, 202 Salvador, 219 Fiber, crude, 718 Fidelity Trust Co. , 112 Fielding, Henry, 80, 89, 554, 579, 580 Fielding, John, 579 Figueroa, 543 Filter bags, care of, 707, 714, 715, 717 Filter paper, 715 Filtration Definition, 698 Methods, 715, 716, 721 N. C. R. A. Recommendations, 718 Filtration devices Acker's "percolator" (1905), 701 Baker's cloth (1902), 647 Beurt's pneumatic, 705 Blanke's cloth (1909), 651 Boss (1881), 645 Brain's vacuum, 705 Caseneuve's paper (1824), 623 Reversed Fr. Drip (1824), 699 Double glass, 637, 701, 702 Egrot's steam cloth, 708 Evans's tin air-float, 705 Gaudet's cloth, 623, 699 Half-Minute, 645 King's, for restaurants, 651 "Percolator", 701 Kin-Hee, 646, 647 Make-Right, 651, 701 Minute, 645 Napier's vacuum, _ill. _, 637, 699, 700 Parker's pneumatic, 705 Platow's vacuum glass, 705 Private Estate, 649, 701 Raparlier's pocket, 637 Rapid (_see_ Rapid) Salazar's steam-pressure urn, 653 Tricolator, 445, 651, 652, 701 Tricolette, _ill. _, 654 Tru-Bru, 651, 701 Vanderweyde's "continuous", 637 Wear's patent, 651 Filtré, Café, 675 Finch, William, _q. _, 36 Findjans, 31, 36, 616, 661, 662 Findlay, Paul, _q. _, 421 Fine; Very fine (_see_ Grinds) Fine Arts, C. In relation to, 587-614 Fines (England), 59 Fin-ion (_see_ Findjans) Finishing machinery, 396 Finjans (_see_ Findjans) Fink & Nasse Co. , 502 Finney, Samuel, 126 First Authoritative treatise, 27 Comprenenslve treatise in German, Meisner's (1721), 46 Description in print, 26 Mention by European, 5, 541 Printed mention, 25, 45 America, 105 England, 35 As "Coffe", 36 Europe, 12 France, 31 Printed treatise, 543 Written mention in Mass. (1670), 107 Fischer, B. , 497 Fischer, Benedickt, 634; _biog. _, 497 Fischer, Emil, 160 Fischer, William H. , 497 Fischer & Co. , B. , 443, 485, 497, 499 Fischer & Lansing, 499 Fischer & Lehmann, 499 Fischer & Thurber, 499 Fischer, Kirby & Brown, 497, 499 Fishback, F. C. , 509 Fishback, Frank S. , 509 Fishback, John S. , 509 Fishback Co. , 509 Fisher, George, 497 Fitch & Howland, 484 Fitzgerald, 584 Fitzpatrick, Austin C. , 496 Fitzpatrick & Case, 499 Fitzpatrick & Co. , A. C. , 496, 499 Flanders, Geo. W. , 482, 491 Flanders & Co. , Geo. W. , 482 Flannel sack used for infusion, 620 _Flasks and Flagons_, Saltus, _q. _, 552 Flat (_see_ Flavors) Flat-bean Santos c. , 260, 341, 342, 366 Flats, 1st, 2d, 3d (grades), 258 Flaubert, Gustave, 565 Flavoring, Use in, 723, 724 Flavors, 397 Fleury, _pat. _, 640 Fleury & Barker, _pat. _, 638 Flint, Austin B. , _q. _, 176 Flint, J. G. , 485, 506 Flint, W. K. , 506 Flint, Wyman, 506 Flint, W. & J. G. , 506, 635 Flint Bros. & Co. , 501 Flint Co. , J. G. , 506 Flint, Evans & Co. , 502, 503, 635 Floor brokers, 336, 337 _Flora de las Antillas_, Tussac, _q. _, 8 Florian, _chk. _, 27, 28 (_See_ Francesconi) Flower, Henry, 126 Flugel & Popp, 502, 503 Foley, John T. , 478 Folger, J. A. , 514 Folger & Co. , J. A. , 488, 505, 506, 509 Folger, Schilling & Co. , 506, 507 Folkes, Martin, 578 Folkingham, 603 Fontenelle, 94, 98, 543, 554; _q. _, 565 Food Administration, U. S. (_See_ Government Control) _Food and Dietetics_, Hutchinson, _q. _, 179 Food and Drugs Act, U. S. , 404 Food and drugs inspection, 338 Food conservation show, 386 Food use, 136, 615, 655, 693 Food value, 174, 180, 711, 712 U. S. Army, 539 _Food Values_, Locke, _q. _, 180 Foote, Samuel, 85, 89, 579, 580, 581, 584 Foote & Knevals, 485 Forbes, A. E. , 503; _q. _, 629, 631 Forbes, James H. , 502, 503, 629, 635 Forbes, Robert M. , 503, 510, 514 Force & Co. , W. H. , 482 Force & Co. , W. S. , 482 Force & Co. , William H. , 484 Formaleoni, Vincenzo, 27 Forrester, George R. , 508 Forster, _q. _, 159 Forster's _Life of Goldsmith_, _q. _, 573 Forster, E. S. , 508 Forsythe & Co. , James, 502 Fossi & Co. , 340 Foster, _q. _, 2 Foster, A. C. , 479 Fowler, John A. , _q. _, 269 Fox, 583 Francesconi, Floriono, 27 Francis, Norman, 492 Franco-American (brand), 441 François, Damame, 34 Frankel, E. M. , 716 Frankel, F. Hulton, _q. _, 180, 693 Franklin, Alfred, _q. _, 7, 557 Franklin, Benjamin, 94, 98, 126, 467 Franklin, Samuel, 475 Franklin, Walter, 475 Franklin Tea Warehouse, 503 Fraser, _q. _, 179 Fraser, David B. , _pat. _, 642, 644 Fraser Manufacturing Co. , 644 Frederick the Great, 45; _q. _ 46 Frederick William I, 45 Fredericq, _q. _, 184 Freeman, W. G. , _q. _, 133 Freight forwarding bureau, 323 Freight rates Brazil to U. S. (1917-18), 535, 536 War-time, 338 _French Color Prints of the XVIII Century_, Salaman, _q. _, 589 French Company of the Indies, 9 French Revolution, 100, 102, 293 French roast, 356, 388 Freund, 158 Fricke, E. , _q. _, 161 Frisbie & Stephens, 507 Frisi, 558 _From Tree to Cup with Coffee_, N. C. B. A. , _q. _, 713, 714 Fromm & Co. , 482 Fruit Beverages from, 15, 694 Food use, 15, 693, 694 Fry & Co. , Henry A. , 501 Fryer, _q. _, 2 Fuels, 385, 386 Coal, 620 Electricity, 647, 648 Gas, 640, 643 Natural, 642 Full city roast, 388 Full difference, 331 Fullard, William, _pat. _, 643 Fulton Mills, 498 Funk, C. , _q. _, 180 Fustian bag used for infusion, 620 Future of coffee, 585 Futures market (New York), 329 Fuzelier, _q. _, 594 G. G. (hall mark; _see_ Garthorne, G. ) Gaa Paa, _v. _, 316 Gabriel, Angel, 15, 23 Legend, 38 Gaffney, Hugh, 497, 498 Gage, H. N. , 505 Gainsborough, Thomas, 84, 583 Galen, 11 Galla (_see_ Eating coffee) Galland, Antoine, 31, 543, 548, 557; _q. _, 2, 12, 16, 20, 22 _Gallienii, C. _, 147 Caffein content, 161 Galt, Herbert, _pat. _, 652 Galuppi, 556 Gambetta, 96 Gandais, J. A. , _pat. _, 625, 699, 708 Ganse, John H. , 507 Garair (Arabian bale), 266 Gardell, Theodore, 85, 584 Gardens Botanical Amsterdam, 6, 44 Arabia, royal, 34 Paris (Jardin des plantes), 6 Martinique (Jardin Desclieux), 9 Experimental Bangelan (Java), 138, 146, 345 Camayenne (Fr. Guinea), 146 Indo-China, French, 237 Java, 43, 215 Pleasure (New York), 121, 123, 124 Cherry, 124 Contoit's, 124 New York, 124 Niblo's, _ill. _, 121, 124 Ranelagh, 124 Sans Souci, 124 Vauxhall, _ill. _, 123, 124 Tea (London), 80, 82, 83 Adam and Eve, 83 Bagnigge Wells, 83 Bayswater, 83 Canonbury House, 83 Copenhagen House, 83 Cuper's, 82 Dog and Duck, 83 Highbury, 83 Hornsey, 83 Jews' Harp, 83 Marylebone, 82 New Spring Gardens, 82 Ranelagh, _ill. _, 81, 82, 83 Spring Gardens, 82 Vauxhall, _ill. _, 81, 82 White Conduit House, 83 Garrick, David, 80, 81, 85, 88, 569, 574, 579, 580, 583; _q. _, 573 Garrick, David (Mrs. ), 579 Garrick, Westphal & Co. , S. B. , 476 Garrison, C. H. , 508 Garrondona, J. L. , 340 Garth, Sir Samuel, 576, 578 Garthorne, Francis, 601 Garthorne, George, 601, 602 Garway (_see_ Garraway) Gas roasting, 385, 386 Gaskell, Mrs. , 582 Gasser, M. H. , 510, 511, 513, 514 _Gastronomy as a Fine Art_, Brillat-Savarin, _q. _, 557 Gates, H. , 505 Gates, John W. , 519 Gates & Co. , A. B. , 508 Gaudet, _pat. _, 623, 699 Gaudron, 543 Gautier, Théophile, 98, 102, 565 _Gazette_, London, _newsp. _, 585 _Gazette de France_, _per. _, _q. _, 8 Gay, John, _q. _, 575, 577 Gee, Edward, _pat. _, 634 Geiger, Frank J. , 509 Geiger-Fishback Co. , 509 Geiger-Tinney Co. , 508, 509 Gelabert, José Antonio, 9 Gemaleddin, Sheik, 16, 541 Genius fostered by c. , 557 Geographical distribution, 189-195 George III, 106, 117, 583 George V, 601 George & Co. , P. T. , 485 Georgi, Theophilo, 45, 433 Gephart, _q. _, 180 Gerard, (French minister), 130 German Trading Co. , 527 Germicidal properties, 180 Germination, 5, 138 Gérôme, Jean Léon, 591, 656 Ghiradelli & Co. , D. , 505 Giacomini, Luigi, _pat. _, 648 Gibbon, Edward, 81, 583 Gilbert, Colgate, 494 Gilbert & Co. Colgate, 498 Gillet, Frère, 144 Gillett, A. B. , 508 Gilles, E. J. , _q. _, 408 Gillies, James W. , 495; _biog. _, 494 Gillies, Wright, 497; _biog. _, 494 Gillies & Bro. , Wright, 494, 495, 499 Gillies & Co. Inc. , E. J. , 495, 499, 501 Gillies Coffee Co. , 494, 495, 499 Gilman, George F. , 479, 485 Gimborn, Theo. Von, 638; _pat. _, 639 Glazes and coatings, 170 Glazing Arbuckle's patent, 522 Effects, 167 Italy, 686 Machinery, 396 Glines, J. T. & N. , 501 Globe Mills, 496, 497, 499, 526 Gloria, Café, 683 Glover, Force & Co. , 482 Glyceral as sweetening, 165 Glynn, Martin J. , 482 Glynn & Co. , Martin J. , 482 _Godey's Lady's Book_, _per. _, _q. _, 711 Goed Vrouw, _v. _, 317 Goetzinger, M. E. , _q. _, 521 Gold and Silversmiths' Soc. , 609 Golden Gate (brand), 441 Golden Sun (brand), 441 Golden Wedding (brand), 441 Golden West (brand), 441 Goldoni Carlo, 28, 555, 588; _q. _, 556 Goldsmith, Oliver, 80, 81, 85, 88, 568, 574, 579, 582, 584 "Retaliation", 573 Goldtree, Liebes & Co. , 488 Goldsworthy, William G. , _pat. _ 702 _Goodhousekeeping_, _per. _, _q. _, 175, 176, 182 Gomez, Juan Antonio, 9, 221 Gordon, Douglas, _pat. _, 248 Gordon, Fred P. , 478 Gordon, G. O. , 485, 486 Gordon, John, _pat. _, 246 Gordon & Co. , Fred P. , 478 Gordon & Co. , Geo. O. , 486 Gordon & Co. , John, 246 Gorter, _q. _, 156, 159, 160 Gothot, Ferd. , 639 Gottlieb, 185 Gould (chemist), _q. _, 167, 168 Gould, George J. , 519 Gouverneur, Isaac, 475 Gouverneur, Nicholas, 475 Gourewitsch, _q. _, 176 Gout, strange remedy for, 182 Government (brand), 434 Government control, War-time, 338, 474, 534-538 Government Monopoly Java, 213, 214 Netherlands E. Ind. , 44, 283, 312 Grace & Co. , W. R. , 442, 482, 488, 489 Grade, Basic (N. Y. Exch. ), 329, 335 Graders (N. Y. Exch. ), 333 Grades, 258 Colombia, 260 Mocha, 351 New York, 329 Porto Rico, 264 São Paulo, 260 U. S. (prohibited), 337 Grading Brazil, 304, 306 Hand, 258 Machinery, 246-248, 258, 383 Machine (Van Gulpen's), 638 New York Exchange, 333 Santos, 304 Grafe, _q. _, 164 Grafting (_see_ Propagation) Gragé (_see_ Peaberry) Graham, _q. _, 153 Gram, _pat. _, 158 _Grand concern of England explained_, _pamph. _, 72 Grandin, 708 Granger & Co. , 508 Granger & Hodge, 508 Grant, U. S. , 563 Grassy (_see_ Flavors) Gray, Arthur, _q. _, 552, 553, 713 Gray, Louis R. , 446 Gray, Thomas, 80 Great American Tea Co. , 479, 499 Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co. , 417, 479, 485, 499 Premiums, 429 Great Boom (_see_ Booms), 528, 529 Great London Tea Co. , 435 _Greeks of the Present Day_, About, _q. _, 685 Green, William, 492 Green coffee marks, _ill. _, 338, 340 Green Dragon c. Urn, 613, 614 Greene, Richard A. , _pat. _, 652, 653 Greenwood, Paul, 71 Gregory, _chk. _, 93 Grenier, Dufougeret, 9 Grever & Bro. , 501 Grévy, François Paul Jules, 566 Griebel, _q. _, 159 Griffiths & Co. , J. , 508 Grigor & Co. , T. S. , 508 Grinding Arabia, 658-662 Australia, 692 Greece, 685 Household England, 695, 696, 704, 705 Greece, 685 United States, 711 Steel cut, 714 New Zealand, 692 Grinding and packing, 167, 168 Grinding machinery, 400-402, 615-654 Chronology, 643-654 Commercial Burstone Mills, 637 France, 680 Greece, 685 Household, 615-620 First French patent, 625 Grinding machines Household Book's (1665), 617 Bronson's patent (1903), 647 Bruff's patent (1798), 621 Clark's hand-mill (1832), 625 Colaux's patent (1829), 625 Dearman's patent (1779), 621 Electric (first, 1897), 471 First English patent, 634 First U. S. Patent, 468, 621 Herbert's patent (1848), 634 Kenrich's mill (1815), 624 Lacoux' combined roaster and grinder, 625, 627 Moore's mill (1813), 623 Morgan's glass-Jar mill, 645 Hand mills, 644, 645 N. C. R. A. Home Mill (1915), _ill. _, 652, 714 Parker's hand mill (1832), 625 Rittenhouse's hand-mill, 627 Selden's hand-mill (1831), 625 Stillman's "mica window", 627 Stowe's hand mill, 644 Strowbridge's box mill, 644 Turkish combination, 670 Van Vliet's hand mill, 634 Webb's box mill (1878), 644 Wilson's steel mill (1818), 623 Retail Dell's store mill, 644 Morgan's patent (1919), 653 Wholesale Barbor mill, 637 Burns's granulator, 637, 652 Ideal steel-cut mill (1916), 652 Knickerbocker (1882), 645 Grinds, 401, 402 Coarse and fine compared, 167 Comparative test (1917), 716 Definitions, 714 Greek preferences, 685 Irregular (King's patent), 167, 402, 474, 716 Griswold, H. F. , 502 Grocer helps, 412 Grocers Engineering and Whitmee, Ltd. , 640, 641, 642 Grocers, Retail, no. In U. S. , 415 Grocery stores, 422, 423 Model c. Departments, 415, 418 Groff & Co. , Charles R. , 508 Grohens, A. P. , 646, 649 Gros, 589 Gross, March & Co. , 479 Grossman, George A. , 506 Grossman, William, 506 Grossman & Co. , William, 506 Grossman Co. , Wm. , 506 Groundy (_see_ Flavors) Growths, French preferences, 680 Gruner, Siegfried, 478 Gruner & Co. , 530 Gruner & Co. , S. , 478 Gruppe, Charles P. , 593 Guadeloupes (c. ), 350, 363 Guam c. , 355, 375 _Guardian_ (Lond. ), _per. _, 80; _q. _, 576 Guardiola, José, _pat. _, 247 Guatemalas (c. ), 347, 359, 360 Guildhall museum, 62, 602 Guillasse, Dr. , _q. _, 181 Guineas (c. ), 353, 378 Gump Company, B. F. , 474, 652 Gutteridge, Mary, _chk. _, 108 Gutteridge, Robert _chk. _, 108 Guy, Francis, 593 G. Washington's Prepared (brand), 538 Gwynn (architect), 584 Haas, Kalman, 482 Haas Bros, 482, 488 Haase, Heinrich, 484 Habit-forming: c. Is not, 176, 186 Habitat, 133, 291 _Hacendado Mex. El_, _q. _, 156 Haciendas (_see_ Plantations) Hackfeld & Co. , Ltd. , H. , 488 Haddon, _q. _, 159 Hadrot, _pat. _, 621, 622, 699 Haebler & Co. , 485 Haehnlen Bros. , 508 Haeussler, August, 480 Hagar, 18 Hahnemann, Samuel, _q. _, 175 Haimi-Harazi c. , 351, 368 Haitis (c. ), 350, 362 Hakimani, 17 Hakluyt Society, 1, 2 Half difference, 321 Halifax, Lord, 577 Hall, G. M. , 502 Hall, I. W. , _q. _, 184 Hall, Robert (Rev. ), 556 Hall & Co. , Martin L. , 501 Halla, Wm. , 488 Halley, Dr. , 582 Halligan, T. F. , 513 Hallmarks, 601, 602, 607 Hals, Frans, 587 Halsey, R. T. Haines, 607, 609 Halstead, Charles, _pat. _, 470, 644 Hamakua c. , 356, 375 Hamberger-Polhemus Co. , 488 Hamill, David B. , 509 Hamill, Smith, 509 Hamill & Co. , S. , 508, 509 Hamilton Alexander, 130; duel, 123 Hamilton, Duke of, 572 Hamlin, Mary P. , 130; _q. _, 556 Hamor, W. A. , _pat. _, 406, 539 Hamsley, M. F. , _pat. _, 642 Hanauer, Herman, 482 Hanauer, Moses G. , 482 Hanausek, _q. _, 147, 159 Handbills, 432-435 First (Rosée's, 1652), 54 _Handbook of Medical Science_, _q. _, 182 _Handbuch der Physiologie_, _q. _, 177 Hanley, John, 480 Hanley & Co. , Geo. F. , 508 Hanley & Kinsella, 480 Hanley & Kinsella Coffee and Spice Co. , 485, 502 Hannes, Edward, 572 Harari c. , 353, 376 Harari longberry c. , 353 Hard, Anson Wales, 480 Hard & Rand, 477, 480, 484 Pacific Mail strs. Chartered, 486 Harding, Warren G. (Mrs. ), 567 Hare, _q. _, 183 Hargreaves, C. F. , _pat. _, 247 Harkness, _q. _, 176 Harley, 573 Harnack, 158 _Harper's Weekly_, _q. _, 16 Harriman, E. H. , 519 Harrington, Elizabeth, 614 Harrington, James, 60 Harris (actor), 574 Harris, Benj. , 108 Harris, Samuel L. , 492 Harris, Wm. B. , 390, 492, 716 Harrison, D. Y. , 503, 629 Harrison, W. H. , 503 Harrison & Co. , W. H. , 503 Harrison & Wilson, 503 Harsh Santos c. , 341 Hartford Steam Coffee & Spice Mills, 508 Hartwich, _q. _, 147 Hart & Howell, 477 Harvard University Bureau of Business Research 418, 428 Harvest time, 249, 250 Harvey, Eliab, 40 Harvey, Gideon, _q. _, 58 Harvey, William, 40 Harwood, 581 Hassey, Cornelius, 492 Hatch & Jenks, 508 Hatches, Major, _chk. _, 112 Hatfield c. Pots, 607 Hatton, Edward, _q. _, 54 Haulenbeek, Jr. , John W. , 497 Haulenbeek, Sr. , John W. , 497 Haulenbeek, Peter 494, 497, 499 Haulenbeek & Co. , John W. , 497 Haulenbeek & Mitchell, 499 Haulenbeek Roasting & Milling Co. , 499 Havemeyer, Henry O. , 506, 521, 523 Havemeyers, The, 470 Hawaiian c. , 355, 375 Hawk, Philip B. , _q. _, 177, 182 Hawkins, Sir John, _q. _, 579 Hawkins, Thomas, 505 Hawkins & Thornton, 505 Haworth & Dewhurst, 507 Haydon, 84, 583 Haye, de la, 31 Hayes, John (and Mrs. ), 505 Hayman, 583 Hayward, George W. , 508 Hayward, Martin, 501 Hayward & Co. , 501 Hazlitt, Carew W. , _q. _, 28 Hazlitt, William, 557 Heading, 389 Health, Effect on, 174-188 Favorable 23, 38, 42, 72, 557, 558, 562 Unfavorable, 38, 46 _Health and longevity through Rational Diet_, Lorand, _q. _, 182 Heart, Effect on, 181 Hébert, 94 Hedging, 329, 335 Heekin, Albert E. , 503 Heekin, James, 503 Heekin, James J. , 503 Heekin, Robert E. , 503 Heekin & Co. , James, 503 Heekin Co. , 503 Heekin Co. , James, 503, 651 Heekin Co. , James J. , 503 Heekin Spice Co. , 503 Hekem, _chk. _, 19 Hekteon, _q. _, 178 Helen (of Troy), 12 Hellmann Bros. & Co. , 487, 488 Hellsten, _q. _, 186 _Hemileia vastatrix_ (_see_ Diseases) Henckel, James, _pat. _, 245 Hendershot, Peter, 508 Henneman, Karel F. , _pat. _, 639, 640 Henrici, F. H. , 511 Henrion, _pat. _, 621 Henry IV, 60 Hentz & Co. , Henry, 482 _Herald_, New York, _newsp. _, _q. _, 185 _Herald of Health_, _per. _, _q. _, 181 Herbert, Luke, _pat. _, 634 Herbert, Sir Thomas, 1, 2, 543; _q. _, 38 Herklotz, Corn & Co. , 482 Hertford, Countess of, 570 Hess, H. P. , 508 Hewitt, Jr. , Robert, 557 Hewitt, Jr. , Robert C. , 480 Hewitt, H. H. , 507 Hewitt & Phyfe, 480 Hickey, 574 Hidey (_see_ Flavors) High roast, 388 Higgins & Co. , Geo. W. , 501 Hignette, _pat. _, 640 Hildreth, A. G. , 480 Hill, John (Dr. ), 576, 580 Hill Bros. , 471 Hill, Dwinell & Co. , 501 Hill & Thornley, 501 Hillis Plantation Co. , 501 Hinchman & Howard, 508 Hind, Rolph & Co. , 488 Hinkle, Henry, 501 Hinz, F. W. , 503 Hippocrates, 11, 12 Hire Co. , Charles G. , 539 Hires' Soluble (brand), 539 Hirsch, _q. _, 186 _Historia Vitae et Mortis_, Bacon, _q. _, 38, 543 _History and Antiquities of the City of Boston_, Drake, _q. _, 108 _History and Reminiscences of Lower Wall Street_, Wakeman, 478 _Historical and chronological deduction of the origin of commerce_, Anderson, 72 _History of Am. Manufactures_, Bishop, _q. _, 105, 115, 125 _History of Literature_, Routh, _q. _, 561 _History_ (of Phila. ), Scharf & Westcott, _q. _, 126 Hlasiwetz, _q. _, 159, 165 Hobart Electric Mfg. Co. , 646, 652 Hobart Mfg. Co. , 646 Hobson-Jobson, _q. _, 1, 2 Hoch, _q. _, 186 Hodges, Alderman, 53, 54 Hodges, Dr. , 58 Hodhat, Kadhi, _q. _, 663 Hoepner, 472 Hoffman, Daniel H. , 505 Hoffman, Lee & Co. , 485 Hogarth, William, 80, 84, 576, 578, 579, 581, 583, 587, 593 Holbrook, E. F. , 539 Holland (_see_ Netherlands) Holland, Charles H. , 501 Holland Coffee Co. , 497, 501 Hollingworth, H. L. , _q. _, 176, 185, 186 Caffein investigations 187, 188 Holman & Co. , 509 Holmes, F. T. , 471, 472, 641, 642; _pat. _, 643 Holstad, S. , 509 Holstad, S. H. , 514 Holstad & Co. , S. , 509 Holstad & Co. , S. H. , 443 _Home_, Chamberlain, _q. _, 563 Home Economics Laboratories, Un. Of Kansas, 714 _Home, Life of_, Mackenzie, _q. _, 86 Homer, 12 Homeyer, H. L. , 510 Honduras c. , 347, 360 Honey in c. , 105 Hookah, 668 Hoole, 575 Hoopes, B. F. , 508 Hoover, Herbert, 536, 537 Hope, G. W. , _pat. _, 649 Horace, 543 Horn, William L. , 509 Horner & Co. , Henry, 502 Horter, John, 506 Hotel Astor (brand), 441, 465 Hotels London Cecil, _ill. _, 675 Piccadilly, 675 Richardson's, 576 Sabloniere, 583 Savoy, _ill. _, 675, 677 Tavistock, 580 Waldorf, _ill. _, 675 New York Ambassador, 691 Astor House, 690 City, 121 Waldorf-Astoria, 690, 691 Philadelphia Mansion House, 130 Houghton, _q. _, 40 _Houghton's collection_ (1698), _q. _, 54 House-boat coffee house, 89 Howard, _q. _, 159 Howell, James, 40; _q. _, 58 Howell, Son & Co. , B. H. , 479 Howells, William Dean, _q. _, 548, 549, 567 Howland & Aspinwall, 476 Hoyt & Co. , W. M. , 485, 502 Huatusco c. , 345, 358 Huber & Stendel, 508 Hubner, _pat. _, 162 Hudson, D. D. , 507 Hudson, Thomas, 84, 584 Hudson & Co. , H. C. , 507 Hudson-Fulton celebration, 607 Hudson Mills, 497 Huestis & Hamilton, 508 Hughes, Charles E. , 332 Hugo, Victor, 98, 565 Hull, John, 607 Hulling machinery, 245, 246, 247, 248, 255, 256 Bucket and beam crusher, 260 Costa Rica, 264 First U. S. Patent, 245, 469 Smout's, 257 Hulls, beverage from, 655, 658, 694 (_See_ Husks) Hulls and pulp, beverage from, 15 Hulman, H. , 508 _Humboltiana, C. _, 147 Caffein content, 161 Hume (_pseud. _ of Voltaire), 556 Humphrey, _chk. _, 121 Humphreys, H. M. , 482 Humphry (appr. To Bowman), 54 Hungerford, G. S. , _pat. _, 644 Hungerford, G. W. , _pat. _, 644 Hungerford Co. , 644 Hunt, Leigh, 550, 557; _q. _, 562, 578 Hunt, Mathew, 503, 631 Huntington, L. M. , _q. _, 155 Huntley Mfg. Co. , 248, 472, 642, 643 Huntoon & Towner, 501 Hurd, Jacob, 612 Husks, beverage from, 26, 156, 231 (_see_ Hulls) Husted, Ferguson & Titus, 482 Hutchins, John, _chk. _, 116, 117 Hutchinson, _chk. _, 109 Hutchinson, Edward, 112 Hutchinson, Gov. , 109 Hutchinson, Jonathan, _q. _, 175, 177, 179 Hutchinson, Woods, _q. _, 176, 177, 180 Hybrids, 138, 140, 146, 236 Hyde, _chk. _, 122 Hyde, E. J. , _pat. _, 634 Hydrolysis, 719 Ibrik, (boiler), 31, 615, 656, 658, 668, 695, 696 Ibriq (_see_ Ibrik) Iced c. , 724 Ichtoglan, 22 Ideals, Coffee, 585 _Illustrated History of English Plate_, Jackson, _q. _, 601, 602, 603 Imbusch, J. F. W. , 506 Importers Baltimore (Brazil c. , 1894), 485 New Orleans (no. , 1900-20), 491 New York, 475-482 Brazil c. (1894), 484 Number (1900-20), 491 Phila. (number 1900-20), 491 U. S. , Brazil branches, 304 San Francisco, 487, 488 Number (1900-20), 491 (_See_ Dealers, Wholesale) Importing ports Amsterdam, 327 Antwerp, 327 Baltimore, 482, 484 Hamburg, 327 Havre, 327 New Orleans, 296, 482, 484 New York, 296, 476, 482, 484 Rotterdam, 327 San Francisco, 296, 482, 484 Imports Aden (for re-export), 282 Argentine (1919), 291 Australia, 239, 291 Austria-Hungary (1913-17, ) 290 Ceylon, 282 Chile (1920), 291 Cuba, 281, 282, 291 Denmark (1921), 290 Fed. Malay States (1920), 284 Finland (1921), 290 France, 32, 33, 290, 291 Germany (1920), 290 Italy, 290 Martinique, 282 Netherlands, 290, 294 Early, 43, 44, 291 New Orleans, 482, 484-487 New York (1881), 528 (1900-20), 480, 484 New Zealand (1920), 291 Norway (1921), 290 Panama, 280 Portugal (1919), 290 San Francisco, 325, 482, 484, 488, 489 Spain (1920), 290 Straits Settlements (1920), 284 Sweden (1921), 290 Union of So. Africa (1920), 291 United States, 296, 299-302 Brazil c. , 296, 468, 475 Early, 468, 475 First in Am. Vessels, 468 Value (1919-21), 299-302 Venice, early, 27 Impotence, C. And, 23, 46, 71 Inchbald, Mrs. , 578 Indiana Coffee Co. , 485 Indias (c. ), 351, 369 _Indigena, C. _ (Maragogipe), 345 Indirect flame, 642, 646 Indo-China c. , 352, 370, 371 Industrial exhibition (1921), 654 _Influence des cafés sur les moeurs politiques_, Salvandy, _q. _, 100 _Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue_, Rivers, _q. _, 186 Infusion, defined, 698 Infusion devices Bencini's condenser (1838), 625 Biggin (1817), 624, 699, 710, 712 Dakin's cloth-bag, 633, 645 Denobe's pharmacological-chemical (1802), 621, 699 Donmartin's flannel sack (1763), 620, 697 Duparquet's muslin strainer, 644 Etruscan (1887-88), 645 First French (1711), 696, 697 Halstead's china-lined metal, 644 L'Aine's Diligence (1763), 620 Martelley's condenser, 624, 625 Rapid (_see_ Rapid) Old Dominion (1856), 625, 710 Rowland's condenser (1844), 625 Triumph, 699 Ingram, Margaret A. , 593 Inner-heated roasting machines, 386 Insomnia caused by c. , 176 _Inspector_, London, _per. _, 579 Inspectors at ports of entry Favored by N. C. R. A. , 513 In-store contract, 331 Intellectual drink, The, 566 _Intelligence_, _per. _, _q. _, 59 International Coffee Congress (1902), 472 Internationalized by French, C. , 585 Introduction, beverage Aleppo (1532), 19 American colonies (1668), 708 Arabia, 11, 12 Austria (1693), 49 Cairo (1510), 16 Constantinople (1517), 19, 291 Damascus (1530), 19 England (1637), 35-42 Europe (1615), 25-30 France (1644), 31-34 Germany (1670), 45-47 Italy (1615), 25, 26 London, 58 Marseilles (1644), 31, 291 Mecca (1470-1500), 16 Medina (1470-1500), 16 Netherlands (1616), 43-44 New York (1668), 115-124 North America (1660-70), 105-113 Oxford (1637), 40 Paris (1657), 31, 91 Persia, 21 Philadelphia (1682), 125-130 Venice (1615), 25, 291 Vienna (1693), 49-52 Invisible supply (N. C. R. A. ), 514 Ireland, Augustus, 479 Ireland, Sam, 81, 576, 578, 593 Irregular grind, King's patent, 167, 402, 716 Irrigation Abyssinia, 197 Arabia, 197, 231 Mexico, 222 Irving, Washington, _q. _, 317 Isenberg, Paul, 519 Ishmael, 18 Israel, Leon, 482, 532 Israel & Bros. , Leon, 442, 482 Italian roast, 356, 388 Ittel, _pat. _, 640 Jackson, Charles James, _q. _, 600, 601, 602 Jackson, S. , 486 Jackson, W. F. , 485 Jackson & Co. , 499 Jacob, _chk. _, 41, 42, 53 Jacquand, 591 Jaeckle, _q. _, 163 Jagenberg Machine Co. , Inc. , 472 Jalapa c. , 345, 358 Jamaica c. , 350, 362 James, James, _chk. _, 127 James, Mrs. , _chk. _, 127 Jamison, Catherine Arbuckle, 524 Jamison, Robert, 524 Jamison, Wm. Arbuckle, 523, 524 Janney, Jr. & Co. , B. S. , 501 _Jardin Desclieux, Inauguration de_, _q. _, 9 Fort de France, 9 Jardin des plantes, Paris, 6 Jardin, Edélestan, _q. _, 2, 3, 6, 14, 16, 27, 32, 557, 565, 629, 695, 708 Jarvie, James N. , 479, 523, 524 Java c. , 353, 355, 373, 374 Jause, 50 Jay Cooke panic, 527 Jefferson, Thomas, 130 Jeffreys, Judge, 570 Jenkins & Bro. , T. C. , 507 Jennings, Constantine, _chk. _, 61, 582 (_See_ Constantine, George) Jewel Tea Co. , 417 Jewett & Sherman, 506 Jewett, Sherman & Co. , 506 Jobson, Cirques, _chk. _, 41 Johns, Benjamin, _chk. _, 112 Johnson, James D. , 495 _Johnson, Life of_, Boswell, _q. _, 567 Johnson, Samuel, 80, 81, 88, 89, 557, 567, 568, 569, 574, 577, 583, 585; _q. _, 561 Johnson & Co. , Theo. F. , 508, 635 Johnson Automatic Sealer Co. , 472 Johnson-Locke Merc. Co. , 488 Johnston, Herbert L. , _pat. _, 646, 652 Johnston, W. T. , _pat. _, 642 Johnston, William, 501 Johnston & Co. , E. , 445, 486 Johnston, Gordon & Co. , 486 Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, 489, 443, 445-459, 474 Booklets, 455 Brewing, 717, 718 Coffee Club, 453, 455 Information service, 453 Membership, 448 Organized (1919), 474, 514 Program, 514 Recipes, 723, 724 Scientific research, 453, 457 Jones, Dorothy, 107, 108, 467 Jones, J. F. , 507 Jones, W. T. , 505, 511, 513 Jones, Webster, 515 Jones & Co. , S. L. , 488 Jones Bros. , 501 Jonson, Ben, 60 Joseph, _chk. _, 93 _Joseph Andrews_, Fielding, 80 Joteyko, _q. _, 186 Joubert, 96 Jourdain, John, _q. _, 1, 2 _Journal Am. Chem. Soc. _, _q. _, 155, 160 _Journal Am. Med. Ass'n_, _per. _, _q. _, 175, 185 _Journal d' Antoine Galland_, _q. _, 2 _Journal of Assoc. Agric. Chem. _, _per. _, _q. _, 169 _Journal of the Franklin Institute_, _q. _, 711, 712 _Journal of the Gen. Assembly of the Colony of New York_ (1709), _q. _, 117 _Journal of Pharmachol. _, _per. _, _q. _, 184 _Journal_, Revett, _q. _, 2 _Journey through England_, Mackay, 75 Julian, sec. To the Muses, 574 Julien (of Gobelins), 567 Jurgens, _pat. _, 167 Kadoe c. , 355, 373 Kaffa, 3 Kaffa coffee, 228, 229 Kaffee Hag Corp. , 473 Kaffee-klatsch (first), 45, 433, 683 Kaffee-sieder, 50, 51 Kahoueh, 3 Kahua, 3 Kahvedjibachi, 20, 22 Kahveji, 665 Kahwa, 3 Kahwah, 15 Kahwah (coffee-room), 657, 658, 662 Kahwe, 45 Kair Bey, 17 Kaldi, 14, 15 Kaltenbach, George, 476, 529 Kant, Immanuel, 562 Kaspar, Adam J. , 502 Kato, Sartori, 471, 538 Kato Coffee Co. , 538 Kavah, 2 Kaveh, 1 Kaveh kanes, 17 (_See also_ Coffee houses) Kavveghi, 22 Kawih, 11 Keable, B. B. , _q. _, 181, 182 Keats, John, 549; _q. _, 550 Keen, William, _chk. _, 120 Keen's Chop House, 498 Kelly, George, 501 Kelly, H. D. , _pat. _, 472, 649 Kemble, John, 581 Kendrick, F. G. , 507 Kenny, C. D. , 508 Kenrich, Archibald, _pat. _, 624 Kentucky coffee tree, 564 _Kentucky Warbler, The_, Allen, _q. _, 564 Kerr, Mary Alice, 523 Khawah (_see_ Kahwah) _Kickleburys on the Rhine_, Thackeray, _q. _, 563 Kidde, Frank, 479 Kidneys, effect on, 175, 181 Kilgour & Taylor, 503 Kimball, O. G. , 527, 528 King, Dr. , _q. _, 584 King, John E. , 513, 539, 701, 720; _pat. _, 167, 474, 651; _q. _, 168, 402, 716 (_See also_ Irregular grind) King, Moll, _chk. _, 581, 587 King, Thomas, _chk. _, 581 King, Tom, _chk. _, 587 King Coffee Products Corp. , 539 King of American breakfast table, 107 King of perfumes, 565 _Kingdom's Intelligencer_, London, _per. _, _q. _, 433, 582 Kipfel, 50 Kirby, James H. , 480 Kirby & Halstead, 480 Kirby, Halstead & Chapin, 480 Kirby, Halstead & Chapin Co. , 485 Kirkland, A. , 480 Kirkland, W. J. , 480 Kirkland & von Sacks, 480 Kirkland Bros. , 478, 480 Kisher, 231, 266, 655, 658 Method of preparing, 694 Kissing the cheeks, 387 Kitchen, James, _chk. _, 130 _Kitchen Directory and American Housewife_, _q. _, 709 Kneller, Sir Godfrey, 578 Knickerbocker & Cooke, 499 Knickerbocker Mills, 496 Knickerbocker Mills Co. , 496 Knight, Eberman & Co. , 507 Knowles, Cloyes & Co. , 502 Knowlys, Thomas John, _pat. _, 633 Knudsen & Co. , P. J. , 488 Koch, _q. _, 186 Kock, Paul de, 565 Koenig & Co. , J. Henry, 503 Kohwah, 12 Kolschitzky Franz George, _chk. _, 49, 50, 51, 590 Introduces c. To Vienna, 50 Portrait, _ill. _, 51 Statue, _ill. _, 50, 599 Wife (Ursula), 51 Kolster & Co. , 340 Kona c. , 356, 375 Kooman, G. W. , _pat. _, 649 _Koran_, _q. _, 15, 20 Kosmos Line, 489 Kraepelin, _q. _, 186 Krag-Reynolds Co. , 502 Kraut, Adolph, 471 Kreiser, Alexander W. , 509 Kreissel, Fillip, 538 Kroberger, Charles, 501 Kroe c. , 355, 371 Krout, J. M. , 503 Krull, _pat. _, 247 Krupp A. G. Grusonwerk, Fried, 247 Kuchelmeister, F. , _pat. _, 647 Kuhlemeir, Fred J. , _pat. _, 648 Kuhlke, George F. , 482 Kunhardt, Henry, 482 Kunhardt & Co. , 482 Kuprili, Grand Vizier, 20, 21 49, 71, 664 Labaree & Co. , J. H. , 480, 482, 484 Labeling machinery, 403 Labels, law affecting, 410 Labor Angola, 268 Arabia, 266 Arbuckle business, 524, 525, 526 Brazil, 207, 260, 261, 293, 445, 530, 531 Colombia, 260 Guadeloupe, 233 Guatemala, 219 Guianas, 236 Honduras, 234 Java, 269, 271 Mexico, 263, 264 Nicaragua, 264 Netherlands E. I. , 283, 293, 294 Salvador, 217 Sumatra, 269 Venezuela, 263 West Indies, 293 Lacedæmonian (_see_ Black broth), 13 La Chaussée, 94 La Coux, François Réné, _pat. _, 627 La Guaira c. , 348 La Roque, Jean, 31, 32, 34, 543, 557; _q. _, 5, 15, 33, 197, 245, 542, 565, 616, 694, 695 La Seine c. -pot, 607 Lactation, Effect on, 177, 178 _Ladies Home Journal_, _per. _, 177; _q. _, 709 _Ladies Home Magazine_, _per. _, _q. _, 709, 710 Lahey, B. , 480 L'Ainé, _inv. _, 620 Lait, Café au, 691, 696 Lally, Albert V. , _q. _, 570 Lamb, Charles, _q. _, 550 Lamb (Folger, Schilling & Co. ), 506 Lambert, Joseph, 642, 646, 471, 472 Lambert Food & Machinery Co. , 646 Lambert Machine Co. , 649 _Lamboray, C. _, 144 _Lancet_, _per. _, _q. _, 179 Landanabileo, _q. _, 181 Landers, Frary & Clark, 472, 644, 647, 648, 649, 653, 701 Langfeld, 186 Langius, 543 Lantern Slides, 443 Lantern-shaped c. -pot, 602, 603, 604, 619 Lapicque, _q. _, 184 Larousse, _q. _, 91 Lascelles & Co. , A. S. , 482 Last-bag notice, New York, 321 Lastreto & Co. , 488 Lathrop & Co. , C. D. , 484, 485 Laud, Archbishop, 41 Laughlin & Co. , J. W. , 508 Laurens, _pat. _, 623, 694 Laurent, Emil, 144 _Laurentii, C. (robusta)_, 142, 144 _Laurentii Gillet, C. _, 142 _Laurina, C. _, _hyb. _, 138 Lauzaune, _pat. _, 640 Lauzaune, Établissements, 625, 646 Lavado (grade), 261 Lawrence, George W. , 535, 537 Lawrence & Van Zandt, 476 Lawton, Frederick, _q. _, 557 Lawton, William, _inv. _, 641, 651 Lazear, Jesse, 508 Lead number, 159, 513 Leaf-blight (_see_ Diseases) Leaves, beverage from, 133, 694 Le Candiot, _chk. _, 93 Le Conte, _q. _, 178 Le Gantois, _chk. _, 93 Le Morgan Coffee Co. , 508 Le Page, Jules, _pat. _, 474, 652 Leclerc, 96 Lee, H. H. , 508 Lee & Murbach, 502 Leech, John, 582 Lefévre, 96 Légal, 96 Legendary origin (_see_ Origin), 541 Leggett & Co. , Francis H. , 398, 480, 482, 494 Legislative com. On speculations, N. Y. , 322 Lehmann, Julius, _q. _, 70, 183 Lemare, 708 Lemierre, 94 Lemmon & Son, 507 Lemon in c. (Russia), 686 Lemonade venders, 670 (_See also_ Pedling) Lensing, J. H. , 638 Leo XIII, Pope, _q. _, 549 Leone, 579 Leopold, Emperor, 49 Lepper, _q. _, 145 L'Estrange, 59 Lester, George C. , _pat. _, 472, 647 _Lettre sur l'Origine et le Progres du Café_, Galland, _q. _, 12 Leven, 185 Levering, William T. , 484, 485 Levering & Co. , E. , 484, 485, 508 Levinthal, _q. _, 185 Levy, Florence N. , _q. _, 607 Levy & Co. , M. M. , 485 Lewin-Meyer Co. , 488 Lewis, Charles, 503; _pat. _, 646 Lewis, Teacle Wallace, 480 Lewis & Co. , T. W. , 480 Liberian c. , 353, 378 _Liberica, C. _ Allied Species, 142, 144 Botanical description, 140, 142 Colombia, 211 Dutch Guiana, 236 Federated Malay States, 238 French Indo-China, 237 Guadeloupe, 234 Java, 215, 216 Liberia, 229 Trees to acre, 230 Netherlands E. I. (1920), 283 United States imports, 341 Liberty Boys, 120 Licenses Boston Coffee-house, 108 First, Dorothy Jones, 107 England Coffee-house, 59 First royal warrant, 59 France (first, 1692), 34 Germany, 46, 293 Mecca, coffee-house, 18 Philadelphia, coffee-house, 18 United States First (1670), 467 War-time (1917-18), 338, 534 Württemberg, 47 Lichty, George E. , 535 Lidgerwood, John, _pat. _, 246 Lidgerwood, Wm. Van V. , _pat. _, 246, 247 Lidgerwood Mfg. Co. , Ltd. , 246 Liebig, Baron von, 682, 684, 685, 687; _q. _, 711 Liebreich, _q. _, 185 Lievre, Frick & Co. , 506 _Life of Addison_, Johnson, _q. _, 561 _Life of Home_, Mackenzie, _q. _, 86 _Life of Johnson_, Boswell, _q. _, 567 Light roast, 356, 387, 388 Lightfoot, Alexander, _chk. _, 120 Lilly (astrologer), 69 Limbird, John, 585 Limonáji, 670 Linn, A. R. & W. F. , 508 Lins, Albuquerque, 531 _Linschoten's travels_, _ill. _, 43; _q. _, 35, 37 Lion (brand), 523 Lion's head (Button's c. House), _ill. _, 80, 576, 593 _Livre Commode_ (Paris, 1691), 433 Lippincott, Jesse H. , 507 Lispenard, Anthony, 475 Lispenard, Leonard, 475 Literature of coffee, 541-585 Literature, Influence of c. On 552, 556 England, 60, 81 Paris, 94, 96, 98, 100, 102, 103 Littledo, L. , _pseud. _, _q. _, 550, 551 _Lives of Eminent Men_, Aubrey, _q. _, 40 _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, Campbell, _q. _, 570 _Lives of the Poets_, Johnson, 570 Livierato, B. A. , 479 Livierato, Gregory B. , 478 Livierato Frères (Bros. ), 338, 478, 488 Livierato-Kidde Co. , 479 Livingstons, The, 475 Lloyd, the law-student, 579; _q. _, 584 Lloyd, Edward, _chk. _, 85, 86 Lloyd, John C. , 480 Lloyd & Co. , John C. , 480 Lloyd's (London), 120 Register of shipping, 85 Loading, Santos, 312, 314 Loaiza & Co. , W. , 488 Locke (chemist), _q. _, 180 Locket, Mrs. , _chk. _, 570 Lockier, Dean, _q. _, 574 Lockwood, Dr. , _q. _, 176 Lockyer, Captain, 120 Loeven & Co. , E. , 505 Loew, Oscar, _q. _, 156 Logan & Strowbridge, 644 Logan & Strowbridge Iron Co. , 644 London Fire (1666), 61, 62, 74, 83 (1748), _ill. _, 76, 83 London, Paris & Am. Bank, Ltd. , 488 _London Pleasure Gardens of the 18th Century, The_, Wroth, _q. _, 82 Long, Mary, _chk. _, 56 Long, William, _chk. _, 56 Longe, W. Harry, 444 Longevity, Effect of c. On, 178 Longhi, Alessandro, 588 Longhi, Pietro, 556, 558 Lopez, Pedro, 220 Lopez & Co. , P. A. , 338 Lorand, _q. _, 182 Lorimore Bros. , 508 Lorraine, Prince of, 49 Lott & Low, 475 Loudon, Howard C. , 495 Loudon, J. Carlyle, 495 Loudon & Johnson, 495, 499 Loudon & Son, 495 Loudon & Stellwag, 495 Louis XIII, 91 Louis XIV, 6, 33, 91, 92 Louis XV, 8, 92, 94, 563, 566 Love, N. , _q. _, 175 Low, Seth, 473 Low & Co. , Adolphe, 487 Lowell, Ebenezer, 467 Lower Wall St. Bus. Men's Ass'n, 473 Lown Coffee Co. , W. G. , 508 Lowther, Sir James, 584 Loyal Association (London), 583 Lubricant to human machine, 585 Ludlow & Goold, 475 Ludolphus, _q. _, 5 Lueder & Co. , A. , 485 Lure of coffee, 585 Lurman & Co. , T. G. , 484, 485 Lusk, _q. _, 180 Luttrell, 579 Lyman, John Chester, _pat. _, 245 Lyons, A. Neil, _q. _, 563 Lytton, Lord, 102 Macassars (c. ), 355, 374 Macaulay, Thomas B. , _q. _, 75, 77 _Macedoine Poetique_ (1824), 548 Machinery Evolution of, 615-654 History of Manufacture, 468-474 Mackay, 75; _q. _, 79 Mackey, William D. , 477, 491 Mackey & Co. , 477 Mackey & Small, 477, 480 Mackintosh, Sir James, 556 Macklin, Charles, 89, 580, 581 Maclachlan, C. H. , 527 Maclaine, Jemmy, 578 _Macrocarpa, C. _, 146 MacVeagh & Co. , Franklin, 485, 502 Madagascar c. , 353, 378 _Madagascar, C. _, 146 _Madagascariensis, C. _, 146 Maddux, H. Clay, 479, 491 Magic Cup (brand), 539 Maguire, Charles, 479 Maguire, Joseph, 497, 498 Maguire & Gillespie, 508 Mahomet (_See also_ Mohammed), 38 Mahood, E. B. , 507 Mahood, Samuel, 507 Mahood, W. James, 507 Maidi c. , 351, 368 Mail-order houses, 415 Maine & Eckerenkotter, 505 Mairobert, _q. _, 566 Maitland, Coppell & Co. , 482 Maitland, Phelps & Co. , 482 Makara, _chk. _, 93 Makonnen, Ras, 310 Malabars (c. ), 351, 369 Malang c. , 355, 373 Malaria, Effect of c. On, 181 Maldonado & Co. , 488 Maliban _chk. _, 93 Mallet, J. W. , _q. _, 176 Malone, _q. _, 61, 574 Man, Alexander, _chk. _, 59, 88 Mandelsloh, Joh. A. Von, _q. _, 45 Mandheling c. , 355, 371 Manet, Edouard, 103, 104 Manipulated Java, 338 Manizales c. , 348, 364 _Manner of Making C. , Tea and Chocolate_, Dufour, 543 Manners and Customs, 655-692 Abyssinia, 655 Africa, 655-657 Africa, Portuguese E. , 657 Algeria, 655, 656 Arabia, 657-663 Argentina, 691 Asia, 657-663 Brazil, 691 Chile, 691 Constantinople, 19, 22, 23, 663-670 Damascus (c. -house), 668-670 England (c. -house), 60, 75-89 Egypt, 655-657 France, 33, 680-683 Germany, 683-685 Italy, 686 London (c. -house), 73 Mexico, 687 Netherlands, 686 New Orleans, 690 North America, 686-691 Norway, 686 Oriental, Early, 17, 19, 22, 23 Paraguay, 691 Paris, 91, 96, 98, 100, 102, 103, 104, 554, 683 Persia (c. -house), 22 Philadelphia (c. -house), 128 Saxony, 684 Somaliland, 655 Sweden, 686 Thuringia, 684 Turkey, 20, 27, 36, 38, 663-670 Uganda, 655 United States, 687-691 Uruguay, 691 Vienna (c. -house), 562, 671, 672 (_See also_ Coffee-houses) Manning, E. B. , _pat. _, 637 Manning, Bowman & Co. , 649, 701 Manthey-Zorn Laboratories, 653 Mantsaka c. , _ill. _, 142 _Manual of Pharmacology_, Sollman, _q. _, 182 Manufacture, U. S. , 298 Many, Daniel, 507 Marac, 682 Maracaibo c. , 348, 349, 365 Maragogipe c. , 345, 367 _Maragogipe, C. _, _hyb. _, 140 India, 227 Marat, 94 Marchand, _pat. _, 640 M'Ardell (mezzotinter), 84, 584 Marden & Folger, 506, 507 Marden & Myrick, 505 Margins, 329, 333, 335 Mariahalden, 519, 520 Marie Antoinette, 96 Marilhat, 591 Marion Harland c. -pot. , 645, 699 Market names, 191 (_See also_ Characteristics) Marlborough, Earl of, 109 Marmontel, 98 Marquis de Someruelas, _v. _, 468 Marshall, _q. _, 183 Martelley, Lewis, _pat. _, 624, 699 Martin, _pat. _, 485, 640 Martin & Co. , N. , 485 Martinique c. , 350, 363 _Martinique, Histoire de la_, Daney, _q. _, 8 _Martinique, La_, Pardon, _q. _, 8 Marvell, 60 Mary, Queen, 601 Mason, Fred, 689 Mason, L. F. , 479 Mason, Marcus, _pat. _, 246, 248, 469 Mason & Co. , Marcus, 248, 469 Mason & Thompson, 476 Mason machines, 264 Masons, Grand Lodge, 110 Masons, St. Andrew's Lodge, 111 Mass. Inst. Of Technology Scientific research, 453, 457, 515, 714, 717 Massieu, Abbé Gulllaume, _q. _, 14, 544 Matagalpa c. , 347, 360 _Materia Medica and Pharmacology_, Culbreth, _q. _, 181 _Materia Medica, Pharmacy and Therapeutics_, Potter, _q. _, 181 _Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharmacology_, Butler, _q. _, 179 Matheson, S. , 482 Matheson, Jr. & Co. , S. , 482 Mattari, c. , 351, 368 Mattei, _q. _, 180 Maumenet, _q. _, 548 Mauran, C. S. , 502 _Mauritiana, C. _, 138, 146 Caffein content, 147, 161 Maury, Joseph E. , 515 Maximilian Frederick, Elector, _q. _, 47 Maxwell, _q. _, 165 Maxwell House (brand), 441 Mayer Bros. & Co. , 482 Mayflower, _v. _, 108, 616 Mortar and pestle, _ill. _, 105 Mayne, 585 Mayot, 96 Mazagran, Café, 92, 655, 682 Mazerolles, S. , 591 McBride, R. P. , 482, 499 McCann, Alfred W. , 398, 399 McCarthy Bros. , 488 McChesney & Sons, 488 McClean, Jemmy (_see_ Maclaine) McCord, Brady Co. , 508 McCready, William, 479 McCreery, Henry F. , 480 McCreery, R. W. , 511; _q. _, 427 McDonald, Duncan, 521, 522 McDonald & Arbuckle, 521 McDonald & Arbuckles, 522 McDonald & Glynn, 482 McFadden, J. M. , 513 McFadden & Bro. , George H. , 480 McFarland, A. , 508 McGarty, M. J. , 399 McGill. A. , _q. _, 687 McKinnon, William, 245 McKinnon & Co. , Ltd. , Wm. , 245 McLaughlin, Frederick, 502 McLaughlin, George D. , 502 McLaughlin, William F. , 502 McLaughlin & Co. , W. F. , 443, 502 McLaughlin & Co. , W. H. , 484 McMaster, John Bach, _q. _, 468 McMullin, John, 612 McNeil & Higgins, 502 McNeil & Higgins Co. , 502 McNeil, Thomas, 494 McNulty, John R. , 479, 491 McNulty & Co. , J. R. , 479 McReynolds, Attorney General, 533 Meacock, James, _pat. _, 245 Mead, Dr. , 582 Meal Market, New York, 119 Meat-packers in c. Trade, 514 _Mechanic's Magazine_, London, 585 Medellins (c. ), 348, 364 _Medical News_, _per. _, _q. _, 183 _Medical Record_, _per. _, _q. _, 185 _Medical Times_, _per. _, _q. _, 176 Medicinal properties of c. , 12, 26, 27, 38, 45, 56, 58, 71, 72, 173-188 Due to caffein content, 182 Medicine C. First used as, 693 Café au lait used as, 696 _Meditations_, Brillat-Savarin, _q. _, 697 Medium (_see_ Grinds) Medium roast, 336, 388 Meehan, Charles L. , 535 Meehan, P. C. , 476, 477 Meehan & Co. , P. C. , 477 Meehan & Schramm, 477 Meidinger, _q. _, 565 Meilhat, 594 Meisner, Leonhard Ferdinand, 46, 543 Meith, Hugo, 591 Mejia, E. , 488 Melangé, Café, 671 Melaye, S. , 548 Mellon Inst. Of Industrial Research, 714 _Memoirs_, Diderot, 98 _Memoirs_, Sherman, _q. _, 563 Menado c. , 355, 374 Menda & Co. , 340 Mendel, _q. _, 185 Menezes, T. Langgaard de, _ill. _, 446 Mengai, 694 Menico, 28 Menier, 566 _Menosperma, C. _, _hyb. _, 138 Menown, Hugh, 631 Menown, H. & J. , 502 Menown & Gregory, 631 _Men's Answer to Women's Petition, The_, _pamph. _, 71 _Menslichen Genussmittel_, _q. _, 147 Mental and Motor Efficiency Effect of caffein on, 186 Effect of tea on, 186 Menzel, Adolph, 591 Merchants Coffee Co. Of N. O. , Ltd. , 505 Merchants Exchange (New York), 123 Merck & Co. , 473 _Mercure de France_, _q. _, 8 Meridas (c. ), 349, 365 Merrill & Co. , S. C. , 487 Merritt & Ronaldson, 499 Merwin & Co. , Geo. A. , 499 Mery, C. D. , 548 Messenger & Co. , Thomas H. , 480 Metchnikoff, _q. _, 178 Metropolitan Mills, 494, 495 Mexicans (c. ), 345, 338, 359 Meyer (chemist), 164 Meyer, B. , 535 Meyer, Fred W. , 502 Meyer, Robert, 510, 511, 513 Meyerheim, Paul, 591 M'Ginley, Joseph, 492 M'Gregor, Coll. , 476 Michaud, I. F. And L. G. , _q. _, 8 Michelet, _q. _, 98 Microscopy of c. , 149-153 Analysis, value, 152 _Microscopy of Vegetable Foods_, Winton, _q. _, 150 Midland Spice Co. , 508 Milde, 591 Milds (market name), 341, 345 (_See also_ Characteristics) Milk in coffee, 38, 58, 399, 665 Effect of, 178 First used by Nieuhoff (1660), 696 Millar & Co. , E. B. , 502 Millar Spice Co. , E. B. , 502 Miller, Chas. A. , 480 Miller, Harry, 480 Miller, Rev. James, 555; _q_. , 554 Miller, R. O. , 501, 514 Miller, Watts, 480 Miller, W. H. , 488 Miller & Walbridge, 480 Miller, Smith & Co. , 485 Milling (_see also_ Cleaning), 383 Milreis, 336 Milton, John, 60; _q. _, 549 Miner, W. H. , 505 Minerva, _v. _, 128 Minford, Thomas, 479 Minford & Co. , L. W. , 479, 485 Minford, Lueder & Co. , 477, 479 Minford, Thompson & Co. , 479 Mingo, Cirilo, _pat. _, 471 Minkowski, 185 Minor, W. H. , 485 Minott, Samuel, 609 Minute (brand), 539 Minute, Café à la, 708 _Mirror_, London, _per. _, 585 Misbranding Condemned by N. C. R. A. , 513 Rulings (U. S. ), 337, 338 Mitchell, George, 478 Mitchell, William L. , 478 Mitchell Bros. , 478 Mixing (_see_ Blending) Mixtures, Strange c. , 56, 57 _Moat With the Crimson Stains, The_, Champney, _q. _, 563, 564 Mocengio, 27 Mocha c. , 230, 351, 353, 368, 369 Mocha longberry c. , 228 Mocha-seed Bourbon-Santos c. , 341, 366 Mocha-seed Santos (grade), 260 _Modern Italian Poets_, Howells, _q. _, 548, 549 Moegling, Carl, _inv. _, 647 _Mogeneti, C. _ (caffein content), 147, 161 Mohammed, 14, 15, 19, 20, 38, 54 Mohammed IV, 49, 50, 91 Mohedano, José Antonio, 9 Mohns-Frese Com. Co. , 488 Moir, John R. , 535 Mokaska Mfg. Co. , 485, 508 _Mokkæ, C. _, _hyb. _, 138 Molded beans, 170 Molke, 9 Molmenti, Pompeo, _q. _, 27, 28 Moncrieff (dramatist), 572 Moncrieff, Alexander, _chk. _, 572 Moneuse, Élie, _pat. _, 469, 639 Monin, Sieur, _q. _, 696 Monitor machines, 248 Monk, General, 59, 69 Monkey coffee, 136 Monroe, James (Pres. ), 113 Monstruo (grade), 261 Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, 573 Montague, _q. _, 551 Monte Carmelo c. , 350, 365 Montealegre & Co. , 487, 488 Montesquieu, 100 Montuori, _q. _, 176 Moore, Alexander Duncan, _pat. _, 623 Moore, C. T. , 508 Moore, Dr. , _q. _, 179 Moore & Co. , Geo. A. , 488 Mopsy, 579 Moréas, Jean, _chk. _, 102 Morewood, T. C. , _pat. _, 642 Morey Mercantile Co. , C. S. , 508 Morgan, Charles, 644; _pat. _, 645, 653 Morgan, Edward H. , 644 Morgan Brothers, 644 Morize, _pat. _, 623, 699, 708 Morley, W. T. , 513 _Morning Advertiser_, Lond. , _newsp. _, 585 _Morning Chronicle_, London, _newsp. _, 585 _Morning Herald_, Lond. , _newsp. _, 585 _Morning Post_, Lond. , _newsp. _, 585 Morosini, Gianfrancesco, 26 Morrison, S. B. , 497 Morrison, Wm. J. , 498 Morrison & Bolnest Co. , 498 Morton, Robert, 69 Mosely, Dr. Benjamin, _q. _, 2, 38 Moser (artist), 584 Mosso, Ugolino, _q. _, 186 _Most excellent virtues of the mulberry called coffee_ (1671), 34 Mother (grade), 258 Mother of cafés (Vienna), 50 Motion pictures, 443, 455, 514 Mott & Williams, 494 Mottant, A. , 641, 645 Muddiman, 59 Mudiford, 58 Muhlberg, R. _pat. _, 638 Muller, Frederick H. , _pat. _, 653, 702 Munden, Admiral, 86, 559 Murdock, Charles A. , 506 Murdock & Co. , C. A. , 508 Murdock Mfg. Co. , C. A. , 506 Murger, Henry, 98 Murphy, Arthur, 584; _q. _, 579 Murray, Sir James, 699; _q. _, 1 Murray, James H. , 496 Murray, Robert, 475 _Murta, C. _, _hyb. _ 138 Musgrave, James, 612 Music, C. In, 593-599 Music in coffee houses, 656, 666, 667, 669 Mustapha, Kara, 49, 50 Mustard in c. , 58, 696 Myer, _pat. _, 162, 473 Myers, Myer, 612 Mylne (architect), 584 Mysore c. , 351, 369 Myrtle c. (Mexico), 222 Nabob (brand), 441 Nairon, Antoine Faustus, 16, 27, 543 Nakhel douin (palm), 266 Nalpasse, Valentin, _q. _, 175, 176, 177, 179 Names for c. (English and foreign), 1, 2, 3 Names of places (_see_ Note, p. 769) Nancy (tea ship) _v. _, 120 Naphew, Charles, 479 Napier, Robert, _inv. _, 637, 699, 700 Napier & Co. , 486 Napier & Sons, Robert, 699 Narcotism, Effect of c. On, 181 Narghil (palm), 266 Narghillai, 663, 664, 665, 668 (_Also_ nargile, narguileh) Nash Grocery Co. , George, 503 Nash, Smith & Co. , 502 Nash-Smith Tea & Coffee Co. , 503 Nashville Coffee & Mfg. Co. , 509 Nason, James H. , _pat. _, 637 Nat'l Ass'n of Retail Grocers of the U. S. , 428 Nat'l Chain Store Grocers' Ass'n. , 417, 418 National coffee day, 513 Nat'l C. Roasters Ass'n. , 323, 439, 448, 473, 474, 509-515 Better c. Making com. , 713-717 Brewing recommendations, 717 Conventions, 512-515 Dues, 514 Freight forwarding bureau, 323 Home mill, 652 Industrial Expositions, 514, 515, 654 Membership, 511-514 National C. Roasters Traffic and Pure Food Ass'n. , 510, 511 National Coffee Week, 439, 455, 473, 474, 514 Nat'l Packaging Machinery Co. , 443, 472 Nat'l Retail Tea and Coffee Merchants' Ass'n. , 417 _National Review_, _per. _, _q. _, 74 Nature, Café, 683 _Nature of the Drink Kauhi, The_, Pocoke's trans. _q. _, 12, 38 _Nature, quality and most excellent virtues of c. , The_ (broadside), _ill. _, 69, 70 Navarro, Francisco Xavier, 9, 225 Nave & McCord Merc. Co. , 485 Nave-McCord Mfg. Co. , 508 Negro plot (New York, 1737), 118 Neidlinger & Schmidt, 499 Nelson, Charles, _pat. _, 649 Nepenthe, 12 Nervous system, Effect of c. On, 174, 175 Netherlands E. India Co. , 43, 44, 283, 291, 294 Netherlands West India Co. , 105 Neutral (_see_ Flavors) Nevers, George J. , 479 Nevill, 60 Nevison, J. , 631 _New and curious coffee-house, etc. , The_, _per. _, 45, 433 New Caledonia c. , 356, 374 New Guinea c. , 355, 374 _New Discoveries, etc. _, Paschius, _q. _, 13 New England Automatic Weighing Machine Co. , 471 Newbold, William, 479 Newell, _pat. _, 246 Newhall, H. B. , 501 Newmark, H. , 509 Newmark, Maurice H. , 509 Newmark & Co. , H. , 509 Newmark & Co. , M. A. , 509 New Orleans Coffee Co. , 485, 505 New uses for c. , 457 _New View of London_ (1708), Hatton, 54 New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange (_See_ Exchanges) _Daily Advertiser_, _q. _, 434, 468 Dock Co. , 319, 532 _Gazette_, _per. _, _q. _, 118 Historical Soc. , 474, 591 Hospital, 124 _Journal_, _per. _ (1775) _q. _, 115 Stock and Exchange Board, 123 _News from the coffee house_ (broadside) _q. _, _ill. _, 68, 69 Newstadt, Emil, _pat. _, 645 Niblo, William, _chk. _, 121, 124 (_See also_ Gardens) Nicaraguas (c. ), 347, 360, 361 Nicholson, David, 502 Niemuhr, Karstens, 543; _q. _, 22 Nielsen, Thorlief S. B. , 520 Niessen, von, _pat. _, 158, 167 Nieuhoff, 543, 696 Niles, G. M. , _q. _, 175 Nonnenbruch, _q. _, 185 Nordlinger, Henry, 482 Nordlinger & Co. , Henry, 482 Norris, G. W. , 532, 533 North, Roger, _q. _, 72, 570 Norton, Edward, 471 Norton, Weyl & Beven, 482 Norton & Holyoke, 434 Nossack & Co. , 340 _Notes and Queries_, _per. _, _q. _, 1 Nurseries, 200, 205 Nutmeg in c. , 696 Nutrio Mfg. Co. , 501 Nutt, Jr. , F. T. , 535 Oaxaca c. , 345, 358 Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson, _q. _, 125 O'Brien, 579 O'Brien, E. H. , 455, 488 O'Brien, Jonas P. , 482 O'Brien, Joseph A. , 482, 491 _Oceana_, Harrington, 60 O'Donohue, Charles A. , 123 O'Donohue, John, 480, 498 O'Donohue, John B. , 123, 498 O'Donohue, Joseph J. , 480 O'Donohue, Peter, 480, 498 O'Donohue & Co. , J. B. , 485 O'Dononue & Sons, John, 480 O'Donohue & Sons, Joseph J. , 477, 480 O'Donohue & Stewart, 498 O'Donohue Coffee Co. , 498 O'Donohue's Sons, John, 338, 485, 498 Oelschlager (_see_ Olearius) _Of the Excellent Qualities_, etc. , Rumford, _q. _, 697, 698 Ogden & Co. , George, 501 Ogilby, 571 Ohio Coffee & Spice Co. , 508 Oils, Coffee, 164, 711, 712 O'Krassa, R. F. E. , _pat. _, 247, 248 Olavarria, J. D. , 471 Old Dutch Mills, 482 Old Ground Coffee Works, 492 Old Judge (brand), 441 Old Homestead (brand), 441 Old Master (brand), 441 Old Reserve (brand), 441 Oldys, William, _q. _, 53 Olearius, Adam, _q. _, 22, 45, 543 Olendorf, Case & Gillespie, 478 Olivier, Abbé, 548 Omar, Sheik, 13, 14, 655 Opera: _Le Café du Roi_, Meilhat and Deffes, 594 Opposition Commercial England, 64, 74 Medical Cairo, 19 Germany, 46 Marseilles, 32, 33 Mecca, 17 Political Constantinople, 293 England (c. Houses), 72, 293 Proclamation, Charles II, 73 Germany, 46, 47 London, 293 Religious Cairo, 19 Constantinople, 20, 21 Mecca, 17, 18 Venice, 29 (_See also_ Controversies; Coffee-houses) Options, 329 Orange Juice, peel, in c. , 106 Ordinaries (_see_ Taverns) O'Reilly, Count, _q. _, 222 _Organon salutis_ (1657), Rumsey's, _q. _, 56, 58 _Oriental Trip_, Mandelsloh, _q. _, 45 Origin of c. , 5, 11, 13-16, 541-542 Orizaba c. , 345, 358 Orleans, Regent of, 96, 98 Osborn, Lewis A. , 434, 469, 496, 522 Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java (brand), 434, 469, 496, 522 Oseretzkowsky, _q. _, 186 O'Shaughnessy, John W. , 480 O'Shaughnessy & Co. , John W. , 480 O'Shaughnessy & Sorley, 480 Ostrander, Loomis & Co. , 508 O'Sullivan, Eugene, 479 O'Sullivan, James, 479 O'Sullivan & Co. , Eugene, 479 Otis, James, 110, 111 Otis, McAllister & Co. , 488 Otter _v. _, 127 Otto, Carl Alexander, _pat. _, 640, 641 Outlandish drink, 59 _Over the Black Coffee_, Gray, _q. _, 713 Overton, John B. , 479 Ovington, _q. _, 2 Oxford Coffee Club, 41 Oxford, Lord, 584 Pacific Mail Co. , 489, 490 Package coffees Advantages, disadvantages, 408, 409 Deterioration, 168 Early (U. S. ), 469, 470, 522 First crude (1791), 491, 492 France, 680 Great Britain, 673 Packaging economics, 410, 412 Packaging machinery, 383, 402-404 United States patents, 470 Packard & James, 494 Padang, _v. _, 317 Padang Interior c. , 355, 371 Page, Judge, _q. _, 570 Page, Thomas, _pat. _, 637 Painter, John (_see_ Paynter) Pal, _q. _, 184 Palaces, C. (_see_ Coffee houses) Paladino, _q. _, 159 Palais Royal (Paris), 96, 102 Palambang c. , 355, 372 Palatability aid to digestion, 180 Palgrave, _q. _, 658-661 Palmer, David, 480 Palmer, Harvey H. , 480 Palmer & Co. , H. H. , 480 Palmer, Warner & Co. , 508 Paludanus, Bernard Ten Broeke, _q. _, 2, 35, 41 _Pamela_, Richardson, 80 Pamphlets (_see_ Broad-sides) Panamas (c. ), 348, 361 Pan-American Congress, 472 Panics, U. S. , 528-530 (_See also_ Booms and panics) Panter, William, _pat. _, 245 _Paradise Lost_, Milton, 584 Parché, Café, en (Guadeloupe), 257 Parchment, 136, 138, 149, 150 Pardon, _q. _, 8 Parent & Co. , J. A. , 508 Parini, Guiseppe, _q. _, 548, 549 Park, Fellowes & Co. , 508 Park & Tilford, 484, 499 Parker, Charles, _inv. _, 469, 625 Parker, Edmund, _pat. _, 625, 636 Parker, Gilman L. , 501 Parker, John, _pat. _, 634 Parker & Dixon, 503 Parker & Harrison, 503, 635 Parker Co. , Charles, 625 Parkes, _q. _, 704 Parkinson, John, 534; _q. _, 41 Parlin, Charles Coolidge, 441 Parmentier, 8 Parr, 557 Parrott & Co. , 487, 488 Parry (Welsh harper), 85, 584 Parry, 543; _q. _, 36 Parson, 557 Pascal, _chk. _, 33, 92, 94, 554, 619, 670; _q. _, 432 Paschius, George, _q. _, 13 Patents, U. S. , 654 Patrick (lexicographer), 576 Patterson, Robert W. , _q. _, 106 Pavoni, Desiderio, _pat. _, 649 Pawinski, _q. _, 185 Payen, _q. _, 694 Paynter, Jonathan, 53, 54 Peabody, B. F. , 535 Peaberry, 136, 249 Botanical description, 149 Peaberries, 1st and 2d (grades), 258 Pears in c. (Russia), 686 Pearson, George, 507 Pearson, Peter, _pat. _, 638, 640 Pechey, 543 Peck, Edwin H. , 477 Peck, Walter J. , 477 Peck, E. H. & W. J. , 477, 484 Peck & Co. , Edwin H. , 477, 479 Peck & Kellum, Benj. , 508 Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Co. , 644 Pedling Constantinople, 21 Florence, 670 Italy, 27, 29, 670 Padua, 29 Paris, 92, 93, 94, 96 Vienna, 51 Pedrocchi, Antonio, _chk. _, 29, 599 Peeling (_see_ Hulling) _Pellicularia tokeroga_ (_see_ Diseases) Pemberton, John, 128, 129 Penn, John, 127, 129 Penn, Letitia, 128 Penn, William, 105, 115, 125, 126, 467 _Pennsylvania Gazette_, _newsp. _, _q. _, 126, 127 _Pennsylvania Journal_, _newsp. _, 127, 128 Penny-change plan, 427 _Penny Magazine_, _per. _, _q. _, 704 Penny universities, 73 Peonage (_see_ Labor) Pepion, John, 508 Pepys, Samuel, _q. _, 59, 554, 561, 574, 582 _Percolator, The_, _per. _, _q. _, 521 Percolators Acker's Mo-Kof-Fee, 645 testing-table, 649 two cylinder (1905), 645 Andrews's pumping (1841), 700 Bohemian, 654 Bouillon Muller's steam, 708 Bowman's valve-type (1876), 637 Bruning's vacuum jacket (1920), 653 Cafetière Sené (1815), 699 Carlsbad, 654 Chamberlain's automatic, 652 De Belloy's (1800), 621, 622, 697, 708 De Santais' hydrostatic, 629 Durant's pumping, 625, 699 First French patent (1806), 699 Galt (1914), 652, 701 Gandais' pumping, 625, 699 German (plug in spout), 708 Glass "balloons", 627 Hadrot's "filter", 621, 699 Half-minute (1881), 701 Hutchinson's, 710 Jones's pumping, 704 Kellum (1906), 649 Kin-Hee (1900), 701 Laurens' pumping, 623, 699 Laurent's steam "whistling, " 708 Malen's, 708 Marion Harland, 645, 696 Mo-Kof-Fee (Acker's), 645 Morize's reversible, 623, 699 Nason's fluid-joint (1865), 637 Nelson's patents (1912-13), 649 Phylax (1914), 652, 701, 702 Potsdam, 710 Preterre's vacuum (1849), 634 Pumping discussed, 714, 715 (first, 1819), 623 Rabauts reversed (1822), 699 Raparlier's glass "filter", 708 Reversible double drip, 623 Rumford's (1806-12), 621, 622, 623, 697, 698 Rumford type, 705 Russian egg-shaped, 708 Savage's patent (1906), 649 Smart's patent (1919), 653 Star (1886), 645 Sternau's patent (1904), 649 Universal (1901), 647 Vanderweyde's patent (1866), 637 Vardy's vacuum urn, 627, 699 Vassieux' glass (1842), 627, 700 Vienna, 638, 639 Viennese type, 708 Warner's patent (1906), 649 Percolation Defined, 621, 698 Discussed (Trigg), 720, 721 N. C. R. A. Recommendations, 718 Percy, Reuben, _pseud. _, 585 Percy, Sholto, _pseud. _, 585 Perez & Sons, Juan Pablo, 340 Perfect cup of c. , 721-723 Perfect Vacuum Canning Co. , 471 Perfumed c. , 59, 695 Pergamino, Café en (grade), 261 _Perieri, C. _, 146 Persecution (_see_ Opposition) _Persian letters_, Montesquieu, _q. _, 109 Perus (c. ), 350, 367 Pests (_see_ Diseases) Peters, J. , _q. _, 467 Petit, _q. _, 12 Petring, G. H. , 510 Petty, Sir William, 60 _Pharmaceutical Journal_, _per. _, _q. _, 156 _Pharmaceutice Rationalis_, Willis, _q. _, 58 Pharmacological-chemical brewing device, 699 _Pharmacology_, Cushing, _q. _, 179 Pharmacology of c. , 174-188 Phelps, Jr. , Edward A. , 495, 499 Philadelphia Commission of Inspection, 467 Philidor, 96, 98 Philipp, John, 591 Philippines (c. ), 355, 375 Philios, Ambrose, 80, 576, 577, 578 Phillipi, Peter, 591 Phillips, Sir Richard, 578, 585 Phillips & Co. , M. , 488 Philology (_see_ Etymology) Phipps, Sir William, 111 Phipps & Co. , J. L. , 476, 482, 484, 486 Phoenix, John, 482 Phoenix & Co. , J. W. , 482 Phoenix Electrical Heating Co. , 647 Phyfe, James W. , 480 Phyfe & Co. , Jas. W. , 480 Phonetic difficulties, 1 _Physique Sacrée, on Histoire Naturelle de la Bible_, Scheuzer, _q. _, 13, 16 Piccander, _q. _, 595 Picking c. , 250 Colombia, 260 Pickslay, Joseph D. , 477, 535 Pictures Afternoon in the court gardens, Munich, Walle's, 591 Afternoon at the coffee table, Meith's, 591 Button's coffee house, Shepherd's, _ill. _, 593 Café en Asia Mineure, De Ternamine's, 591 Café sur un route de Syrie, Marilhat's, 591 Café Turc, Descamp's, 591 Coffee comes to the aid of the Muse, Ruffio's, _ill. _, 591 Coffee house at Cairo, Gérôme's, _ill. _, 591, 656 Decorative panel for Paris House, Mazerolles', 591 Dutch coffee house of 1650, Van Ostade's, _ill. _, 587 First coffee house in Vienna, Schams', _ill. _, 590 Four times of the day, Hogarth's, _ill. _, 587 French coffee house, Rowlandson's, 593 Goldoni in a Venetian café, Longhi's, _ill. _, 588 Kaffeebesuch Phillipi's, _ill. _, 591 Lion's head at Button's, Shepherd's, _ill. _, 591 Mad dog in a coffee house, Rowlandson's, _ill. _, 593 Manager Classen and his family, Milde's, 591 Mme. De Pompadour, Van Loo's, _ill. _, 588 Mme. Du Barry at Versailles, Decreuse's, _ill. _, 589, 590 Napoleon and the curé, Charlet's, _ill. _, 593 Old woman with coffee cup, Philipp's, 591 Oriental coffee house, Meyerhelm's, 591 Parisian boulevard café, Menzel's, 591 Pastor Rautenberg and his Family, Milde's, 591 Petit déjeuner, Boucher's, _ill. _, 588 Rake's progress, Hogarth's, _ill. _, 587 Slaughter's coffee house, Shepherd's, _ill. _, 593 Sweets shop of Josty in Berlin, Schmidt's, 591 Tom's coffee house, Shepherd's, _ill. _, 593 Tontine coffee house, Guy's, 593 Washington's official welcome to New York, Gruppe's, _ill. _, 593 Pictures, C. In, 587-593 Pierce, Jr. , O. W. , 509 Pierce, Sr. , Oliver Webster, 509 Pierce & Co. , O. W. , 509 Piers, steel-roofed (N. O. ), 325 Pilcher, _q. _, 184 Pinzon & Co. , 338 Pioneer Mills, 508 Pique, R. , _q. _, 156 Piron, 94 Pitt, William, 580 Pitt & Sons, C. F. , 485 Place, E. B. , 482 Place, J. K. , 482 Places, names of (_see_ Note, p. 769) Plantation machinery, 245-248 Brazil, 207 Salvador, 217 Plantation machines Guardiola drier, 255 Planet Junior, 207 Plantation preparation, 201 Arabia, 197 Plantation processes, 245-271 Abyssinia, 268 Angola, 268 Arabia, 245, 264, 266, 268 Brazil, 258-261 Colombia, 260 Guatemala, 263 Haiti, 264 Java, 268, 269, 271 Mexico, 263 Netherlands E. Indies, 268, 269, 271 Nicaragua, 264 Porto Rico, 264 Salvador, 263 Sumatra, 268, 269 Venezuela, 261, 263 Plantations Abyssinia, yield per acre, 228 Angola Cazengo, 230 Australia, yield per acre, 239 Brazil (fazendas) Araqua, 208 Azevedo, L. De O. , 208 Caféeria São Paulo, 208 Capital invested, 207 do Val, F. S. , 208 Dumont, _ill. _, 205, 208, 258 Ellis, Alfredo, 208 Irmaos, Alves, 208 Oliveira, 208 Principal, 208 Ribeirao Preto, _ill. _, 208 São Martinho, 208 São Paulo Coffee Co. , 208 Schmidt, 208, 258 Ceylon, first British, (1825) 237 Colombia, 211, 212 Namay, 212 Cuba, number, 282 Guadeloupe, yield per acre, 233 Hawaii, yield per acre, 241 India Cannon's Baloor, 227 Hoskahn, 227 Mylemoney, 227 Santaverre, 227 Sumpigay Kahn, 227 Yield per acre, 227 Java Jakatra, 44 Kedawoeng estate, 6 Typical, A. , 269, 271 Mexico Orduna, 220 Porto Rico Capital invested, 223 Yield per acre, 223, 225 Salvador, first (1876), 217 Sumatra Gadoeng Batoe, _ill. _, 217 Venezuela (haciendas) Altamira, _ill. _, 212 Carmen, _ill. _, 213 Yield per acre, 213 Planting (_see also_ Propagation), 200 _Plants of Egypt_, Alpini, 26 Plants, Roasting, _ill. _, 379, 381, 383, 385 Platow, Moritz, _pat. _, 627, 699 Platt, Jr. , James, _q. _, 1 Plays _Autocrat of the Coffee Stall, The_, Chapin, 556, 563 _Beaux' Stratagem_, Farquhar, _q. _, 587, 588 _Bold Stroke for a Wife, A_, Centlivre, _q. _, 554 Boston, first performed in, 111 _Bottega di Caffè, La_, Goldoni, 555 _Café; ou, l'Ecossaise, Le_, Voltaire, 556 _Caffè, Le_, Rosseau, 554, 555 _Caffè di Campagna, Il_, Galuppi, 556 _Caffettiéra da Spirito, La_, 556 _Coffee House, The_, Rosseau, 88 _Coffee House; or, Fair Fugitive, The_, Voltaire, _q. _, 556 _Coffee-House Politician, The_, Fielding, _q. _, 554, 555 _Devin du Village_, Rousseau, 102 "English comedy, " _q. _, 61 _Foire St. Germain, La_, Dancourt (1696), _q. _, 554 _Hamilton_, Hamlin and Arliss, _q_. , _ill. _, 556 _Persian Wife, The_, Goldoni, _q. _, 556 _Socrates_, Voltaire, 556 _Tarugo's Wiles; or, the Coffee House_, St. Serf, _q. _, 554 Pleasure gardens (_see_ Gardens) Pletzer, _q. _, 185 Pluehart, _inv. _, 710 Plunket (highwayman), 578 Pneumatic Scale Corp. , 471, 472 Pneumatic Scale Corp. , Ltd. , 471 Pocoke, Edward, _q. _, 12, 38 Pods, 329 _Poemata Didascalia_, d'Olivet, 543 Poems "_As long as Mocha's happy tree_, " Pope's, _q. _, 549 _Ballad of the South Sea Scheme_, Swift, _q. _, 571 _Bouquet Blanc et le Bouquet Noir, Le_, Mery, 548 _Café, Le_ (anon. ), 548 _Café, Le_, Berchoux, 548 _Caffè, Il_, Barotti, 548 _Cap and Bells_, Keats, _q. _, 550 _Carmen Caffaeum_, Massieu, _q. _, 14, 544-547 _City Mouse and Country Mouse_, Prior and Montague, _q. _, 551 _Coffee_, Saltus, _q. _, 552 _Coffee--a Chanson_ (music by Colet), _ill. _, 594, 595 _Coffee and Crumpets_, "Littledo, " _q. _, 550, 551 _C. Companion_ (from Arabic), _q. _, 543 _Coffee Slips, The_, Hood, _q. _, 550 _Comus_, Milton, _q. _, 549 _de Clieu_, Esménard, _q. _, 8, 548 _Flogé du Café_, L'Estienne, 548 _Frugality_, Pope Leo XIII, _q. _, 549 _Gilbert K. Chesterton Rises to the Toast of C. _, Untermeyer, _q. _, 553 _Giorno, Il_, Parini, _q. _, 548, 549 _Grandeur de Dieu dans les Merveilles de la Nature, La_, 548 _In Praise of C. _ (from Arabic), _q. _, 542 _Like His Mother Used to Make_, Riley, _q. _, 552 _Lines_ (appended to broadside) Morton, _ill. _, 69 _Lines on C. _ (_from_ French), 548 _Long Story, A_, Gray, _q. _, 576 _Ode to Coffee_, Price, _q. _, 553 _Over the Black Coffee_, Gray, _q. _, 552, 553 _Pity for Poor Africans_, Cowper, _q. _, 550 _Plantes, Les_, Castel, _q. _, 548 _Rape of the Lock_, Pope, _q. _, 550 _Recipe for Making C. _, Hodhat, _q. _, 663 _Royal Drummer_ (Paris) _q. _, 96 _Rules and orders of the C. House_ (broadside) _q. _, 60, 61 _Song_ from _The Coffee House_, Fielding, _q. _, _ill. _, 555 _Three Reigns of Nature_, Delille, _q. _, 547 _To the Mighty Monarch, King Kauhee_, Sephton, _q. _, 552 _To the Coffee House_, Altenberg, _q. _, 549 _To Pasqua Rosée_, _q. _, 54 (Unnamed), Belighi, 547 (Unnamed), Lloyd, _q. _, 584 _Verses_, Maumenet, _q. _, 548 _Wealthy Shopkeeper; or, Charitable Christian_, _q. _, 572 _What Every Wife Knows_, Rowland, _q. _, 553-554 Poetry, C. In, 542-554 Poffenberger, Jr. , A. T. , _q. _, 723 Poison, C. A, 58, 174 Polished C. , rulings (U. S. ), 337, 338 Polishing machinery, 247, 248, 257 Political liberty; England's won in coffee houses, 74 Politics, C. And, 59, 62 Polli, Pietro, 558 Pollitzer, _q. _, 176 Polstorff, K. , 159, 160 Ponfold, Schuyler & Co. , 482 Poore, G. W. , _q. _, 705, 707 Pop open, 389 Pope, Alexander, 78, 80, 81, 575, 576, 577, 578, 583; _q. _, 549, 550 _Life of_, Carruthers, _q. _, 549 Popularity of c. In U. S. ; reasons for, 106 Portable c. Making devices French (1691-1754), 618 Turkish, 615, 616, 617 Portable grinding machines, 685 Portal, Antoine, _q. _, 58 Porthandling charges Brazil, 306, 315 New York, 323 Porthandling methods, U. S. , 513 Porter, David (Capt. ), 112 Porter, David D. (Admiral), 112 Porter, Horace, Gen. , _q. _, 563 Porter & Co. , W. J. , 480 Porto Rico Coffee Co. , 488 Porto Rico Planters' Protective Ass'n, 444, 445 Porto Ricos (c. ), 350, 362 Posadas, J. Z. , 488 _Postman_, London, _per. _, 560 Postulart, _pat. _, 640 _Pot and Kettle, The_, Lally, _q. _, 570 Potter, _pat. _, 167 Potter, Dr. , _q. _, 181 Potter, Ellis M. , 498; _pat. _, 642 Potter & Parlin, 503 Potter Coffee Co. , 498 Potter-Parlin Co. , 471, 641, 642 Potter-Parlin Spice Mills, 498 Potter, Sloan, O'Donohue Co. , 498 Pounding c. , 697, 705 Poursine & Co. , P. , 486 Poursini & Co. , R. , 505 Powdered (_see_ Grinds) Power, _q. _, 155 Power-Chestnut method, 172 Prado, Paulo da Silva, 532, 534 _Praedium Rusticum_, Vaniére, 543 Pratt, A. H. , 502 Pratt, David S. , _pat. _, 539 Preanger c. , 355, 373 Pregnancy, Effect of c. On, 177 Premium for early shipping (Santos), 314 Premium distribution, retail, 429 Premiums, 412, 413 Arbuckle, 522, 525 Prendergast Bros. , 482 Prentiss & Page, 637 Prepared Coffee, 404 Prescott, Prof. S. C. , 515, 714; _q. _, 717 Preterre, Apoleoni P. , _pat. _, 634 Price, William A. , _q. _, 553 Prices Advance notice of change, 514 Beverage Constantinople, 665 London, 675, 677 (1662), 582 (1677), 73 Blends, retail, U. S. (1922), 722, 723 Green American colonies, 467, 475 Amsterdam (1810-12), 468 England (1719), 74 New York (1670), 105 (1683), 125 (1898), 471 (1903), 472 (1919), 474 Netherlands (early), 44 Netherlands E. Indies, 312 United States Early, 475 (1814), 468 (1880-93), 527, 530 (1911), 532 (1913), 538 (1921), 299, 330 War-time, 536-538 Guaranteeing, 514 Roasted New York (1791), 492 Roasting (1885), 509 Prideaux, W. F. , _q. _, 1, 2 Priest, William, 612 Primera (grade), 261 Primero (grade), 264 Prims, J. C. , _pat. _, 473, 643 Prior 89; _q. _, 551, 575 Pritchard, George W. , 480 Pritchard & Sons, Geo. W. , 480 Private Estate (brand), 496 Private estates Java, 214, 215 Netherlands E. Indies, 283, 312 Probst & Co. , F. , 482 _Proceedings, Society of Antiquaries_ (1889), _q. _, 602, 603 Procope, François, _chk. _, 94 Proctor, Charles E. , 538 Producing countries, leading, 191 Production Abyssinia, 284 Africa, British E. , 229, 285 German E. (1913), 229 Angola (1913), 229 Arabia, 282 Argentina, 279 Australia, 284 Bolivia, 279 Brazil, 273, 275, 277 (1850), 205 (1887-1902), 528-530 (1903, 1906), 472 (1906-07), 534 Santos passes Rio (1900-01), 530 Cape Verde Islands (1916), 229 Celebes, 217, 283 Ceylon, 236, 282, 283 Chile, 279 Colombia, 211, 278 Congo, Belgian, 229 Costa Rica, 225, 280 Cuba, 282 Dominican Republic, 281 Ecuador, 278 Eritrea (1918), 229 Federated Malay States, 284 Gold Coast, 285 Guadeloupe, 281, 282 Guam, 284 Guatemala, 219, 225, 280 Guiana, British and French, 279 Dutch, 236, 279 Haiti, 220, 281 Hawaii, 239, 284 Honduras, 234, 280 British, 235, 280 India, 282 Jamaica, 281 Java, 215, 283 Liberia (1917), 229 Madagascar (1918), 229 Martinique, 282 Mauritius, 285 Mexico, 280, 281 Netherlands E. Indies, 283 Nicaragua, 280 Nigeria, 285 Nyasaland, 285 Oaxaca (Mex. ), 220 Panama, 235, 280 Paraguay, 236, 279 Peru, 278 Philippines, 284 Porto Rico, 281 Réunion (Bourbon), 285 Salvador, 225, 279, 280 Sierra Leone, 285 Somali Coast (French), 285 Somaliland (Fr. And It. ), 229 (British), 285 St. Thomas and Princes I. 's, 229 Sumatra, 217 Uganda, 229, 285 Uruguay, 279 Venezuela, 212 World (1883-1921), 273 (1901-02), 531 (Statistical Table), 274 Production and Consumption, 273-285 Prohibition, U. S. Effect on consumption, 288, 689 _Prolongation of Life_, Metchnikoff, _q. _, 178 Propagation Cuttings, 138, 200 Grafting, 200 Seeds, 138, 200 Arabia, 231 Proteins in c. , 693, 718, 719 Dearth in beverage, 180 Provang, 56 Pruning, 133, 202, 203 Angola, 230 _Publick Adviser_, _per. _, _q. _, _ill. _, 56, 432, 581 _Public Ledger_, London, _per. _, 327 Publicity, National campaign, 513 Publishers' Information Bureau, 441 Puerto Cabello c. , 348, 364 Puhl, John, 502 Puhl-Webb Co. , 502 Pulp, uses, 136, 156 Pulping, 250, 251 Pulping machinery, 245, 246, 247, 248, 252, 254 Puna c. , 356, 375 Pupke, John F. , 482, 496 Pupke & Reid, 482, 496, 499, 635 Pupke, Reid & Phelps, 496 Purcell, Alexander H. , 477 Purcell, Joseph, 477, 480, 535 Purcell & Co. , Alex. H. , 477 Purser (artist), 668 _Purchas his pilgrimes_, _q. _, 36 Purchas, Samuel, 36 Purdy, L. J. , 479 Pure Food and Drugs Act, 337, 338, 410, 472, 722 _Purin Bodies of Food Stuffs_, Hall, _q. _, 184 Purity Dried Fruits Cleansing Co. , 471 _Purpurescens, C. _, _hyb. _, 140 Pyriform c. -pot, 604 Pythagoras, 13 Qahvah, 2 Qahwah, 1 Quadri, Giorgio, 28 Quakers (imperfections), 329 Quarry, Col. , 126 Queen Anne, 82 Queen Mary, 601 Queensberry, Duchess of, 572 Quelle, Ralph J. , _pat. _, 648 Quick roast, 387, 388 _Quillou, C. _, 146 Java, 216 _Quillouensis, C. _, 146 Quin, James, 580, 583 Quinby & Co. , W. S. , 501 Quincy, Dr. , 543 Quotation relationship (table), 330 Quotations Daily, how determined, 335 Foreign, 336 Rabaut, L. B. , _pat. _, 623, 627, 699 Racine, 91, 565 Radcliffe, John, 77, 572 Rainfall requirements, 198 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 42 Rambaldi, Angelo, 558; _q. _, 696 _Rameau's Nephew_, Diderot, _q. _, 96 Ramos, Augusto, 531 Ramos, Francisco F. , 534 Ramponaux, Jean, _chk. _, 94, 96 Rand, George, 480 Randall, John, 479 Ranelagh (_see_ Gardens) Ransom, Amos, _pat. _, 625 Raparlier, _pat. _, 637 _Rape of the lock_, Pope, 80 Rapid-filtration devices de Mattel's patent (1920), 653 Express, 651 Italiana Sovereign, L. , 651 J. & S. (Still's), 674 Victoria Arduino, La, (1909-20), 651 Rapid-infusion devices Bezzara system, 649, 651 Ideale, _ill. _, 651 Malthey-Zorn centrif. , 653, 654 Rapid-percolation device Loysel's hydrostatic, 708 Rasch, Anthony, 612 Rasis ad Almans (_see_ Rhazes) Rauwolf, Leonhard, 43, 45, 431, 541, 543; _q. _, 2, 12, 25 Ray, John, 42, 543 Ray & Co. , Winthrop G. , 478, 479, 480 Razi, El (_see_ Rhazes) _Ready and easy way to establish a free commonwealth_, Milton, 60 Reamer, Sr. , Abraham, 480 Reamer, Turner & Co. , 480 Rebagging New York, 322, 338 Santos, 304, 306 Rebellious antidote (broadside), _q. _, 58 Recipes, dessert's, etc. , 723, 724 Reconditioning, 322 Recovery, _v. _, 468 Red Can (brand), 441 Red D Line, 482 Red E (brand), 538 Red pottage, 13 Red Ribbon (brand), 441 Reed, Charles, 127 Reed, Charles B. , _q. _, 557 Reed, Nathan, _pat. _, 245, 469 Reeve, Daniel, 482 Reeve & Van Riper, 482 Reeve, Case & Banks, 479 Re-exports London, 327 United States (1921), 299, 301, 302 Refining device Johnston's patent (1913), 652 Reichert, E. T. , _q. _, 183 Reid, Thomas, 469, 482, 494, 496, 497, 522, 526 Reid & Co. , Thomas, 499 Reid, Murdoch & Fischer, 480, 502 Reiger, _q. _, 184, 185 Reimers & Meyer, 485 Religious associations Christian, 26 Mohammedan, 15, 16, 17, 22 Remi c. , 351, 368 Remington, J. R. , _pat. _, 633 Remington, Mortimer, 445 Remmer, Oscar, 502 Renan, 102 Renovating, 158 Renshaw, William, _chk. _, 130 Rentschler, _q. _, 161 Repassing machine, 252 Research, Scientific Brewing, comparative test, 714, 716 Dawson and Wetherill (1855), 711, 712 Grinds, comparative test, 716 University of Kansas, 714 Mass. Inst. Of Technology, 515, 716-718 Mellon Institute, 539 N. C. R. A. , 513-515, 539, 713-718 Prescott, 515, 714, 716-718 Robison, 715 Trigg, 539 Restaurants London A, B, C (chain), _ill. _, 674, 677 Brit. Tea Table Ass'n. , 675 Buzard's cake house, 677 Cabin, 677 Carlton, 678 Corner Houses (chain), 677 Express Dairy Co. , 677 Groom's, _ill. _, 674 Lipton's, 677 Lyons (chain), _ill. _, 674, 675, 677 Peel's, 674 Slater's, 675, 677 Temple Bar, _ill. _, 675 Trust-houses, Ltd. , 675 Ye Mecca Co. , _ill. _, 674 New York Childs (chain), 691 Dorlon's, 690 Thompson (chain), 691 Restrepo, Dr. , _q. _, 181 Retailing, 415-429 Blending, 722 Channels of distribution, 415 _Retaliation_, Goldsmith, 573, 574 Reuter-Jones Mfg. Co. , 649 Revere, Paul, 110, 609, 611; _biog. _, 612, 613 Revett, William, _q. _, 2 Revolution American, 110, 125, 128 French, 100, 102, 293 Revolution, C. And, 18, 20, 31 (_See also_ Democracy: Politics) Rewards, 50, 51 Reynolds, J. B, 506 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 81, 88, 574, 580, 585 Reynolds, Hatcher & Pierce, 509 Rhazes, _q. _, 11, 12, 25, 431, 541 Rheumatism, remedy, 182 Rhodes, Benjamin, 477 Rice, W. S. , 502 Richards, Charles, 508 Richardson, Charles, 80, 576; _q. _, 584 Richardson & Lane, 501 Richelieu, Duke of, 96, 98 Richheimer, I. D. , 538, 539; _pat. _, 651, 652; _q. _, 715 Richter, _q. _, 159 Ricker, Harvey, 701; _pat. _, 645 Ridenour, Baker Gro. Co. , 485 Riechelmann, _q. _, 159 Ries, Maurice, 338 Riggs, J. H, 508 Riley, James Whitcomb, _q. _, 552 Rinehart & Stevens, 507 Rios (c. ), 341, 343, 366 Ripley, D. C. , 497 Risley, Christopher, 479 Risley, Leander S. , 479 Risley & Co. , C. , 479, 480, 528 Rittenhouse, John, _pat. _, 627 Ritz, 678 Rivarol, 98 Rivers, 186; _q. _, 187 Roach, Tiger, 579 Roasters Baltimore, 507, 508 Boston, 501 Chicago, 501, 502 Cleveland, 507 Detroit, 508 Louisville, 505 Milwaukee, 506 New Orleans, 505 New York (1790-94), 475, 476 (1805-1922), 492-501 Philadelphia, 501 Pittsburgh, 507 San Francisco, 505, 506 St. Louis, 502, 503 Toledo, 506, 507 Other cities, 508, 509 United States, 492-509 (_See also_ Dealers, wholesale) Roasting Arabia, 658-662 Australia, 692 Great Britain, 673 (18th century), 695, 696 (19th century), 704, 705, 707 France, 679 Greece, 685 Netherlands, 686 New Zealand, 692 United States, 709, 710, 712 Roasting, Chemistry of, 165-167, 388, 389 Roasting economies, 513 Roasting, Household Decline of, 635 Devices Braziers, 615 Clay dishes, 615 Corn-poppers, 635 Cylinder, 619 Earthenware, 615, 620 Extemporized, 617, 635, 695, 696 Glass flasks (Italy), 623 Iron dippers, spiders, 616 Metal plates, 615 Stirrers (spatula), 616 Roasting machinery, 381-386, 615-654 Coal, 391, 392 Development of, 629 Direct-flame, 386 French, 678-680 Glass cylinder, 646 Gas, 386, 640-643 German (1860-1897), 638, 639 Imports from Gt. Brit. , 625 Indirect-flame, 642, 646 Inner-heated, 386 Retail, 420, 421 Sample (France), 679 Wholesale, Burns, J. ; improvements, 634-637, 644 French patents, 639, 640 German patent, first, 683 Fullard's heated fresh air, 643 Steam-power, 631, 635 Roasting machines Household Bernard's cylinder (1841), 629 Bull's coal (1704), 620 Elford's white iron (1660), 616, 617 Gee's (1852), 634 Home (1908), 646 Hyde's combined (1862), 634 Ittel's glass sphere (1874), 640 Kuhlemann's electric, 648 Lacoux's combined, 625, 627 Lauzaune's cylinder (1829), 625 Lauzaune's "rocking" (1873), 640 Lawton's perforated, gas (1912), 641 Lawton's quick gas (1912), 651, 652 Marchand's fan roaster (1866), 640 Martin's cylinder (1860), 640 Preterre's weighing (1849), 634 Ransom's (1833), 625 Remington's wheel of buckets, 633 Savo (1917), 646 Schick's method (1812), 623 Williamson's (1820), 624 Wood's spherical (1849), 634, 710 Retail Lambert's 50-pound, 646 Lester's electric (1903), 647 Moegling's electric (1906), 647 Sales promotion value, 423 Seymour's electric (1921), 648 St. Louis, Jr. , 649 Talbutt's electric (1911), 647 Uno electric (1909-20), 647, 648 Warner's mill (1905), 648 Sample roasting Burns, 642 Improved (1883), 645 Swing-gate (1900), 647 Tilting (1909), 651 Wholesale, 646 Arbuckle's first (1903), 647 Aromatic (electric power), 646 Burns Balanced-front (1908), 651 Coal, 391, 392 Direct-flame (1900), 642 First patent (1864), 634 Special gas (1897), 642 Carter Pull-out (1846), 469, 629 Combination (quick gas), 641 Comet, 638 Crawley patents, 642 Dakin (1848), 633 Delphine tubular (1870), 639 Economic, 646 Evans cylindrical (1824), 624 Faulder, 640, 673 First direct flame (U. S. ), 471 Fleury gas (1880-81), 638, 640 Fraser gas (1897-98), 642 Giacomini process (1903), 648 Hamsley direct-flame (1898), 642 Henneman direct-flame (1888), 640, 642, 643 Holmes patent (1906), 643 Hungerford patent (1882), 644 Hyde combined (1862), 634 Ideal-Rapid, 639 Johnston patent (1905), 646 Jubilee (1915-19), 643, 652 Jumbo, 522, 524, 647 Knickerbocker, 638, 644 Knowlys's cylinder (1848), 633 Kuchelmeister drum, 647 Lambert indirect-flame (1901), 642, 646 Self-contained, 646 Lambert (French), 646 Magic, 646 Marchand ball (1877), 640 Meteor, 638 Moderne, 646 Monitor direct-flame, 642 Morewood sliding-burner (1901), 642, 673 Muhlberg patents (1878), 638 Otto spiral-tubular (1889), 640, 641 Page Pull-out (1868), 637, 638 Pearson patents, 638, 640 Perfekt, 639 Postulart gas (1888), 640 Potter direct-flame (1899), 642 Probat, 639 Rekord (quick gas), 641 Resson, 646 Royal (1905), 643, 646 Schmidt patent (1906), 649 Schnuck gas (1919), 653 Shortt electric (1919), 647 Sirocco, 641, 646 Thurmer quirk-gas (1891-93), 640, 641 Tornado quick-gas, 641 Tubermann (1877), 638 Tupholme direct-flame (1887), 640, 641 Typhoon, 638 Uno, 673 Van den Brouck cylinder, 646 von Gumborn gas (1892), 639 Van Gulpen (1870), 638 Roasting methods Automatic control, 166 Better C. -making com. , 713, 714 Burns, Jabez; views on, 636 Butter; use in Gt. Brit. , 673 Early, 694, 695 Electric, 386 Goldsworthy's process, 702 Lard; use in Gt. Brit. , 673 Natural gas, 642 Quick _vs. _ slow, 640, 641 Roasting plants France, 679 United States Arbuckle, 524, 525 First and second, 468 New York Number (1914-1919), 515, 516 Early (1790-95), 491 Number (1855-56), 496 Roasting trade France, 678, 679 Italy, 686 United States, 379-406, 491-515 Beginning of, 522 Methods and prices (1845), 635 Retail, 418 St. Louis (1857), 629-633 Roasts, 356 Brazilian preferences, 691 British preferences, 673 French preferences, 680 Greek preferences, 685 Italian preferences, 686 Roberts, Mrs. , _chk. _, 127 Robertson, Joseph C. , 585 Robespierre, 94, 96, 102 _Robinson Crusoe_, Defoe, 80 Robinson, Dr. , _q. _, 176 Robinson, Edward Forbes, 557; _q. _, 11, 54, 56, 59, 62, 72, 73, 107 Robinson, Tanered, 584 Robinson & Co. , N. , 501 Robison, Floyd W. , _pat. _, 158, 474; _q. _, 715 _Robusta, C. _ Botanical description, 144 Ceylon, 236 Cup-tests, 145 Guadeloupe, 234 India, 227 Indo-China, French, 237 Java, 215, 216 Netherlands E. Indies, 283 New Caledonia, 243 New York, Exchange excludes, 329, 338 Sumatra, 217 Trees; height (Java), 215 yield (Java), 216 Uganda, 353 United States, imports, 341 Varieties, 146 _Robusta-achtigen_ (robusta-like), 216 _Robusta_ hybrid (Ceylon), 236 _Robusta_ × _Maragogipe_, _hyb. _, 146 Rochester, Earl of, 575 Rodney, William, 126 Roe, Sir T. , _q. _, 2 Roettier, John, 62, 582 Rogers, _chk. _, 121 Rolamb, Nicholas, _q. _ 23 Rollins, Thornton, 485 _Romance of Trade_, Bourne, _q. _, 54 Romero, _q. _, 198 Ronan, James, 508 _Roodbessige, C. _ (Java), 216 Roome, Luke, _chk. _, 118 Roome, William P. , 478, 498 Roome & Co. , William P. , 478, 498 Rooney, John, 475 Roosevelt family, 690 Ropes, Joseph, 468 Ropes, Ripley, 482 Roque, P. De la, 31, 543 _Rosary, The_, Barclay, _q. _, 563 Rosebault, Charles J. , _q. _, 671 Roseburg, William, 521, 522 Rosée, Pasqua, 42, 43, 53, 54, 58, 69, 462, 543; _q. _, 432 Handbill, _ill. _, 459, 461 Roselius, Ludwig, _pat. _, 162, 473 Ross, C. J. , _q. _, 230 Rossbach & Bro. , 485 Rosseau, Jean Baptiste, 88, 554 Rosseter, J. H. , 490 Rossi, _q. _, 186 Rossignon, _q. _, 707 Rossini, 103 Rota (_see_ Clubs, C. -house) Roth, 510 Roth Grocery Co. , Adam, 485 Rothschilds, 531 Roubiliac, 84, 583, 584 Rouch, _pat. _, 621 Roure, _pat. _, 640 Rousseau, Baron Antoine, _q. _, 656 Rousseau, J. J. , 94, 98, 102, 566 Routh, Harold, _q. _, 561 Rowland, _pat. _, 625 Rowland, Helen, _q. _, 553, 554 Rowland & Humphreys, 482 Rowland, Humphreys & Co. , 480 Rowland, Terry & Humphreys, 482 Rowlandson, Thomas, 75, 593 Rowley, Levi, 494, 499 Roxbury "hourlies", 10 Royal Exchange Lloyd's, 85 Royal Exchange (London), 86 Royal Exchange (New York, 1752), 120 Royal Scarlet (brand), 441 Royal Society, 41 Royal, Thomas M. , 471 Rubia Mills, 434, 496 Ruffio, P. A. , 591 Ruffner, W. R. , 538 Rule & Bro. , Robert J. , 501 Ruliff, Clark & Co. , 505 Rulings (U. S. ), 337, 338 Rumford, Count, _inv. _, 557, 621, 622, 699, 704; _biog. _, 697; _q. _, 698 Rumsey, Walter, _q. _, 56 Runkle & Co. , J. C. , 479, 482 Rupert, Prince, 69 Russell, Edward C. , 495 Russell, Frank C. , 478, 499 Russell, Robert, 482 Russell, Robert S. , 499 Russell & Co. , 482, 494, 499 Russell & Fessenden, 501 Ruth, 13 Ruth, Sylvester, 507 Rutter & Co. , Thomas, 480 Ryan & Co. , James, 506 Saccharin in c. , 165 Saffron in c. , 660 Saint-Foix, 566, 567 Saint-Victor, 102 Salaman, Malcolm C. , _q. _, 589 Salant, _q. _, 184 Salazar, Alfredo M. , _pat. _, 653 Salazar c. , 349, 365 Sales by candle, 571 Salesmanship, 407 Sales promotion Retail, 423-426 Wholesale, 412, 413 Saltero, Don, 559, 560 Saltus, Francis S. , 541; _q. _, 552 Salvadors (c. ), 347, 360 Salvandy, Narcisse-Achille, _q. _, 100 Samoa c. , 355, 375 Sample distribution, 412 Samplers (N. Y. Exch. ), 333 Sampling Brazil, 303, 304, 306 New York, 319, 321 San Francisco, 327 Santos, 303, 304, 306, 312, 316 Sanani c. , 351, 368 Sanborn, Chas. E. , 501 Sanborn, James S. , 501 Sandys, Sir George, 12, 38, 543; _q. _, 36 _Sandys's Travels_, _q. _, 36 Sand, George, 565 Sanger, Abraham, 480 Sanger, Beers & Fisher, 480, 497 Sanger & Wells, 480 Santa Ana c. , 350, 365 Santa Cecilia, _v. _, 316 Santo Domingos (c. ), 350, 362 Santos c. , 341, 342, 366 Saportas Bros. , 482 _Saturday Evening Post_, _per. _, _q. _, 177 Sauvage c. , _ill. _, 142 Savage, 578 Savage, George E. , _pat. _, 649 Savage, Richard, 570 Saxe, Marshall, 98 Saxon Coffee Co. , 508 Sayre, _q. _, 163, 164, 166, 183 Schadheli, Sheik, 13, 14 Schaefer, Henry, 478, 535 Schaefer, J. H. , _q. _, 428 Schams, Franz, 590 Schanne, Alexandre, _q. _, 102 Scharf, _q. _, 126 Schemsi, _chk. _, 19, 668 Scheuzer, J. J. , _q. _, 13, 16 Schick, Anthony, _pat. _, 623 Schierenberg, A. , 535 Schilling, A. , 506 Schilling & Co. , A. , 505, 506, 507 Schipano, Mario, 27 Schittenhelm, _q. _, 182 Schmelzel, James H. , 495 Schmidt, C. , 591 Schmidt, Francisco, 208 Schmidt, Ludwig, _pat. _, 649 Schmidt & Ziegler, 486 Schmiedeberg, Dr. Oswald, _q. _, 185 Schnuck, Edward F. , _pat. _, 653 Schnull & Krag, 508 Schoepffwasser, Lorentz, _pseud. _, 45 School of Oratory, Macklin's, 580 Schools, information for, 513 Schools of the wise, 19 Schotten, Christian, 503 Schotten, Hubertus, 503 Schotten, Jerome J. , 503 Schotten, Julius J. , 503, 510, 631 Schotten, William, 503, 629, 631, 633 Schotten & Bro. , William, 503 Schotten & Co. , Wm. , 485, 502, 503 Schotten Coffee Co. , Wm. , 503 Schramm, Arnold, 477 Schramm, Inc. , Arnold, 477 Schroeder, Bruno, 532, 534 Schroeder & Co. , J. Henry, 532, 534 Schuler, John G. , 508 Schulte, A. , _q. _, 156 Schultz & Ruckgaber, 482 Schultze, _q. _, 165 _Schumaniana, C. _, 146 Schumberg, _q. _, 186 Schürhoff, _q. _, 185 Schurtzkwer, 185 Schwartz, Joseph M. , 521 Schwartz Bros. , 488 Schweitzer & Co. , M. , 488 Scialdi, 14 Scolfield, Henry, _pat. _, 247 Scott, Andrew, _q. _, 85 Scott, Edwin, 499 Scott, Sir Walter, _q. _, 573, 574, 579 Scott, William, 479 Scott & Dash, 479 Scott & Meiser, 479 Scott & Sons, William, 479 Scott, Dash & Co. , 479 Scott, Meiser & Co. , 479 Scott's Sons & Co. , William, 479 Scotty, C. (chef), 691 Scriba, Schroppel & Starmen, 475 _Scribner's Magazine_, _q. _, 664 Scudder, Gale Gro. Co. , 485 Scull, William S. , 509 Scull & Co. , W. S. , 508 Scull Co. , William S. , 509 Sculpture, C. In, 599 Seal (brand), 435, 441, 465 Secchi, 558 Seelye, Frank R. , 511, 513 Segundo (grade), 261, 264 Seidell, _q. _, 160 Seifert, _q. _, 185 Selby, Thomas, _chk. _, 112 Selden, David, _pat. _, 625 Seligsberg, Louis, 478 Selim I, 18, 19, 49 Selling chart, 409 Semarang c. , 355, 373 Sencial, _q. _, 156 Sené, _pat. _, 623, 625, 699 _Sense of Taste, The_, Hollingworth and Poffenberger, _q. _, 723 Separating machinery, 383 Sephton, Geoffrey, _q. _, 552 Service, C. , 31 Arabia, 658-663, 695 Artistic and historic, 599-614, 619, 620, 621 Britannia ware, etc. , 619 Clay bowls, first, 616 English, c. -pots (1714-70), 620, 621 Lantern c. -pots, 602, 619 Sèvres c. -pots, 607 Sheffield-plate c. -pots, 607 Silver c. -pots (18th cent. ), 619 Sino-Lowestoft c. -pot, 607 London cafés and restaurants, 674 Oriental c. -pots, 619 Netherlands, 686 New York hotels, 691 Paris (Pascal's, 1672), 619 Turkish, 602, 617, 621, 695 _Seven Truths to Teach the Young in Regard to Life and Sex_, Abbey, _q. _, 177 Sèvres c. -pots, 607 Seymour, Mark T. , _pat. _, 648 Shade, C. -growing under, 133 Arabia, 197 Guam, 242 Guatemala, 219 Hawaii, 241 Requirements, 201 Shadli, Shaomer (_see_ Schadheli), 2 Shami c. , 351, 368 Shapleigh Coffee Co. , 501 Sharki c. , 351, 368 Shaw, Daniel A. , 480 Shaw, John W. , 492 Shaw, William, 612 Shaw's Louisiana Coffee and Spice Mills, 505 Sheaff, Henry, 475 Sheffield plate c. -pots, 607 Sheldon, Henry, 479 Sheldon & Co. , Henry, 478, 479 Sheldon Banks & Co. , 479 Shemsi, _chk. _, 19, 668 Shenstone, _q. _, 584 Shephard, Fleetwood, _q. _, 584 Shepherd, T. H. , 593 Sheppard, Alexander, 501 Sheppard & Sons, Inc. , Alex. , 501 Sherbet, 562 London c. Houses sell, 61 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 80; _q. _, 581 Sherif-Eddin-Omar-ben-Faredh, _q. _, 543 Sherley, Sir Anthony, 35, 543 Sherman, Fred, 506 Sherman, Fred T. , 477, 482 Sherman, Henry B. , 506 Sherman, Lewis, 506, 514 Sherman, Jr. , Lewis, 506 Sherman, Milo P. , 506 Sherman, S. S. , 506 Sherman, William, 506 Sherman, William H. , 506 Sherman, William M. , 506 Sherman, William T. (Gen. ), 563 Sherman & Taylor, 477 Sherman Bros. & Co. , 485, 502, 506 Shewbert, John, _chk. _, 126 Shewbert, Mrs. , _chk. _, 126 Shields & Boucher, 507 Shihâb-ad-Dîn manuscript, 542 Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co. , 484, 485 Shipping Board, U. S. , 338 Shipping c. , 312-327 Brazil, 306 American vessels, 515 Colombia, 314, 315 Iron steamships (1868), 476 Longest voyage, 316 Santos, 312, 314 Time-table, port to port, 316 Shipping ports, principal, 191 Shope, W. C. , 502 Shortt, Everett T. , _pat. _, 647 Shrinkage, 389, 391 Roasting, 388 Table (green c. ), 393 Shubert (_see_ Shewbert) Sias, Charles D. , 501 Siddons, Mrs. , 569 Siegfried, John C. , 506 Siegfried & Brandenstein, 505, 506 Siegman, John G. , 507 Sielcken, Hermann, 473, 482, 511, 518, 519, 520, 523, 531; _biog. _, 517, 521 Valorization, 530-534 Woolson Spice Co. , 506 Sielcken, Hermann (Mrs. ), 518 Sielcken-Crossman contract, 519 Sierra c. , 345, 359 Signs, Coffee-house London, 602, 603 Bowman's, 54 Morat (Amurath), 62 Rosée's, 54 Soliman, 62 New York, 117, 124 King's Arms, 124 Signs, Grocers' Lowell, Ebenezer (New York), 467 Richards, Smith (New York), 124 Silver c. -pots, 619 Silver skin, 136, 138 Silversmiths, American, 609, 612 Silversmiths Society, 612 Simmonds, W. Lee, 478 Simmonds & Bayne, 478 Simmonds & Co. , H. , 478 Simmonds & Co. , W. Lee, 478 Simmonds & Newton, 478 Simon, Jr. , M. , _pat. _, 167 Simonds H. , 478 Sinclair, Evans & Elliot, 508 Singleton, Esther, _q. _, 105, 115, 709 Sinnot, J. B. , 505 Sino-Lowestoft c. -pot, 607 Sion & Co. , 340 _Sir Antoine Shirlies Trauelles_, Parry, _q. _, _ill. _, 38 Sirups (_see_ Syrups) Sizing (_see_ Grading), 258 Skiddy, Francis, 479 Skiddy, Minford & Co. , 479, 485, 530 Skinner, Cyriac, 60 "Skyscraper" coffee house, 112, 113 Slacks, 322 Slave auctions, Phila. , _ill. _, 128 Slemmons & Conkling, 508 Sloane, Sir Hans, 86, 543, 582 Sloss, Robert, _q. _, 531 Slow roast, 387 Small, C. K. , 477, 480 Small, John, 480 Small Bros. & Co. , 477, 479, 480 Smalls & Bacon, 480 Smart, Joseph F. , _pat. _, 653 Smith, Adam, 81, 583 Smith, Clarence 480 Smith, Daniel, _chk. _, 129 Smith, Frank, 499 Smith, George H. , 501 Smith, John (Capt. ), 105, 543, ; _q. _, 36 Smith, John Thomas, 583; _q. _, 569 Smith, Michael E. , 503 Smith, Mrs. , _chk. _, 119 Smith, Nathaniel, 584 Smith, Robert, 501 Smith, Robert A. , 501 Smith, Sidney, _q. _, 567 Smith, William T. , 501 Smith, William V. R. , 523, 524 Smith & Co. , D. , 476 Smith & Co. , Thomas, 700 Smith & Curtis, 507 Smith & McKenna, 505 Smith & McNell, 494 Smith & Schipper, 485 Smith & Son, Robert, 501 Smith & Son, Thomas, 637, 639, 699 Smith & Sons, Robert, 501 Smith Bros. & Co. , 505 Smith Bros. , 486 Smith Bros. & Co. Ltd. , 505 Smith's Sons, M. V. R. , 480 Smith's Sons, Robert, 501 Smoke screens (Guatemala), 219 Smollett, 559 Smooth (_see_ Flavors) Smout, Jules, _pat. _, 248 Smyser, Henry L. , 523; _pat. _, 470 Sobieranski, _q. _, 186 Sobieski, King John, 49 Sociedade Promotora da Defesa do Café, 446 Société de Café Soluble Belna, 539 Société Generale, 532, 534 Society of Antiquaries, 602 Society of the Friends of Music, 597 Soda fountains, 689 Soils Australia, 238 Best, 198, 201 Brazil, 198, 205 Costa Rica, 225 Federated Malay States, 238 Venezuela, 212 Soliman Aga, 91 Soliman the Great, 18, 19 Sollmann, _q. _, 182, 183 Soluble coffee, 404, 406 Brands, 470, 538, 539 History of, 538, 539 Kato's patent, 471 Processes, 169 U. S. Army war needs, 539 Washington's patent, 471 Soluble Coffee Co. , 539 Somers, A. L. , 507 _Songs of Brittany_, 548 Sons of Liberty, 120 Sorenson, John S. , 520 Sorenson & Nielson, 482, 520 Sorley, William, 480, 491 Sorting machinery, 245 Sorver, Damon & Co. , 485 Soulie, 102 Soup, Coffee, 177 Sour (_see_ Flavors) South Sea bubble, 571, 572 Southern boom (1904), 530 Southern Coffee Mills, Inc. , 505 Southern Coffee Polishing Mills, 505 Southern Cross, _v. _, 316 Southern Pacific Co. , 489 Souvestre, Emile, _q. _, 565 Spatula (_see_ Roasting machinery), 616 Specialty stores, 415, 421 _Spectator_, _per. _, 75, 80, 85, 88, 558, 573, 584; _q. _, 86, 87, 560, 561, 572, 575, 582 Spencer, G. L. , _q. _, 165 Sperry Flour Co. , 488 _Spice Mill_, _per. _, 470, 526, 527 _Spice-Mill Companion_, 427 Splitting nickels, 427 Spot brokers, 336, 337 Spot of leaf and fruit (_see_ Diseases) Spot Market, New York, 329, 330 Spot quotation committee (N. Y. Exch. ), 334 Sprague, Albert A. , 502 Sprague, Irvin A. , 477 Sprague, O. S. A. , 502 Sprague & Rhodes, 477 Sprague & Stetson, 502 Sprague & Warner, 502 Sprague, Warner & Co. , 483, 502 Sprague, Warner & Griswold, 502 Spreckels & Bros. Co. , J. D. , 488 Spring Garden Iron Works, 245 Spruce, Richard, _q. _, 200 Squier, George L. , 246 Squier Mfg. Co. , Geo. L. , 246, 247, 469 St. Germain's Fair (_see_ Coffee houses, Paris) St. Serf, Thomas, _q. _, 554 Stachan, John, _chk. _, 119 Stacie, _chk. _, 579, 580; _q. _, 581 Stadium (circus), New York, 124 Stage coaches, Boston, 110, 112 Stamp Act (1765), 120, 125, 128 Stamps, Trading, 429 Stanton, Sheldon & Co. , 479 Star Coffee and Spice Mills, 506 _Star_, London, _newsp. _, 585 Star Mills, 494, 499 Starhemberg, Rudiger von, 49, 50 State of São Paulo Pure C. Co. Ltd. , 445 _Statistical Abstract, U. S. _, _q. _, 299 Statue of Kolschitzky, 599 Steam power for roasting, 631, 635 Steel-cut, 401, 714 Baker-Duncombe suit, 649 Steele, Mrs. , _chk. _, 121 Steele, Sir Richard, 75, 80, 84, 557, 570, 572, 576, 577, 578, 579; _q. _, 558, 559 Steele & Co. , E. L. G. S. , 487 Steele & Emery, 508 Steele & Price, 470 Steele, Wedeles Co. , 485 Steele-Wedeles Co. , 502 Steeping, 720 Ste. -Foix, 94 Steinwender, Julius, 482 Steinwender, Stoffregen, 485 Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co. , 338, 340, 482, 502 Steinwender, Stoffregen Co. , 484 Stella (Esther Vanhomrigh), 562 Stenhouse, _q. _, 163 _Stenophylla, C. _, 216 Botanical description, 140 _Stenophylla_ × _Abeokutæ_, _hyb. _, 146 _Stenophylla Paris, C. _, 146 Stephen, _chk. _, 93 Stephens, Alvan, 507 Stephens, Henry A. , 507 Stephens Samuel R. , 507 Stephens & Co. , A. , 502 Stephens & Sons, A. , 507 Stephens & Widlar, 507 Steppe, J. P. , _pat. _, 649 Sterility, C. And, 23, 46 Sternau, Sigmund, _pat. _, 649 Sternau & Co. , S. , 649 Sterne, Richard, 601 Stetson, Z. B. , 502 Stevens, Alfred, 103 Stevens, Henry B. , _pat. _, 247 Stevens, W. & S. , 508 Stevens & Armstrong, 480 Stevens, Armstrong & Hartshorn, 480 Stevens Bros. & Co. , 480 Stewart, C. H. , _q. _, 349 Stewart, James, 478 Stewart, Robert C. , 477, 498 Stewart & Co. , C. M. , 485 Stewart & Co. , R. C. , 477 Stewart & Walker, 478 Stickney & Poor, 501 Still & Sons, W. M. , 647, 674 Stillman, Abel, _pat. _, 627 Stiner & Co. , Joseph, 409 Stitt, William J. , 494, 497 Stitt & Co. , W. J. , 497, 499 Stock Exchange, New York, 122 Stofffregen, Carl H. , 448, 511, 535 Stokes, John, 129 Stoning machinery, 381, 394, 395 Storage Havre, 327 New York, 319, 321 Santos, 303 Venezuela, 315 _Storia di Venezia nella Vita Privata, La_, Molmenti, _q. _, 27 Storm, Walter, 482 Storm, Smith & Co. , 482 Story, Rufus G. , 479, 496 Story & Co. , R. G. , 496 Story-tellers in c. Houses, 666, 669 Stoufs, Joseph, 590 Stowe, Orson W. , _pat. _, 644 Strassberger, L. , _pat. _, 649 Straus, Oscar, 672 Strauss & Sons, L. , 518 Street brokers, 337 Stringer, Mary, _chk. _, 56 Strong, Joseph, 508 Strowbridge, Turner, _pat. _, 644 Stuart, Alexander, 503 Stump, Aug. , 482, 484 Stumpp & Co. , August, 482 _Suakurensis, C. _ (Java), 216 Substitute, C. , advertising, 437, 438 Charts, 440, 441 Substitute-fakers, 435 Substitutes, 170 Barley, 13, 46 Betony, 74 Bocket, 74 Cereal (harmful to diabetics), 165 Chicory, 46 Corn, 46 Figs, dried, 46 Russia, 686 Saloop (sassafras and sugar), 73, 74 United States (1st patent), 470 Wheat, 46 Succory (_see_ Chicory) Succop & Lips, 503 Sucrose, 165 Suess-Oppenheimer, Joseph, 47 Sugar in c. , 26, 58, 91, 98, 106, 667 Cairo (first use, 1625), 657, 695 Consumption (U. S. ), 689 Great Britain (17th cent. ), 696 Greece, 685 North America, 105 Sugar of c. , 165 Sugar Trust fight, 521-523 Sullivan, Luke, 85, 584 Sully, D. J. , 530, 572 Sultan, Café, 658 Sultane, Café, 694 Sumatras (c. ), 355, 370-372 Sumerling & Co. , 674 Sun, London, _newsp. _, 578 _Sun_, New York, _newsp. _, _q. _, 175 _Sunshine_, _per. _, 524 Sutton & Vansant, 485 Swain, Earle & Co. , 501 Swaythling, Lord, 604 Swazey, S. L. , 479 Sweated c. , 316, 317 Artificial (U. S. Rulings), 337 Sailing vessels, 353 Sweeney, John, 492 Sweet (_see_ Flavors) Sweet c. 's, 397 Sweet-bitter c. 's, 397 Swett, E. H. , 501 Swift, Jonathan, 80, 84, 88, 89, 557, 562, 570, 573, 577, 578, 579, 587; _q. _, 571, 575 Swift & Co. , H. H. , 482 Swift, Billings & Co. , 485 _Sylva Sylvarum_, Bacon, _q. _, 38, 543 Syndicates Arnold-Dash-Kimball, 527, 528 German Trading Co. , 528 _Syria, The Holy Land_, Carne, _q. _, 668-670 Syrups, Coffee; recipe for, 724 Szekacs, _q. _, 185 Szyszka, _q. _, 185 Tabasco c. , 345, 358 Taber & Place, 434, 496 _Table, The_, _per. _, 675 _Table Traits_, Doran, _q. _, 705 Tachiras (c. ), 349, 365 Tackaberry, William, 509 Tackaberry Co. , Wm. , 509 Taine, 102 Talbot, Winslow & Co. , 507 Talbutt, Robert H. , _pat. _, 647 Talleyrand, Prince, 103; _q. _, 565 Tampico c. , 345, 359 Tannin, 160, 182, 711 Tapachula c. , 345, 358 Tapperi, David, _q. _, 11 Tapping hands (Arabia), 312 _Tatler_, _per. _, 75, 80, 85, 86, 561, 572; _q. _, 558, 559, 571, 573, 575, 584 Tatlock, _q. _, 159 Tavernier, 31, 543; _q. _, 2 Taverns Boston Blue Anchor (inn), 109 Bunch of Grapes, 111 Cole's (Inn), 109 First, 108 Green Dragon, 613 Indian Queen, 109, 110 King's Head, 109 Ship, 109 Sun, 109, 110 Red Lyon (inn), 109 London Barn, 584 Golden, 583 Locket's Ordinary, 569 Mermaid, 60 Rose, 56 Shakespeare's Head, 576 New York Atlantic Garden House, 117, 121 Black Horse, 118 Fighting Cocks, 118 Fraunces', 121 Jamaica Pilot Boat, 118 King's Head, 117 Queen's Head, 119 White Lion, 117 Philadelphia, 125 Blue Anchor (first), 126 City, 125, 128, 129, 130 Globe (inn), 126 New, 129 Smith's, 129 Taxation Arabia, 231 England (1714), 59 Germany, 47 Royal monopoly (1781), 46 Porto Rico (exemptions), 222 São Paulo (valorization), 534 Turkey, 20 (_See also_ Duties; Fines; Licenses; Pure food, etc. ) Taylor, C. K. , _q. _, 177 Taylor, James H. , 477 Taylor, John, 578 Taylor, William, 475 Taylor & Co. , James H. , 477, 479, 485 Taylor & Co. , Moses, 476 Taylor & Levering, 484, 485 Tea, 35 Action in stomach, 178 American colonies Introduction, 105, 106 Stamp act (1765) increases consumption, 106 Smuggled from Netherlands, 106 Antiquity, 15 Canada, 687 Discovery, 12 Great Britain Consumption compared with c. , 288, 289 First sold in London (1657), 56 Imports (1700-57), 75 Introduced at Court, 582 National beverage, 75 Preferred to c. , 674 Prices (1662, 1714), 582 Sold in c. Houses, 61, 78, 80 Taxation, 59 Eulogized by Mosely, 38 Johnson, Sam'l, 568 Europe (first used, 1610), 23 Literary stimulus, 357, 358 Mental efficiency, Effect on, 186 Philadelphia (introduction), 125 Russia, 686 United States Consumption per capita (1783), 468 Consump. Comp. With c. , 288, 289 Imports (1783), 468 Laws affecting, 337 Tea and coffee pots, 609 _Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_, _per. _, 138, 402; _q. _, 34, 147, 155, 160, 161, 168, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 186, 387, 388, 399, 410, 418, 421, 422, 427, 439, 527, 558, 679, 689, 693, 715, 717, 720 Begins publication (1901), 472 Ukers assumes editorship (1904), 527 Urges nat'l organization of roasters, 511 Tea gardens (_see_ Gardens) Tea party (_see_ Boston; New York) Tea-rooms (London), 675, 677 Teeth, Effects of c. On, 175 Tegals (_c. _), 355, 373 T'eh (tea), 35 Teixelra, Pedro, _q. _, 2 Telephone in retail stores, 424 Tellicherry c. , 351, 369 Temperance, C. And, 61 Tennent, Robert Bowman, _pat. _, 246 Terminology, 168 Terms and credits, 403, 513-515 Terms and discounts (Brazil), 306 Terry, Edward, _q. _, 36 Testing (France), 679, 680 _Text Book of Physiology_, Flint, _q. _, 176 Teyssonnier, 146 Thackeray, W. M. , 103; _q. _, 563 Thannhauser & Co. , 488 Thayer, Byron T. , 501 _Theatrum botanicum_, Parkinson, 543; _q. _, 41 Thebaud, Joseph, 476 Thein, 160 Theobromin, 160 _Therapeutic Gazette_, _per. _, _q. _, 176 Thery, _q. _, 543 Thévenot, 543 Thomas, C. , 501 Thomas, Elizabeth, 575 Thomas, Gov. , 127 Thomas, R. G. , 494 Thomas Co. , R. G. , 494 Thomas & Son, J. W. , 508 Thomas & Turner, 494 Thompson, Benjamin, _inv. _, 621; _q. _, 163 (_See also_ Rumford) Thompson, Dr. , _q. _, 159, 181 Thompson, James, 492 Thompson, James Henry, _pat. _, 246 Thompson, Patience, 492 Thompson, W. D. , 479 Thompson & Bowers, 478, 480 Thompson & Davis, 479 Thompson Bros. , 479 Thompson Co. , J. Walter, 445 Thompson, Shortridge & Co. , 478, 479 Thomsen & Co. , 479 Thomson, A. M. , 502 Thomson, James, 502 Thomson, James (poet), 574 Thomson, A. M. & James, 502 Thomson & Taylor, 502 Thomson & Taylor Co. , 502 Thomson & Taylor Spice Co. , 484, 502, 509 Thorn, A. B. , 499 Thornley, Jesse, 501 Thornley & Bro. , 501 Thornley & Ryan, 501 Thornton, Richard J. , 505 Thornton, Richard J. (Mrs. ), 505 Thornton & Co. , R. J. , 505 Thornton & Hawkins, 505 Thorpe, _q. _, 159, 164 _Thousand and One Nights_ (_see Arabian Nights_) _Three Reigns of Nature_, Delille, _q. _, 547 Thum, _pat. _, 158, 164 Thumb-piece on English c. Pots, 620 Thurber, A. D. , 499 Thurber, Francis B. , 557; _q. _, 182, 712 Thurber, H. K. , 482 Thurber & Co. , H. K. , 499 Thurber & Co. , H. K. & F. B. , 482 Thurlow, Lord, 80, 88, 572 Thurmer, Max, 640, 641 Tibiriçá, Jorge, 531 _Times_, London, _newsp. _ 585; _q. _, 175 _Times_, New York, _newsp. _, 671, 672 Tilloch, Dr. , 585 Tillyard, Arthur, 41 Timbs, John, 557; _q. _, 53, 69, 555, 570-585 Timby, _pat. _, _q. _, 157 Timor c. , 355, 376 Tinned coffee (Great Britain), 673 Tinney, Henry C. , 509 Tipping, origin of, 74 To arrive, 330 San Francisco, 327 Tobacco In c. Houses, 42, 77, 78, 84, 98 Intoxication, 182 Todd, Robert, 118 Togami, K. , _q. _, 179 Toledo & Co. , Filipe S. , 340 Tolimas (c. ), 348, 364 Tolman Co. , J. A. , 485 Tomkyns, _chk. _, 576 Toms, G. W. , 513 Tone, Isaac E. , 509 Tone, Jay E. , 508, 509 Tone, Jekiel, 509 Tone, W. E. , 509, 510, 511 Tone Bros. , 509 Tonkin c. , 352, 370 Tonti, Lorenzo, 122 Torner, Richard, _chk. _, 572 Torro & Co. , Louis M. , 340 Totten & Bro. , W. W. , 508 Touches, Vicomte des, 532, 534 Tovars (c. ), 349, 350, 365 _Town Eclogues_, Montagu, 573 Townsend, 496 Tractors, electric (Bush Co. ), 322 Tracy & Avery Co. , 485 Trade New Orleans, 485-487 Overproduction disturbs (1898), 471 San Francisco, 487-491 Shifting currents, 293, 294, 295, 296 United States, 475-515 (1921), 299-302 Aden and, 301 Brazil and, 300 Tariff preferentials, 296 Booms, 468, 469 Central Am. And, 296, 300 Chronological review, 467-474 Colombia and, 300 Development (1865-1922), 297-299 Mexico and, 301 Netherlands E. Ind. And, 301 Panic (1880), 470 Venezuela and, 300 West Indies and, 301 Trade and Statistics Committee (N. Y. Exch. ), 334 Trade Marks, U. S. , 413, 469, 470 Trade names of c. 's (_see_ Characteristics) Trading, 291-302 Amsterdam (1640), 105 Brazil, 295 Early, 293 Europe, 327-340 Germany (begins 1670), 293 Havre, 327 Netherlands, 293, 294 First cargo sold (1640), 43 New York (early), 115 U. S. Rulings, 337, 338 San Francisco and Central Am. , 325 Sweden (begins 1674), 293 Trading stamps, 429 Traffic Assn. Of St. Louis Coffee Importers (1910), 510 Trafton, C. K. , _q. _, 527 _Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, etc. _, Dufour, _q. _, 2, 11, 432, 433 Transhipping ports, Europe, 289 Transportation, Inland Abyssinia, 228, 229, 308, 310 Arabia, 266, 282, 293 Bolivia, 279 Brazil, 303 Central America, 308 Colombia, 308, 316 Nicaragua, 280 Venezuela, 308 Transportation, Seven stages of, 323 Travancore c. , 351, 369 _Travels_, Herbert, _q. _, 36 _Travels_, Rauwolf, _q. _, 25 _Travels_, Teixeira, _q. _, 2 _Travels and Adventure_, Smith, _q. _, 36 _Travels in Arabia Deserts_, Daughty, _q. _, 661 _Travels in India and Persia_, Della Valle, 27 _Travels of Certayne Englishmen, etc. , The_, Biddulph, _q. _, _ill. _, 36 Travers & Son, Joseph, 445 _Treatise in Latin_, Meisner, 543 _Treatise on Modern Stimulants_, Balzac, _q. _, 557 Tree, Coffee Age, 203, 211, 213, 222 Salvador, 219 Chemistry of, 155 Height, 133, 142, 202 Arabia, 231 Indigenous to Abyssinia, 1, 5 Origin, 5 Wood, uses for, 138 Yield, 136, 203 Bolivia, 236 Brazil, 138 Colombia, 211 Mexico, 222 Nicaragua, 227 São Paulo, 208 Trees, Coffee Number of Brazil, 207, 208 Ecuador, 236, 278 Indo-China, French, 237 Guatemala, 219 Pernambuco, 205 São Paulo, 205, 207, 208 Venezuela, 212 Number to acre, 201 Colombia, 211 Haiti, 220 Porto Rico, 223 Venezuela, 213 Tremont Coffee & Spice Mills, 501 Trentman & Bro. , C. A. , 508 Trentman & Son, B. , 508 Triage (grade), 258 _Tribune_, New York, _newsp. _, _q. _, 553 Tricolator, 168, 445, 651, 652, 701 Tricolette, 654 Triers, 321, 389 Trigg, C. W. , _pat. _, 406, 539; _q. _, 155, 174, 718-722 Trillado (grade), 260, 263 Trillo (grade), 264 Trinidad c. , 351, 362 _Triumph of C. _, Fakr-Eddin-Aboubeckr, 543 Troemner, Henry, 646, 472 _True Way of Making and Preparing C. _, Broadbent, _q. _, 697 Trujillos (c. ), 350, 365 Trusdell & Phelps, 495 "Truth in advertising" movement, 435 Truxtun, Scott, 444 Tubermann's Son, G. , _pat. _, 638 Tupholme, Beeston, _pat. _, 640 Turguenieff, 102 Turkey gruel, 70 Turkish ewer, 602, 603, 621 Turkish pocket cylinder mill, 615, 616, 617 Turner, A. , 508 Turner, Robert, _chk. _, 109 Turner (or Torner) Richard, _chk. _, 572 Turner, William F. , 480 Tussac, 8 Twitchell, Champlin & Co. , 508 Tyler, George C. , 556 Tyler, Henry D. , 480 Typhoid fever, Effects of c. On, 181 Typografia Pizzolato, 558 Uganda c. , 353, 377 _Ugandæ_, _C. _, 146 Ceylon, 236 Java, 216 _Ungandae_ x _Congensis_, _hyb. _, 146 Ukers, William H. , 527 Ulman, Lewis & Co. , 485 Umber, _q. _, 182 Union Bag & Paper Corp. , 472 Union Coffee Co. , 477 Union Pacific Tea Co. , 482, 501 _Universal history of plants_, Ray, 42, 543 University of Kansas, 714 University of Pittsburgh, 714 Unloading, 317-327 New Orleans, 323-325 New York, 317-323 San Francisco, 325-327 Unloading machinery, 325, 327 Uno Co. , Ltd. , 647 Untermeyer, Louis, _q. _, 553 Urioste & Co. , 488 Urruella & Urioste, 487 Urwin, William, _chk. _, 84, 574 _U. S. Dispensatory_, _q. _, 164, 184 Uses for c. , New, 457 Utter, J. W. , 503 Utter, Adams & Ellen, 503 Vacuum-packed c. , 410 (_see also_ Containers) Vacuum-packing, Effect of, 168 Valentijn, _q. _, 2 Valorization (Brazil), 473, 530-534 N. C. R. A. , 511 Norris, Senator, 532, 533 São Paulo, 295, 472, 534 Surtax, 315 Sielcken, H. , 521, 531-534 U. S. Gov't action, 534 Van Cortlandt museum, 122 Van Dam, Anthony, 475 Van dan Broeck, Pieter, 43 Van den Bosch, Gov. , 214 Van Dessel, Rodo & Co. , 340 Van Essen, 43 Van Etten, E. , 538 Van Gulpen, Alexius, 246, 638 Van Gulpen & Co. , 638 Van Gulpen, Lensing & von Gimborn, 638 Van Linschooten, Hans Hugo (John Huygen), _q. _, _ill. _, 35 Van Loan, Thomas, 497, 498 Van Loan & Co. , 498 Van Loan, Maguire & Gaffney, 497, 498, 499 Van Loo, 588 Van Ommen, Adrian, 6, 43 Van Ostade, Adriaen, 44, 587 Van Outshoorn, 6 Van Vliet, C. W. , _pat. _, 634 Van Zandt & Co. , M. N. , 508 Vancouver, 239 Vanderhoef, George W. , 479 Vanderhoef & Co. , George W. , 479 Vanderweyde, P. H. , _pat. _, 637 Vane, Gov. , 109 Vanessa (_see_ Vanhomrigh) Vanhomrigh, Esther, 562 Vaniére, 543 Vankorn, Guggenheimer & Co. , 501 Vardy, James, _pat. _, 627, 699 _Variegata, C. _, _hyb. _, 140 Varnar, 43 Vassieux, Madame, _pat. _, 627, 700 Vatel, Charles, _q. _, 566 Vaughn, V. C. , _q. _, 176, 177 Vauxhall garden, _ill. _, 81, 82, 83 Velloni, _chk. _, 103 Venard, G. , 505 _Venetian Republic, The_, Hazlitt, _q. _, 28 Venezuelas (c. ), 348, 364, 365 Verborg, Henry, 503 Verdier & Closset, 507 Verlaine, Paul, 94 Verri, Alexander, 558 Verri, Pietro, 30, 558 _Vertu and use of c. _, Bradley, _q. _, 293 Vesling (Veslingius), _q. _, 12, 26 Vickers. T. L. , 498 Victoria Arduino-Societa Anonima, 651 Victorias (c. ), 341, 343, 367 _Vie privée d'autrefois, La_, Franklin, _q. _, 6 Viehoever, A. , 160; _q. _, 144, 145 Vienna Besieged by Turks (1693), 49 Coffee-makers' guild, 50 _Vienna, Relation of the siege of_, Vulcaren, _q. _, 50 Villon, François, _q. _, 135 Vilain, 594 Vincent c. -pot, 604 Vintschgau, 186 Virey, _q. _, 20 Virgil, 543 Visconti, 558 Vitamins, 180 _Vitamines, The_, Funk, _q. _, 180 Viviani, Count, _ill. _, 578 Voit, Carl V. , _q. _, 177, 179 Volkman, George, 506 Voltaire, 94, 98, 178, 556, 557; _q. _, 554, 565 _Voyage de l' Arabie Heureuse_, La Roque, 543; _q. _ 15, 31, 32, 34, 197 _Voyage into the Levant, A_, Blount, _q. _, 38 Vulcaren, John P. A. , _q. _, 50 Vyal, John, _chk. _, 109 Wagama, _v. _, 316 Wagner & Co. , H. M. , 485 Wagon-route distributers United States, 415, 416, 417 France, 681 Wagstaff, David, 476 Wahibis, 542 Waite, _pat. _, 625 Waite, Creighton & Morrison, 477 Wakeful monastery, 14 Wakeman, Abram, 473, 478 Walbridge, Augustus, 480 Walbridge Inc. , Augustus M. , 480 Wales, Henry, 508 Walker, John, _pat. _, 245, 246 Walker, Joshua, 478 Walker Sons & Co. Ltd. , 246, 247 Wall, Dr. , 579 Wallace, Alexander, 475 Wallace, Alfred Russel, _q. _, 200 Wallace, C. L. H. (Mrs. ), _q. _, 181 Wallace, Hugh, 475 Wallace, John William, _q. _, 126 Wallace, William, _q. _, 657 Walle, Friedrich, 591 Wallen, Geo. S. , 482 Wallen & Co. , Geo S. , 482 Walpole, Sir Edward, 583 Walpole, Horace, 578, 580, 584 Walsh, Rev. Robert, _q. _, 557, 663-664 Walton, William, 475 _Wanni Rukula, C. _, 144 Ward, Ned, _q. _, 77, 84, 575 Wardell, _q. _, 185 Ware (architect), 583, 584 Warfield, John D. , 502 Warfield. W. S. , 502 Warne, E. , 508 Warner, Alonzo A. , _pat. _, 648, 649 Warner, C. M. , 538 Warner, Ezra J. , 502 Warnier, _q. _, 164, 169, 719 Warren, 110 Warren & Bedwell, 506 Warren & Co. , 482 Warton, Joseph, 573 Warwick, Lady, 575, 576 Wascana, _v. _, 316 Wash-brew, 58 Washed _vs. _ Unwashed, 250, 251 Washing machinery, 247 Washington, G. , _pat. _, 471, 538 Washington, George (Gen. ), 120, 130, 468 Official welcome, New York, _ill. _, 593 Washington, Martha, 130 Washington Refining Co. , George, 538 Washington and Jefferson college, 521 Washington's Prepared C. , G. , 538 Wastell, 603 Water extract, 168, 169 Water power, Nicaragua, 264 Waterbury & Force, 482 Water-supply requirements, 198 Watering, Excessive, 513 Watjen, Toel & Co. , 482 Watson, _q. _, 126 Waygood, Tupholme Co. , 641 Wear F. F. , _pat. _, 651 Webb, James R. , 501 Webb, Rudolphus L. , _pat. _, 644 Webb, Thomas J. , 502, 511 Webb & Son, James R. , 501 Webb, Cheek & Co. , 509 Webb, Hughes & Co. , 509 Webb-Puhl Co. , 443 Webber, _q. _, 186 Webster, _q. _, 704 Webster, Daniel, 110 Webster, George, 124 Wedding Breakfast (brand), 441 Wedgwood, 607, 612 Wedmeyer, _q. _, 187 Weighing machinery, 403, 471 Weighmasters (N. Y. Exch. ), 333 Weikel & Smith, 501 Weikel & Smith Spice Co. , 470, 501, 635 Weir, J. B. , 499 Weir, Ross W. , 466, 448, 499, 511, 513, 514; _q. _, 424 Weir & Co. , Ross W. , 495, 499 Weir, Inc. , Ross W. , 495, 499 Weissman, John, 488 Weisweiller, _q. _, 163 Weitzmann, _pat. _, 158 Welch, Amos S. , 492 Welch & Co. , 488 Wellman, C. P. , _q. _, 410 Wells, D. Henderson, 482 Wells, John, 482 Wells Bros. , 482, 485 Welsh, Ebenezer, 495 Wendroth, Clara, 519 Wessels & Bros. , C. , 482 Wessels, Kulenkampff & Co. , 482 West Indies (c. ), 350, 351, 361, 362, 363 West & Melchers, 485 Westcott, _q. _, 126 Westen T. & S. Co. , Edw. , 485 Westfal, J. R. , 496 Westfeldt Bros. , 485, 486 Weston & Gray, 482 Westphal, _pat. _, 167 Wet method, 136, 249, 252, 254 Wet roast, 389, 391 Wetherill, Charles M. , _q. _, 711, 712 Weyl & Co. , G. , 482 Weyl & Norton, 482 Wheeler & Co. , Ezra, 478, 479 Whieldon, 607, 612 White coffee, 674 White, A. E. , _pat. _, 651 White, Francis, _chk. _, 87 White, Herman M. , _pat. _, 625 White, Peregrine, 616 White House (brand), 441, 465 White Rose (brand), 441 Whitefoord, Caleb, 573 Whiting & Taylor, 502 Whiting, Goeble & Co. , 502 Whitmarsh, Theodore F. , 535 Wholesale Grocers Corp. , 502 Wholesaling roasted c. , 407-413 Capital invested, U. S. , 415 Sales, annual, U. S. , 415 _Wholesome advice against the abuse of hot liquors_, Duncan, _q. _, 59 Wickersham, Att'ney Gen. , 593 Widlar, Francis, 507 Widlar & Co. , F. , 507 Widlar Co. , 507 Wiji Kawih, 11 Wilcox, O. W. , _q. _, 147 Wild (_see_ Flavors) Wild c. (Abyssinia), 284 Wild, James, 469, 492 Wilde, Herbert W. , 492 Wilde, John, 492 Wilde, Joseph, 492 Wilde, Samuel, 482; _biog. _, 492 Wilde, Jr. , Samuel, 492 Wilde & Sons, Samuel, 492 Wilde's Sons, Samuel, 494, 499 Wilde's Sons Co. , Samuel, 492 Wiley, Harvey W. , _q. _, 175, 176, 180, 182, 396 Wilhelm, R. C. , _q. _, 387, 393 Wilke, 579 Wilkie, 583 Willcox, O. W. , _q. _, 161, 388 Wille, Theodor, 532, 534 William III, 601 Williams, Frank, 477, 498 Williams & Co. , R. C. , 494 Williams & Potter, 494 Williams & Taft, 507 Williams, Chapin & Russell, 478 Williams, Dimmond & Co. , 488 Williams, Russell & Co. , 477, 478, 535 Williamson, C. G. , _q. _, 62 Williamson, Peregrine, _pat. _, 468, 624 Williamson, S. H. , 498 Willis, Thomas, _q. _, 58 Wills & Co. , Alexander, 508 Willson, Wm. B. , 485 Wilson, Increase, _pat. _, 623 Wilson, Woodrow, 534, 535 Wilson & Bowers, 480 Wilson & Co. , J. W. , 480 Wimmer, _pat. _, 162, 473 Windbreaks, 201 Window-displays, 425 Window-trimming contest, 455 Wine C. Classed as, 1, 17, 20 C. A substitute for, 15, 42 Made from fruit, 15 Made from hulls and pulp, 693 Wing Bros. & Hart, 498 Winter, H. , _pat. _, 158, 167 Winter & Smilie, 482 Winthrop, Gov. , 109 Winton, Andrew L. , _q. _, 150 Wise, Capt. , 128 Withington, Elijah, _biog. _, 492 Withington & Pine, 492 Withington & Wilde, 492 Withington, Francis & Welch, 492 Withington, Wilde & Welch. , 494 Witsen, Nicolaas, 6, 43 Wittenagemott, 582 Wogan, Sir Charles, 575 Wolf & Seligsberg, 478 Wolff. L. , 485 Wolseley, Viscountess, 604 Women as coffee sellers, 56 _Women's petition against c. , The_, _pamph. _, _ill. _, 70, 71 Wood, Jr. , H. C. , _q. _, 176, 185 Wood, Jarvis A. , _q. _, 431 Woods, Rufus, 485 Wood, Thomas R. , _pat. _, 634 Wood & Co. , Thomas, 501 Woodward (actor), 579, 580 Woolson, A. M. , 506, 523 Woolson Spice Co. , 503, 506, 521, 523 World War effects Arabia, 268 Consumption, 289 Guatemala, 219 Mexico, 222 United States trade, 534-538 Imports, 286 San Francisco, 325 World trade, 190-195, 294, 296 _World's Commercial Products, The_, Freeman, _q. _, 133 _World's Work_, _per. _, _q. _, 531, 532 Worth, J. G. , 499 Wright, _q. _, 167 Wright, George C. , 501 Wright, George S. , 448, 501, 629 Wright, John S. , 482, 491 Wright, John T. , 488 Wright, Warren M. , 501 Wright Hard & Co. , 482 Wrightsville Hardware Co. , 644 Wroth, Warwick, _q. _, 82, 83 Wurffbain, 43 Württemberg, Duke of, 47 Wyatt, Charles, _pat. _, 621, 699 Wycherly, 575 Wyld, F. Lehnhoff, 538 XXXX (brand), 44 Yaffey c. , 351, 368 Yarrow, Mrs. , _chk. _, 555 Yates & Dudley, 508 Yellow fever, effect of c. On, 182 Yemeni c. , 351, 368 Yorke, Duke of, 554 Young, Arthur, _q. _, 100 Young, D. K. , 482 Young, Samuel, 507 Young, Mahood & Co. , 507 Young-Mahood Co. , 507 Youngs & Amman, 477 Yuban (brand), 441, 462, 524 Yuban advertising, 462-465 Yuengling, D. G. , 508 Yungas c. , 350, 367 Zamore, 590 Zamzam, 18 Zanzibar c. , 353, 377 Zarf (cup-stand), 661 Zecchini, G. B. , 549 Zenetz, _q. _, 185 Ziegler Arctic expedition, 538 Zilmore & Co. , A. G. , 508 Zinmeister Sr. , Frank, 505 Zinsmeister, Jacob, 505 Zinsmeister, L. G. , _q. _, 389 Zinmeister & Son, Frank, 505 Zinmeister & Sons, J. , 505 Zola, Emile, 103, 565 Zoller & Little, 508 Zwaardecroon, Henrious, 6 Zwick, Charles, 505 FOOTNOTES: [1] First written about tea; improperly claimed to have been written ofcoffee. [2] First written about tea; improperly claimed to have been written ofcoffee. [3] Jardin, Édelestan. _Le Caféier et le Café. _ Paris, 1895 (p. 55). [4] Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre. _Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, duThé, et du Chocolat. _ Lyons, 1684. [5] Coffee covered with the skin is called _boun_, and the coffee-tree, _boun_-tree (_sejar et boun_). [6] These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan. [7] Notice must be taken of the similarity in the names of coffee inHindustan and Abyssinia, and of the name of the coffee-tree as given byancient authors. [8] These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan. [9] These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan. [10] These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan. [11] See note 3 above. [12] _Legal_ and _Houri_ mean tree. [13] _Legal_ and _Houri_ mean tree. [14] North-American Indian. [15] La Roque, Jean. _Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse. _ Paris, 1716. [16] Jardin, Édelestan. _Le Caféier et le Café. _ Paris, 1895. (p. 102). [17] _Année Littéraire. _ Paris, 1774 (vol. Vi: p. 217). [18] Franklin, Alfred. _La Vie Privée d'Autrefois. _ Paris, 1893. [19] Michaud, I. F. And L. G. _Biographie Universelle. _ Paris. [20] Daney, Sidney. _Histoire de la Martinique. _ Fort Royal, 1846. [21] _Inauguration du Jardin Desclicux. _ Fort de France, 1918. [22] Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre. _Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, du Thé, et du Chocolat. _ Lyons, 1684. (Title page has _Traitez_;elsewhere, _Traités_. ) [23] Robinson, Edward Forbes. _The Early History of Coffee Houses inEngland. _ London, 1893. [24] _Encyclopedia Britannica. _ 1910. (vol. Xv: p. 291. ) [25] Galland, Antoine. _Lettre sur l'Origine et le Progres du Café. _Paris, 1699. [26] The Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript is described and illustrated in chapterXXXII. [27] Rauwolf, Leonhard. _Aigentliche beschreibung der Raisis so er vordiser zeit gegen auffgang inn die morgenlaender volbracht. _ Lauwingen, 1582-83. [28] Della Valle, Pierre (Pietro). _De Constantinople à Bombay, Lettres. _ 1615. (vol. I: p. 90. ) [29] "She mingled with the wine the wondrous juice of a plant whichbanishes sadness and wrath from the heart and brings with itforgetfulness of every woe. " [30] Scheuzer, J. J. _Physique Sacrée, ou Histoire Naturelle de laBible. _ Amsterdam, 1732, 1737. [31] Jardin, Édelestan. _Le Caféier et le Café. _ Paris, 1895. [32] La Roque, Jean. _Voyage dans l'Arabie Heureuse, de 1708 à 1713, etTraité Historique du Café. _ Paris, 1715. (pp. 247, 251. ) [33] _Adjam_, by many writers wrongly rendered Persia. [34] Scheuzer, J. J. _Physique Sacrée, ou Histoire Naturelle de laBible. _ Amsterdam, 1732, 1737. [35] _Harper's Weekly. _ New York, 1911. (Jan. 21. ) [36] Nairon, Antoine Faustus. _De Saluberrimá Cahue seu Café nuncupataDiscursus. _ Rome, 1671. [37] de Sacy, Baron Antoine Isaac Silvestre. _Chresto-nathie Arabe. _Paris, 1806. (vol. Ii: p. 224. ) [38] Olearius, Adam. _An Account of His Journeys. _ London, 1669. [39] Niebuhr, Karstens. _Description of Arabia. _ Amsterdam, 1774. (Herontrans. , London, 1792: p. 266. ) [40] _A Collection of Voyages and Travels. _ London, 1745. (vol. Iv: p. 690. ) [41] Molmenti, Pompeo. _La Storia di Venezia nella Vita Privata. _Bergamo, 1908. (pt. 3: p. 245. ) [42] Goldoni, Carlo. _La Bottega di Caffè. _ 1750. [43] Hazlitt, W. Carew. _The Venetian Republic. _ London, 1905, (vol. 2:pp. 1012-15. ) [44] Jardin, Édelestan. _Le Caféier et le Café. _ Paris, 1895. (p. 16. ) [45] "Drop by drop they take it in, " said Cotovicus. [46] Misprinted thus in the original Dutch and here. Read _Chaoua_, i. E. , Arabic _qahwah_. [47] Laurel berry, of which the taste is bitter and disagreeable. FromLatin _bacca lauri_. [48] Arabic, _bunn_; coffee berries. [49] _Brandewijn_ in original Dutch. [50] Mead. [51] _Purchas His Pilgrimes. _ London, 1625. [52] Sandys, Sir George. _Sandys' Travels. _ London, 1673. (p. 66. ) [53] Bacon, Francis. _Sylva Sylvarum. _ London, 1627. (vol. V: p. 26. ) [54] Burton, Robert. _The Anatomy of Melancholy. _ Oxford, 1632. (pt. 2:sec. 5: p. 397. ) This reference does not appear in the earlier editionsof 1621, 24, 28. [55] Herbert, Sir T. _Travels. _ London, ed. 1638. (p. 241. ) [56] Blount, Sir Henry. _A Voyage Into the Levant. _ London. 1671. (pp. 20, 21, 54, 55, 138, 139. ) [57] Gilbert, Gustav. _The Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta andAthens. _ London, 1895. (p. 69. ) [58] Aubrey, John. _Lives of Eminent Men. _ London, 1813. (vol. Ii: pt. 2: pp. 384-85. ) [59] _Works. _ (vol. Iv: p. 389. ) [60] à Wood, Anthony. _Athenae Oxonienses. _ London, 1692. (vol. Ii: col. 658. ) [61] Parkinson, John. _Theatrum Botanicum. _ London, 1640. (p. 1622. ) [62] D'Israeli, I. _Curiosities of Literature. _ London, 1798. (vol. I:p. 345. ) [63] A weight of from 133 to 140 pounds. [64] See chapter XXXII. [65] Vulcaren, . John Peter A. _Relation of the Siege of Vienna. _ 1684. [66] Bermann, M. _Alt und Neu Wien. _ Vienna, 1880. (p. 964. ) [67] Manuscript in the Bodleian Library. [68] See also chapter XXVIII. [69] _The Romance of Trade. _ London. (chap. Ii; p. 31. ) [70] Pasqua Rosée's sign. Kitt's (or Bowman's) sign was a coffee pot. [71] Hatton, Edward. _New View of London. _ London, 1708. (vol. I: p. 30. ) [72] The prosecution came under the heading, "Disorders and Annoys. " [73] Rumsey (or Ramsey), W. _Organon Salutis. _ London, 1657. [74] Also given as Sir James Muddiford, Murford, Mudford, Moundeford, and Modyford. [75] The Dutch admiral who, in June, 1667, dashed into the Downs with afleet of eighty "sail", and many "fire-ships", blocked up the mouths ofthe Medway and Thames, destroyed the fortifications at Sheerness, cutaway the paltry defenses of booms and chains drawn across the rivers, and got to Chatham, on the one side, and nearly to Gravesend on theother, the king having spent in debauchery the money voted by Parliamentfor the proper support of the English navy. [76] General Monk and Prince Rupert were at this time commanders of theEnglish fleet. [77] Lillie (Lilly) was the celebrated astrologer of the Protectorate, who earned great fame at that time by predicting, in June, 1645, "if nowwe fight, a victory stealeth upon us;" a lucky guess, signally verifiedin the King's defeat at Naseby. Lilly thenceforth always saw the starsfavourable to the Puritans. [78] This man was originally a fishing-tackle maker in Tower Streetduring the reign of Charles I; but turning enthusiast, he went aboutprognosticating "the downfall of the King and Popery;" and as he and hispredictions were all on the popular side, he became a great man with thesuperstitious "godly brethren" of that day. [79] Turnball, or Turnbull-street, as it is still called, had been for acentury previous of infamous repute. In Beaumont and Fletcher's play, the _Knight of the Burning Pestle_, one of the ladies who is undergoingpenance at the barber's, has her character sufficiently pointed out tothe audience, in her declaration, that she had been "stolen from herfriends in Turnball-street. " [80] Anderson. Adam. _Historical and Chronological Deduction of theOrigin of Commerce. _ London. 1787. [81] See chapter III. [82] More fully described in chapter XXXII. [83] See chapter XXXII. [84] Wroth, Warwick. _The London Pleasure Gardens of the 18th Century. _London, 1896. [85] There were six places, all told, bearing the name "Man's". Alexander Man was coffee maker to William III. [86] Salvandy, Narcisse-Achille. _Influence des Cafés sur les MoeursPolitiques. _ [87] Singleton, Esther. _Dutch New York. _ New York, 1909. (p. 132. ) [88] Bishop, J. Leander. _A History of American Manufactures, 1608 to1860. _ New York, 1864. (Vol. 1; p. 259. ) [89] Patterson, Robert W. _Early Society in Southern Illinois. _ Chicago, 1881. [90] Andreas, A. T. _History of Chicago. _ Chicago, 1884. [91] Singleton, Esther. _Dutch New York. _ 1909. (p. 133. ) [92] Bishop, J. Leander. _A History of American Manufactures, 1608 to1860. _ New York. [93] Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. _Philadelphia: a history of the city andits people. _ Philadelphia, 1912. (vol. 1: p. 106. ) [94] Freeman, W. G. _The World's Commercial Products. _ Boston, (p. 176. ) [95] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1918. (vol. Xxxv: no. 4. ) [96] Dr. Cramer considers _C. Maragogipe_ "the finest coffee known; ithas a highly developed, splendid flavor. " [97] _Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists_, Nov. 15, 1921. (vol. V: no. 2: pp. 274-288. ) [98] _The Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1912. (vol. Xxiii: no. 3. ) [99] _Die Menschlichen Genussmittel_, 1911. (p. 300. ) [100] See chapter XVI. [101] These and all other numbered drawings in this chapter are fromAndrew L. Winton's _The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods_, copyright 1916, and reprinted by permission. [102] _Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. _, 1919 (vol. Xli: p. 1306). [103] Anstead, R. D. _Annals on Applied Biology_, 1915 (vol. I: pp. 299-302). [104] Huntington, L. M. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1917 (vol. Xxxiii:p. 228). [105] Gorter, _Ann. _ (vol. Ccclxxii: pp. 237-46). Schulte, A. _Z. Nahr. Genussm. _ (vol. Xxvii: pp. 200-25). Loew, Oscar. _Ann. Rep. P. R. Agr. Expt. Sta. _, 1907 (pp. 41-55). [106] Sencial. _El Hacendado Mex. _ (vol. Ix: p. 191). [107] Pique, R. _Bull. Assoc. Chim. Sucr. Dist. _ (vol. Xxiv: pp. 1210-13). [108] _Pharm. Jour. _, 1886 (vol. Xvii: p. 656). [109] U. S. Pat. , 113, 832, April 18, 1871. [110] U. S. Pat. , 660, 602, Oct. 30, 1900. [111] French Pat. , 379, 036, Aug. 28, 1906. [112] French Pat. , 359, 451, Nov. 15, 1905. [113] British Pat. , 26, 905, Dec. 9, 1904. [114] U. S. 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[194] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1913 (vol. Xxiv: p. 455). [195] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1912 (vol. Xxiii: p. 356). [196] _Good Housekeeping_, through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1915(vol. Xxviii: p. 533). [197] _Good Housekeeping_, through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1915(vol. Xxviii: p. 533). [198] _Atti. Accad. Lincei_, 1915 (vol. Xxiv: no. 2: pp. 543-48). [199] Nalpasse, Dr. Valentin, _loc. Cit. _ (see 190). Flint, Dr. Austin B. _Text Book of Physiology_. Wood, H. C. , Jr. _Therapeutic Gazette_, 1912 (vol. Xxxvi: p. 13). [200] _Compt. Rend. _ (vol. Cxlviii: p. 1541). [201] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1914 (vol. Xxvi: p. 539). [202] _Arch. Exp. Path. Pharm. _, 1907 (vol. Lvii: p. 214). [203] _Universal Dictionary_, 1897 (vol. I: p. 1097). [204] _Handbuch der Physiologie_, 1881 (vol. Vi: p. 435). [205] _The Coffee Club_, 1921 (vol. I: p. 4). [206] _Saturday Evening Post_, through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1914(vol. Xxvii: p. 586). [207] _Loc. Cit. _ (see 192). 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Intern. Physiol. _ (vol. Xiii: pp. 107-14). [262] _J. Pharmachol. _ (vol. Iii: p. 609). [263] _J. Pharmachol. _ (vol. Iii: p. 468). [264] _J. Pharmachol. _ (vol. Iii: p. 455). [265] _Wien. Deut. Med. Wochenschr. _ (vol. Xxxviii: pp. 1774-76). [266] _Comp. Rend. Soc. Biol. _ (vol. Lxxiv: p. 32). [267] _D. A. Apoth. -Ztg. _, 1911-12 (vol. Xxxii: p. 4). [268] _Med. Record, N. Y. _, 1916 (vol. Xxx: p. 68). [269] _Therap. Gazette. _ 1912 (vol. Xxxvi: pp. 6-13). [270] _Deut. Arch. Klin. Med. _, 1920 (vol. Cxxxiv: pp. 174-84). [271] _Z. Physiol. Chem. _ (vol. Lxxvii: p. 259). [272] _Bull. Bur. Of Chem. _ (no. 157). [273] _Pharm. J. _, Mar. 31, 1900, through _Brit. Med. J. _, _Epit. _, 1900(vol. I: p. 35). [274] _Arch. F. Exper. Path. U. Pharmakol. _, 1895 (vol. Xxxv: p. 449). [275] _Ibid. _, 1895 (vol. Xxxvi: p. 45). _Ibid. _, 1896 (vol. Xxxvii: p. 385). [276] _Arch. De physiol. Norm. Et path. _, 1868 (vol. I: p. 179). [277] _Inaug. Diss. _, Königsberg, 1882. [278] _Arch. F. Exper. Path. U. Pharmakol. _, 1898 (vol. Xli: p. 375). [279] _Jour. Am. Med. Assoc. _, 1917 (vol. Lxviii: pp. 1805-07). [280] _Berliner Klin. Wochenschrift_, 1889 (no. 40). [281] _Encyc. Der Therapie_, 1896 (vol. I). [282] Pester, _Med. -Chir. Presse_, 1885 (no. 39). _Orvosi Hetilap_, 1885(nos. 32-33). [283] _Zeitschrift f. Klin. Med. _, 1893 (vol. Xxiii). [284] _Mitt. Aus der Würzburger Med. Klinik_, 1885 (vol. 1). [285] _New York Herald_, Mar. 24. 1912. [286] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1914 (vol. Xxvi: pp. 537-41). [287] _The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue. _ [288] "The Influence of Caffeine on Mental and Motor Efficiency. "_Archives of Psychology_, 1912 (no. 22). [289] _Revista sper. Di. Freniatria_ (vol. Xviii: p. 1). [290] _Archiv. Ital. De Biol. _, 1893 (vol. Xix: p. 241). [291] _Inaug. Diss. _, Marburg, 1894. [292] _Revista sper. Di Freniatria_, 1894 (vol. Xx: p. 458). [293] _Centralbl. F. Physiol. _, 1896 (vol. X: p. 126). [294] _Psychol. Arbeit. _, 1896 (vol. I: p. 378). [295] _Jour. Med. De Bruxelles_, 1897. [296] _Molcschott's Untersuchungen_, 1899 (vol. Xvi: p. 170). [297] _Archiv. F. Anat. U. Physiol. (Physiol. Abth. ), Suppl. Bd. _, 1899(p. 289). [298] _Skand. Arch. F. Physiol. _, 1904 (vol. Xvi: p. 197). [299] _Travaux du Lab. De Physiol. Inst. Solray_, 1904 (vol. Vi: p. 361). [300] _Psychol. Arbeit. _, 1901 (vol. Iii: p. 617). [301] _C. R. De la Soc. De Biol. Paris_, 1901 (pp. 593-627). [302] _Op. Cit. _ (p. 38). (See 285. ) [303] _Pflügers Archiv. _, 1877 (vol. Xvi: p. 316). [304] _Diss. _, Dorpat. , 1887. [305] _Psychol. Arbeit. _, 1896 (vol. I: p. 431). [306] _Psychol. Arbeit. _, 1901 (pp. 203-289). [307] _Psychol. Rev. _, 1911 (vol. Xviii: p. 424). [308] _Op. Cit. _ (see 285). [309] _Ueber die Beeinflüssung einfacher psychischer Vorgünge durcheinige Arzeneimittel_ (p. 224). [310] _Arch, exp. Path. Pharm. _, 1920 (vol. Lxxxv: pp. 339-58). [311] _Op. Cit. _ (p. 50). (See 287. ) [312] _Loc. Cit. _ (see 285). [313] See chapter XXX. [314] La Roque, Jean, _Voyage de l'Arabic Heureuse_, Paris, 1715. (p. 280. ) [315] _Encyclopedia Britannica_, 11 ed. , Cambridge, 1910. (vol. I: p. 118. ) [316] La Roque, Jean. _Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse_, Paris, 1715 (p. 285). [317] The 1921 figures for all countries given are preliminary. [318] Broadbent, Humphrey. _The Domestick Coffee Man. _ London, 1720. Bradley, Richard. _The vertu and use of coffee with regard to the plagueand other infectious distempers. _ London, 1721. [319] Since changed. There is now a Clearing Association. [320] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1911 (vol. Xx: no. 4: p. 284). [321] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, July, 1911 (vol. Xxiii: no. 1; p. 28). [322] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, Nov. , 1910 (vol. Xix: no. 5: p. 380). [323] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, Nov. , 1914 (vol. Xxv; no. 5: p. 397). [324] Stewart, C. H. "The Coffee Status of Venezuela. " _Tea and CoffeeTrade Jour. _ Jan. 1922 (vol. Xlii: no. 1: pp. 29-35. ) [325] Wilhelm, R. C. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1916 (vol. Xxxi: no. 5: p. 429). [326] Willcox. O. W. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1914 (vol. Xxvi: no. 2: p. 38). [327] Zinsmeister, L. G. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1914 (vol. Xxvii:no. 6: pp. 558-562). [328] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1910 (vol. Xviii: no. 2: p. 161; andno. 4: p. 319). [329] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1910 (vol. Xvii: no. 8: p. 242). [330] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1915 (vol. Xxviii: pp. 415-416). [331] "Making Coffee for the Consumer", _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1914 (vol. Xxvi: pp. 335-338). [332] "Coffee-Making Questionnaire", _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1917(vol. Xxx: no. 1: pp. 31-34). [333] King, John E. , _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1917 (vol. Xxxiii:no. 6: pp. 552-555). [334] Ach, F. J. , _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1912, 1919 (vol. Xxiii:no. 4: pp. 133-135; vol. Xxxvi: no. 4: pp. 344-345). [335] Gillies, E. J. , _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1913 (vol. Xxv: pp. 574-576). [336] Wellman, C. P. , _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1918 (vol. Xxxiv: no. 6: p. 560). [337] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1922 (vol. Xlii: no. 1: pp. 75, 76). [338] Bureau of Business Research, Harvard University. [339] Duryee, P. S. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1911 (Vol. Xxi: no. 2:pp. 106-110). [340] Findlay, Paul. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1916 (vol. Xxx: no. 1: pp. 72-74). [341] Atha, F. P. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1919 (vol. Xxxvii: no. 1:p. 50). [342] Weir, Ross W. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1913 (vol. Xxv: pp. 566-568). [343] McCreery, R. W. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1913 (vol. Xxv: no. 6: pp. 603-604). [344] Schaefer, J. H. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1917 (vol. Xxxiii: no. 1: p. 72). [345] Chamberliane, John, translation, London, 1685, from Dufour's_Traitez Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, du Thé, et du Chocolat_. [346] The agreement with the São Paulo planters comprehended theirfurnishing yearly the proceeds of a tax of 100 reis per bag. Thisactually amounted to $20, 000 per month up to January, 1921. During 1921, by reason of a short crop and the advance rate of exchange, theremittances were reduced almost half. In January, 1922, the São Paulolegislature on petition of the _Sociedade_ increased the tax to 200 reisper bag to run for 3 years. In spite of this, the probability is thatanother short crop and a continued low rate of exchange will keep theBrazil contribution in 1922 down to about $180, 000 net. By November, 1921, a total of $671, 000 was expended on advertising. Of this, $551, 000was contributed by the planters of São Paulo, and $120, 000 by the coffeetrade of the United States. [347] About this time, the country was flooded with paper money, worthabout 1 to 75, forcing the price of commodities to unheard-of heights, shoes for instance, being sold at £20 per pair. [348] Much of the information that follows is from an article by M. E. Goetzinger in the _Percolator_, February, 1921. [349] What follows on "Trade Brooms and Panics" is from an articleprepared, under the author's direction, by C. K. Trafton, and publishedin _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_, Nov. , 1920 (vol. Xxxix: no. 5: p. 563). [350] Kauhee (or _kahvé_) is the Turkish for coffee. [351] Copyright, 1913. Used by special permission of the publishers, theBobbs-Merrill Co. , Indianapolis, Ind. [352] Copyright, 1916, by Henry Holt & Co. , New York. Reprinted bypermission. [353] Chatfield-Taylor, II. C. _Goldoni. _ New York, 1916 (p. 607). [354] Copyright, 1903, by G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. Used by courtesyof the author and the publisher. [355] Copyright, 1893, by Harper Bros. , and 1921, by John KendrickBangs. Reprinted by permission. [356] _Beverages Past and Present_, New York, copyright 1908. Bycourtesy of G. P. Putnam's, Sons, Publishers. [357] _The Pot and Kettle_, Boston, 1920 (vol. Iii: no. 2). [358] See Chapter XXXIII. [359] See chapter X. [360] See chapter X. [361] _Proceedings: Second Series_, 1899 (vol. Xvii: no. 2; p. 390). [362] A mechanical contrivance that took the place of a boy. [363] Jardin, Édelestan. _Le Caféier et Le Café_, Paris, 1895 (p. 290). [364] In his patent specification, Mr. Carter said on this point: "Smallholes should be made through the roaster in sufficient number to allowof the escape of the vapors and volatile matters which escape from thecoffee while undergoing the process of being roasted. " [365] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1912 (vol. Xxiii: no. 6: p. 592). [366] _Encyclopedia Britannica_, 11th Ed. (vol. 11: p. 285). [367] London; 1888 (vol. 1: pp. 222, 224). [368] de Sacy. Baron Antoine Isaac Silvestre. _Chréstomathie Arabe. _Paris, 1806, (vol. 2). [369] _Scribner's Magazine_, 1918 (vol. Liii: no. 5: p. 620); andDwight, H. G. , _Constantinople, Old and New_, New York, 1915. Copyrightby Charles Scribner's Sons. [370] Carne, John. _Syria, the Holy Land. _ London, 1836 (p. 69). [371] New York, 1857 (p. 276). [372] "The Coffee Cup and the Sugar Bowl. " _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1921 (vol. Xli: no. 6: p. 809). [373] Frankel, F. Hulton, Ph. D. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1917 (vol. Xxxii: p. 142). [374] See chapter III. [375] Broadbent, Humphrey. _The Domestick Coffee Man_, London, 1722. [376] _Dutch New York_, 1909 (p. 132). [377] Earle. Alice Morse. _Customs and Fashions in Old New England_, 1909. [378] In 1921, Professor S. C. Prescott, in charge of the research workfor the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee at the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology, said that a brew made with the waterconsiderably below the boiling point, was preferable. [379] Meaning the pumping percolator. [380] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1917 (vol. Xxxiii: no. 5: pp. 339-40). [381] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1921 (vol. Xli: no. 5: p. 688). [382] See chapter XVII. [383] _Pharm. Weekbl. Voor Nederl. _, No. 13, 1899. _Apoth. Ztg. _, 1899(p. 14). [384] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. _, 1917 (vol. Xxxiii: pp. 552-55). [385] Hollingworth, H. L. And Poffenberger, A. T. , Jr. _The Sense ofTaste_, 1917 (p. 13). [386] _Not Édelestan as elsewhere in the volume_.