PUBLIC SPEAKING

 BY CLARENCE STRATTON; PH. D. 

 DIRECTOR OF ENGLISH IN HIGH SCHOOL

 CLEVELAND

 NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY

 COPYRIGHT, 1920 BY HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY _January, 1924_

CONTENTS

CHAPTERI. SPEECHII. THE VOICEIII. WORDS AND SENTENCESIV. BEGINNING THE SPEECHV. CONCLUDING THE SPEECHVI. GETTING MATERIALVII. PLANNING THE SPEECHVIII. MAKING THE OUTLINE OR BRIEFIX. EXPLAININGX. PROVING AND PERSUADINGXI. REFUTINGXII. DEBATINGXIII. SPEAKING UPON SPECIAL OCCASIONSXIV. DRAMATICSAPPENDIX AAPPENDIX BINDEX

ToC. C. S. 

PUBLIC SPEAKING

CHAPTER I

SPEECH

Importance of Speech. There never has been in the history of the worlda time when the spoken word has been equaled in value and importanceby any other means of communication. If one traces the development ofmankind from what he considers its earliest stage he will find thatthe wandering family of savages depended entirely upon what itsmembers said to one another. A little later when a group of familiesmade a clan or tribe the individuals still heard the commands of theleader, or in tribal council voiced their own opinions. The beginningsof poetry show us the bard who recited to his audiences. Drama, in allprimitive societies a valuable spreader of knowledge, entertainment, and religion, is entirely oral. In so late and well-organizedcommunities as the city republics of Greece all matters were discussedin open assemblies of the rather small populations. 

Every great epoch of the world's progress shows the supreme importanceof speech upon human action--individual and collective. In the RomanForum were made speeches that affected the entire ancient world. Renaissance Italy, imperial Spain, unwieldy Russia, freedom-lovingEngland, revolutionary France, all experienced periods when the powerof certain men to speak stirred other men into tempestuous action. 

The history of the United States might almost be written as thecontinuous record of the influence of great speakers upon others. Thecolonists were led to concerted action by persuasive speeches. TheColonial Congresses and Constitutional Convention were dominated bypowerful orators. The history of the slavery problem is mainly thestory of famous speeches and debates. Most of the activerepresentative Americans have been leaders because of their ability toimpress their fellows by their power of expressing sentiments andenthusiasms which all would voice if they could. Presidents have beennominated and candidates elected because of this equipment. 

During the Great War the millions of the world were as much concernedwith what some of their leaders were saying as with what their otherleaders were doing. [1]

Speech in Modern Life. There is no aspect of modern life in which thespoken work is not supreme in importance. Representatives of thenations of the world deciding upon a peace treaty and deliberatingupon a League of Nations sway and are swayed by speech. Nationalassemblies--from the strangely named new ones of infant nations to thecentury-old organizations--speak, and listen to speeches. In statelegislatures, municipal councils, law courts, religious organizations, theaters, lodges, societies, boards of directors, stockholders'meetings, business discussions, classrooms, dinner parties, socialfunctions, friendly calls--in every human relationship where twopeople meet there is communication by means of speech. 

[Footnote 1: See _Great American Speeches_, edited by ClarenceStratton, Lippincott and Company. ]

Scientific invention keeps moving as rapidly as it can to takeadvantage of this supreme importance. Great as was the advance markedby the telegraph, it was soon overtaken and passed by the convenienceof the telephone. The first conveys messages at great distance, but itfails to give the answer at once. It fails to provide for the rapid_interchange_ of ideas which the second affords. Wireless telegraphyhas already been followed by wireless telephony. The rapid intelligentdisposal of the complicated affairs of our modern world requires morethan mere writing--it demands immediate interchange of ideas by meansof speech. 

Many people who in their habitual occupations are popularly said towrite a great deal do nothing of the sort. The millions of typists inthe world do no writing at all in the real sense of that word; theymerely reproduce what some one else has actually composed anddictated. This latter person also does no actual writing. He speakswhat he wants to have put into writing. Dictating is not an easilyacquired accomplishment in business--as many a man will testify. Modern office practice has intensified the difficulty. It may berather disconcerting to deliver well-constructed, meaningful sentencesto an unresponsive stenographer, but at any rate the receiver isalive. But to talk into the metallic receiver of a mechanicaldictaphone has an almost ridiculous air. Men have to train themselvesdeliberately to speak well when they first begin to use thesetime-saving devices. Outside of business, a great deal of the materialprinted in periodicals and books--sometimes long novels--has beendelivered orally, and not written at all by its author. Were anythingmore needed to show how much speech is used it would be furnished bythe reports of the telephone companies. In one table the number ofdaily connections in 1895 was 2, 351, 420. In 1918 this item hadincreased to 31, 263, 611. In twenty-three years the calls had grownfifteen times as numerous. In 1882 there were 100, 000 subscriberstations. In 1918 this number had swelled to 11, 000, 000. 

Subordinates and executives in all forms of business could saveincalculable time and annoyance by being able to present theirmaterial clearly and forcefully over the telephone, as well as indirect face-to-face intercourse. 

The Director of high schools in a large municipality addressed acircular letter to the business firms of the city, asking them tostate what is most necessary in order to fit boys for success inbusiness. Ninety-nine per cent laid stress on the advantage of beingable to write and speak English accurately and forcibly. 

Testimony in support of the statement that training in speaking is ofparamount importance in all careers might be adduced from a score ofsources. Even from the seemingly far-removed phase of militaryleadership comes the same support. The following paragraph is part ofa letter issued by the office of the Adjutant-General during theearly months of the participation of this country in the Great War. 

 "A great number of men have failed at camp because of inability to articulate clearly. A man who cannot impart his idea to his command in clear distinct language, and with sufficient volume of voice to be heard reasonably far, is not qualified to give command upon which human life will depend. Many men disqualified by this handicap might have become officers under their country's flag had they been properly trained in school and college. It is to be hoped therefore that more emphasis will be placed upon the basic principles of elocution in the training of our youth. Even without prescribed training in elocution a great improvement could be wrought by the instructors in our schools and colleges, regardless of the subjects, by insisting that all answers be given in a loud, clear, well rounded voice which, of course, necessitates the opening of the mouth and free movement of the lips. It is remarkable how many excellent men suffer from this handicap, and how almost impossible it is to correct this after the formative years of life. "

Perhaps the most concise summary of the relative values of exercise inthe three different forms of communication through language wasenunciated by Francis Bacon in his essay entitled _Studies_, publishedfirst in 1597: "Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; andwriting an exact man. "

Speech and Talk. The high value here placed upon speech must not betransferred to mere talk. The babbler will always be justly regardedwith contempt. Without ideas, opinions, information, talk becomes themost wasteful product in the world, wasteful not only of the time ofthe person who insists upon delivering it, but more woefully andunjustifiably wasteful of the time and patience of those poor victimswho are forced to listen to it. Shakespeare put a man of thisdisposition into _The Merchant of Venice_ and then had his discoursedescribed by another. 

 "Gratiano speaks an infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in all Venice. His reasons are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chaff: you shall seek all day 'ere you find them, and when you have them, they are not worth the search. "

But the man who has ideas and can best express them is a leadereverywhere. He does the organizing, he makes and imparts the plans, hecarries his own theories and beliefs into execution, he is theintrusted agent, the advanced executive. He can act for himself. Hecan influence others to significant and purposeful action. Theadvantages that come to men who can think upon their feet, who canexpress extempore a carefully considered proposition, who can adapttheir conversation or arguments to every changing condition, cannot beemphasized too strongly. 

Speech an Acquired Ability. We frequently regard and discuss speech asa perfectly natural attribute of all human beings. In some sense itis. Yet an American child left to the care of deaf-mutes, neverhearing the speech of his own kind, would not develop into a speakerof the native language of his parents. He doubtless would be able toimitate every natural sound he might hear. He could reproduce the cryor utterance of every animal or bird he had ever heard. But he wouldno more speak English naturally than he would Arabic. In this sense, language is not a natural attribute as is hunger. It is an imitativeaccomplishment acquired only after long years of patient practice andarduous effort. Some people never really attain a facile mastery ofthe means of communication. Some mature men and women are no moreadvanced in the use of speech than children of ten or fifteen. Thepractice is life-long. The effort is unceasing. 

A child seems to be as well adapted to learning one language as another. There may be certain physical formations or powers inherited from a racewhich predispose the easier mastery of a language, but even thesehandicaps for learning a different tongue can be overcome by imitation, study, and practice. Any child can be taught an alien tongue throughconstant companionship of nurse or governess. The second generation ofimmigrants to this country learns our speech even while it may continuethe tongue of the native land. The third generation--if it mixcontinuously with speakers of English--relinquishes entirely theexercise of the mother tongue. The succeeding generation seldom canspeak it, frequently cannot even understand it. 

Training to Acquire Speech Ability. The methods by which older personsmay improve their ability to speak are analogous to those justsuggested as operative for children, except that the more mature theperson the wider is his range of models to imitate, of examples fromwhich to make deductions; the more resources he has within himself andabout him for self-development and improvement. A child's vocabularyincreases rapidly through new experiences. A mature person can createnew surroundings. He can deliberately widen his horizon either byreading or association. The child is mentally alert. A man can keephimself intellectually alert. A child delights in his use of hispowers of expression. A man can easily make his intercourse a sourceof delight to himself and to all with whom he comes in contact. Achild's imagination is kept stimulated continually. A man canconsciously stimulate either his imagination or his reason. In thedemocracy of childhood the ability to impress companions depends to agreat extent upon the ability to speak. There is no necessity offollowing the parallel any farther. 

Good speakers, then, are made, not born. Training counts for as muchas natural ability. In fact if a person considers carefully thecareers of men whose ability to speak has impressed the world by itspreeminence he will incline to the conclusion that the majority ofthem were not to any signal extent born speakers at all. In nearly allcases of great speakers who have left records of their own progress inthis powerful art their testimony is that without the effort toimprove, without the unceasing practice they would have alwaysremained no more marked for this so-called gift than all others. 

Overcoming Drawbacks. According to the regularly repeated traditionthe great Greek orator, Demosthenes, overcame impediments that wouldhave daunted any ordinary man. His voice was weak. He lisped, and hismanner was awkward. With pebbles in his mouth he tried his lungsagainst the noise of the dashing waves. This strengthened his voiceand gave him presence of mind in case of tumult among his listeners. He declaimed as he ran uphill. Whether these traditions be true ornot, their basis must be that it was only by rigorous training that hedid become a tolerable speaker. The significant point, however, isthat with apparent handicaps he did develop his ability until hebecame great. 

Charles James Fox began his parliamentary career by being decidedlyawkward and filling his speeches with needless repetitions, yet hebecame renowned as one of Great Britain's most brilliant speakers andstatesmen. 

Henry Clay clearly describes his own exercises in self-training whenhe was quite a grown man. 

 "I owe my success in life to one single fact, namely, at the age of twenty-seven I commenced, and continued for years, the practice of daily reading and speaking upon the contents of some historical or scientific book. These offhand efforts were made sometimes in a corn field, at others in the forests, and not infrequently in some distant barn with the horse and ox for my auditors. It is to this early practice in the art of all arts that I am indebted to the primary and leading impulses that stimulated me forward, and shaped and molded my entire destiny. "

Abraham Lincoln never let pass any opportunity to try to make aspeech. His early employers, when called upon after his fame was wonto describe his habits as a young man, admitted that they might havebeen disposed to consider him an idle fellow. They explained that hewas not only idle himself but the cause of idleness in others. Unlessclosely watched, he was likely to mount a stump and, to the intensedelight of his fellow farm hands, deliver a side-splitting imitationof some itinerant preacher or a stirring political harangue. 

The American whose reputation for speech is the greatest won it morethrough training than by natural gift. 

 "I could not speak before the school, " said Daniel Webster. . . . "Many a piece did I commit to memory and rehearse in my room over and over again, but when the day came, and the schoolmaster called my name, and I saw all eyes turned upon my seat, I could not raise myself from it. . . . Mr. Buckminster always pressed and entreated, most winningly, that I would venture, but I could never command sufficient resolution. When the occasion was over I went home and wept bitter tears of mortification. "

Results of Training. The significance of all these illustrations isthat no great speaker has come by his ability without careful andpersistent training. No molder of the world's destinies springs fullyequipped from the welter of promiscuous events. He has been trainingfor a long time. On the other hand the much more practical lesson tobe derived from these biographical excerpts is that these men startedfrom ordinary conditions to make themselves into forceful thinkerswith powers of convincing expression. They overcame handicaps. Theystrengthened their voices. They learned how to prepare and arrangematerial. They made themselves able to explain topics to others. Theyknew so well the reasons for their own belief that they could convinceothers. 

In a smaller way, to a lesser degree, any person can do the samething, and by the same or similar methods. Barring some people whohave physical defects or nervous diseases, any person who has enoughbrains to grasp an idea, to form an opinion, or to produce a thought, can be made to speak well. The preceding sentence says "barring somepeople who have physical defects" because not all so handicapped atthe beginning need despair of learning to improve in speaking ability. By systems in which the results appear almost miraculous the dumb arenow taught to speak. Stutterers and stammerers become excellentdeliverers of speeches in public. Weak voices are strengthened. Hesitant expressions are made coherent. Such marvels of modern sciencebelong, however, to special classes and institutions. They are citedhere to prove that in language training today practically nothing isimpossible to the teacher with knowledge and patience in educatingstudents with alertness and persistence. 

Practical Help. This book attempts to provide a guide for suchteachers and students. It aims to be eminently practical. It isintended to help students to improve in speech. It assumes that thosewho use it are able to speak their language with some facility--atleast they can pronounce its usual words. That and the realizationthat one is alive, as indicated by a mental openness to ideas and anintellectual alertness about most things in the universe, are all thatare absolutely required of a beginner who tries to improve inspeaking. Practically all else can be added unto him. 

As this volume has a definite aim it has a simple practical basis. Itwill not soar too far above the essentials. It tries not to offer anelaborate explanation of an enthymeme when the embryonic speaker'sknees are knocking together so loudly that he can not hear theinstructor's correcting pronunciation of the name. It takes intoaccount that when a beginner stands before an audience--and this istrue not only the first time--even his body is not under his control. Lips grow cold and dry; perspiration gushes from every pore of thebrow and runs down the face; legs grow weak; eyes see nothing; handsswell to enormous proportions; violent pains shoot across the chest;the breath is confined within the lungs; from the clapper-like tonguecomes only a faint click. Is it any wonder that under such physicalagonies the mind refuses to respond--rather, is incapable of anyaction whatever?

Speech Based on Thought and Language. Every speech is a result of thecombination of thought and language, of material and expression. Itwould be quite possible to begin with considerations of the thoughtcontent of speeches--the material; but this book begins with theother;--the language, the expression. If this order have no otheradvantage, it does possess this one;--that during the informaldiscussions and expressions of opinion occasioned by the earlychapters and exercises, members of the class are attaining a feelingof ease in speaking among themselves which will later eradicate agreat deal of the nervousness usually experienced when speaking_before_ the class. In addition, some attention to such topics asvoice, tone, pronunciation, common errors, use of the dictionary, vocabulary, may instil habits of self-criticism and observation whichmay save from doubt and embarrassing mistakes later. 

EXERCISES

1. Recall some recent speech you heard. In parallel columns make listsof its excellences and deficiencies. 

2. Give the class an account of the occasion, the purpose of thespeaker, and his effect upon his audience, or upon you. 

3. Explain how children learn to speak. 

4. From your observation give the class an account of how youngchildren enlarge their vocabularies. 

5. Using the material of this chapter as the basis of your remarks, show the value of public speaking. 

6. Of what value is public speaking to women?

7. What effects upon speeches by women will universal suffrage have?

8. Choose some profession--as law, engineering--and show how anability to speak may be of value in it. 

9. Choose some business position, and show how an ability to speak isa decided advantage in it. 

10. What is the best method of acquiring a foreign language? Forexample, how shall the alien learn English?

11. Choose some great man whom you admire. Show how he became aspeaker. Or give an account of one of his speeches. 

12. Show the value of public speaking to a girl--in school; inbusiness; in other careers. 

13. Explain the operation of a dictaphone. 

14. How can training in public speaking help an applicant for aposition?

15. Explain the sentence quoted from Bacon's essay on studies. 

CHAPTER II

THE VOICE

Organs of Speech. Although the effects produced by the human voice aremyriad in their complexity, the apparatus involved in making thesounds which constitute speech is extremely simple. In construction ithas been usually compared to an organ pipe, a comparison justifiablefor imparting a non-technical understanding of its operation. 

An organ pipe is a tube in which a current of air passing over theedge of a piece of metal causes it to vibrate, thus putting intomotion the column of air in the pipe which then produces a note. Theoperating air is forced across the sounding piece of metal from abellows. The tube in which the thin sounding plate and the column ofair vibrate acts as a resonator. The resulting sound depends uponvarious sizes of the producing parts. If the tube is quite long thesound is low in pitch. If the tube is short the sound is high. Stopping the end of the pipe or leaving it open alters the pitch. Astopped pipe gives a note an octave lower than an open pipe of thesame length. The amount of the vibrating plate which is allowed tomove also determines the pitch of a note. If the air is under greatpressure the note is loud. If the air is under little pressure thenote is soft. 

It is quite easy to transfer this explanation to the voice-producingapparatus in the human body. 

To the bellows correspond the lungs from which the expelled air isforced upwards through the windpipe. The lungs are able to expel airregularly and gently, with no more expense of energy than ordinarybreathing requires. But the lungs can also force air out withtremendous power--power enough to carry sound over hundreds of yards. In ordinary repose the outward moving breath produces no soundwhatever, for it meets in its passage no obstruction. 

Producing Tone. At the upper end of the windpipe is a triangularchamber, the front angle of which forms the Adam's apple. In this arethe vocal cords. These cords are two tapes of membrane which can bebrought closely together, and by muscular tension stretched untilpassing air causes them to vibrate. They in turn cause the air abovethem to vibrate, much as the air in an organ pipe vibrates. Thus toneis produced. 

The air above the vocal cords may fill all the open spaces above thelarynx--the throat, the mouth, the nasal cavity in the head, thenostrils. This rather large amount of air, vibrating freely, producesa sound low in pitch. The larger the cavities are made the lower thepitch. You can verify this by producing a note. Then place your fingerupon your Adam's apple. Produce a sound lower in pitch. Notice whatyour larynx does. Sing a few notes down the scale or up to observe thesame principle of the change of pitch in the human voice. 

Producing Vowels. If the mouth be kept wide open and no other organ beallowed to modify or interrupt the sound a vowel is produced. Inspeech every part of the head that can be used is brought into actionto modify these uninterrupted vibrations of vocal cords and air. Thelips, the cheeks, the teeth, the tongue, the hard palate, the softpalate, the nasal cavity, all coöperate to make articulate speech. 

As in its mechanism, so in the essence of its modifications, the humanvoice is a marvel of simplicity. If the mouth be opened naturally andthe tongue and lips be kept as much out of the way as in ordinarybreathing, and then the vocal cords be made to vibrate, the resultingsound will be the vowel _a_ as in _father_. If now, starting from thatsame position and with that same vowel sound, the tongue be graduallyraised the sound will be modified. Try it. The sound will pass throughother vowels. Near the middle position it will sound like _a_ in_fate_; and when the tongue gets quite close to the roof of the mouthwithout touching it the vowel will be the _e_ of _feet_. Others--suchas the _i_ of _it_--can be distinguished clearly. 

Starting again from that same open position and with that same vowelsound, _ah_, if the tongue be allowed to lie flat, but the lips begradually closed and at the same time rounded, the sound will passfrom _ah_ to the _o_ of _hope_, then on to the _oo_ of _troop_. The_oa_ of _broad_ and other vowels can be distinguished at variouspositions. 

By moving lips and tongue at the same time an almost infinite varietyof vowel sounds can be made. 

Producing Consonants. In order to produce consonant sounds the otherparts of the speaking apparatus are brought into operation. Everyoneof them has some function in the formation of some consonant byinterrupting or checking the breath. A student, by observing orfeeling the motions of his mouth can easily instruct himself in theimportance of each part if he will carefully pronounce a few times allthe various consonant sounds of the language. 

The lips produce the sounds of _p_, _b_, _wh_, and _w_. The lips andteeth produce the sounds of _f_, _v_. The tongue and teeth togethermake the sounds of _th_ and _dh_. The tongue in conjunction with theforward portion of the hard palate produces several sounds--_t_, _d_, _s_, _z_, _r_, and _l_. The tongue operating against or near the rearof the hard palate pronounces _ch_, _j_, _sh_, _zh_, and a different_r_. To make the consonant _y_ the tongue, the hard palate, and thesoft palate operate. The tongue and soft palate make _k_ and _g_. Astrong breathing makes the sound of _h_. By including the nasalpassages in conjunction with some of the other parts here listed theso-called nasals, _m_, _n_, and _ng_, are made. According to the organinvolved our consonant sounds are conveniently grouped as labials(lips), dentals (teeth), linguals (tongue), palatals (palate), andnasals (nose). 

The correct position and action of the vocal organs are of supremeimportance to all speakers. Many an inveterate stammerer, stutterer, or repeater can be relieved, if not cured, of the embarrassingimpediment by attention to the position of his speech organs and bycareful, persistent practice in their manipulation. In fact everyspeaker must be cognizant of the placement of these parts if hedesires to have control over his speech. Frequently it is such correctplacement rather than loud noise or force which carries expressionsclearly to listeners. 

While it is true that singing will strengthen the lungs and help incontrol of breath, it is not always the fact--as might beexpected--that singing will develop the speaking voice. Not everyperson who can sing has a pleasant or forceful voice in ordinarydiscourse. In singing, to secure purity of musical tone, the vowelsare likely to be disproportionately dwelt upon. Thus we have theendless _la-la-la_ and _ah-ah_ of so many vocal show-pieces. The samepractice leads to the repeated criticism that it makes no differencewhether a song be in English or a foreign language--the listenersunderstand just as much in either case. 

In speaking effectively the aim and method are the exact opposite. When a man speaks he wants to be listened to for the meaning of whathe is uttering. There are so many words in the language with the sameor similar vowel sounds that only the sharpest discrimination by meansof consonants permits of their being intelligible. The speaker, therefore, will exercise the greatest care in pronouncing consonantsdistinctly. As these sounds usually begin and end words, and as theyare produced by rather sudden checks or interruptions, they can bemade to produce a wave motion in the air which will carry the entireword safely and clearly beyond the ear into the understanding. Inpublic speaking no amount of care and attention bestowed uponpronouncing consonants can be spared. 

Tone. The most marked quality of a person's voice is its tone. It willbe enough for the purposes of this manual to assert that the toneshould be both clear and agreeable. In public speaking the first ofthese is all important, though an absence of the second qualificationmay almost neutralize all the advantages of the first. Clearness maybe impaired by several causes. The speaker may feel that his throatcloses up, that he becomes choked. His tongue may become stiff and"cleave to the roof of his mouth"--as the feeling is popularlydescribed. He may breathe so energetically that the escaping orentering air makes more noise than the words themselves. He may bemore or less conscious of all these. The others he may not discoverfor himself. The instructor or members of the class will inform him oftheir presence. Set jaws will prevent him from opening his mouth wideenough and operating his lips flexibly enough to speak with a fulltone. A nasal quality results mainly from lack of free resonance inthe head and nose passages. Adenoids and colds in the head producethis condition. It should be eradicated by advice and practice. 

Usually whatever corrections will make the tone clearer will also makeit more agreeable. The nasal pessimistic whine is not a pleasantrecommendation of personality. High, forced, strident tones producenot only irritation in the listener but throat trouble for thespeaker. 

Articulate--that is, connected--speech may be considered withreference to four elements, all of which are constantly present in anyspoken discourse. 

Speed. First, there is the speed of delivery. An angry woman can uttermore words in a minute than any one wants to hear. The generalprinciple underlying all speech delivery is that as the audienceincreases in number the rapidity of utterance should be lessened. Those who are accustomed to addressing large audiences, or to speakingin the open air, speak very slowly. A second consideration is thematerial being delivered. Easily grasped narrative, description, andexplanation, simply phrased and directly constructed, may be deliveredmuch more rapidly than involved explanation, unfamiliar phraseology, long and intricate sentence constructions, unusual material, abstractreasoning, and unwelcome sentiments. The beginnings of speeches movemuch more slowly than later parts. A speaker who intends to lead anaudience a long distance, or to hold the attention for a long time, will be extremely careful not to speak at the beginning so rapidlythat he leaves them far behind. 

This does not mean that a speaker must drawl his words. One of ournational characteristics is that we shorten our words in pronouncingthem--_ing_ generally loses the _g, does not_ has become _doesn't_ andquite incorrectly _don't, yes_ is _yeeh_, etc. In many cases nothingmore is required than the restoration of the word to its correct form. Some words can easily be lengthened because of the significance oftheir meanings. Others must be extended in order to carry. The bestmethod of keeping down the rate of delivery is by a judicious use ofpauses. Pauses are to the listener what punctuation marks are to thereader. He is not conscious of their presence, but he would be leftfloundering if they were absent. Some of the most effective parts ofspeeches are the pauses. They impart clearness to ideas, as well asaiding in emphasis and rhythm. 

Pitch. A second quality of speech is its pitch. This simply means itsplace in the musical scale. Speaking voices are high, medium, or low. Unfortunate tendencies of Americans seem to be for women to pitchtheir voices too high, with resultant strain and unpleasantness, andfor men to pitch their voices too low, with resultant growls andgruffness. The voices of young children should be carefully guarded inthis respect; so should the changing voices of growing boys. To securea good pitch for the speaking voice the normal natural pitch of usualconversation should be found. Speech in that same pitch should bedeveloped for larger audiences. Frequently a better pitch can besecured by slightly lowering the voice. If the natural pitch be toolow for clearness or agreeableness it should be slightly raised--nevermore than is absolutely necessary. 

No connected group of words should be delivered in a monotonouslylevel pitch. The voice must rise and fall. These changes must answerintelligently to the meaning of the material. Such variations arecalled inflections. The most disagreeable violations of requiredinflections are raising the voice where it should fall--as at thecompletion of an idea, and letting it drop where it should remainup--as before the completion of an idea, frequently answering to acomma. Other variations of pitch depend upon emphasis. 

Emphasis. Emphasis is giving prominence to a word or phrase so thatits importance is impressed upon a listener. This result is mosteasily secured by contrast. More force may be put into its deliverythan the rest of the speech. The word may be made louder or not soloud. The voice may be pitched higher or lower. The word may belengthened. Pauses will make it prominent. In speaking, combinationsof these are employed to produce emphasis. 

While all qualities of speech are important, emphasis is of cardinalvalue. Listeners will never recall everything that a speaker has said. By a skilful employment of emphasis he will put into theirconsciousness the main theme of his message, the salient arguments ofhis contention, the leading motives of action. Here again is thatclose interdependence of manner and material referred to in thepreceding chapter. In later chapters will be discussed various methodsof determining and securing emphasis of larger sections than merewords and phrases. 

Phrasing. Somewhat related to emphasis is phrasing. This is thegrouping together of words, phrases, clauses, and other units so thattheir meaning and significance may be easily grasped by a listener. Ashas been already said, pauses serve as punctuation marks for thehearer. Short pauses correspond to commas, longer ones to colons andsemi-colons, marked ones to periods. Speakers can by pauses clearlyindicate the conclusions of sections, the completion of topics, thepassage from one part of the material to another, the transfer ofattention from one subject to its opposite. Within smaller rangepauses can add delightful variety to delivery as they can signallyreinforce the interpretation. No speaker should fall into the habit ofmonotonously letting his pauses mark the limit of his breath capacity, nor should he take any regular phrase, clause, or sentence length tobe indicated by pauses. In this as in all other aspects variety is thecharm of speech. 

Enunciation. No matter what handicaps a person may have he mayovercome them to secure a distinct, agreeable enunciation. Care inenunciating words will enable a speaker to be heard almost anywhere. It is recorded that John Fox, a famous preacher of South Place Chapel, London, whose voice was neither loud nor strong, was heard in everypart of Covent Garden Theatre, seating 3500, when he madeanti-corn-law orations, by the clearness with which he pronounced thefinal consonants of the words he spoke. 

One of the orators best known to readers is Edmund Burke, whosespeeches are studied as models of argumentative arrangement and style. Yet in actual speech-making Burke was more or less a failure becauseof the unfortunate method of his delivery. Many men markedly inferiorin capacity to Burke overcame disadvantageous accidents, but he wasfrequently hurried and impetuous. Though his tones were naturallysonorous, they were harsh; and he never divested his speech of astrong Irish accent. Then, too, his gestures were clumsy. These factswill explain to us who read and study leisurely these masterpieceswhy they failed of their purpose when presented by their gifted butineffective author. 

Pronunciation. Enunciation depends to a great degree uponpronunciation. The pronunciation of a word is no fixed andunchangeable thing. Every district of a land may have its peculiarlocal sounds, every succeeding generation may vary the manner ofaccenting a word. English people today pronounce _schedule_ with asoft _ch_ sound. _Program_ has had its accent shifted from the last tothe first syllable. Many words have two regularly heardpronunciations--_neither, advertisement, Elizabethan, rations, oblique, route, quinine_, etc. Fashions come and go in pronunciationas in all other human interests. Some sounds stamp themselves ascarelessnesses or perversions at once and are never admitted intoeducated, cultured speech. Others thrive and have their day, only tofade before some more widely accepted pronunciation. The first rule inpronunciation is to consult a good dictionary. This will help in mostcases but not in all, for a dictionary merely records all acceptedsounds; only partly can it point out the better of disputed sounds byplacing it first. Secondly, speech is a living, growing, changingthing. Dictionaries drop behind the times surprisingly rapidly. Theregularly accepted sound may have come into general use after thedictionary was printed. New activities, unusual phases of life maythrow into general conversation thousands of unused, unheard words. This was true of the recent Great War, when with little or nopreparation thousands of military, industrial, naval, andaeronautical terms came into daily use. Discussions still fluttermildly around _cantonment_ and _rations_, and a score of others. 

Next to authoritative books, the best models are to be secured fromthe speech of authorities in each branch to which the termspecifically belongs. Thus the military leaders have made thepronunciation of _oblique_ with the long _i_ the correct one for allmilitary usages. The accepted sound of _cantonments_ was fixed by themen who built and controlled them. As it is not always possible forthe ordinary person to hear such authorities deliver such terms indiscourse one can merely say that a familiarity with correctpronunciation can be secured only like liberty--at the price ofeternal vigilance. 

Constant consultation of the dictionary and other books of recognizedreference value, close observance of the speech of others, scrutiny ofone's own pronunciation, mental criticism of others' slips, anddetermination to correct one's own errors, are the various methods ofattaining certainty of correct delivery of word sounds. 

Poise. When a speaker stands before an audience to address its membershe should be perfectly at ease. Physical ease will produce an effectupon the listeners. Mental ease because of mastery of the materialwill induce confidence in the delivery. Bodily eccentricities andawkwardness which detract from the speech itself should be eradicatedby strenuous practice. Pose and poise should first command respectfulattention. The body should be erect, but not stiff. Most of themuscles should be relaxed. The feet should be naturally placed, notso far apart as to suggest straddling, not so close together as tosuggest the military stand at "attention. "

What should be done with the hands? Nothing. They should not beclasped; they should not be put behind the back; they should not bejammed into pockets; the arms should not be held akimbo; they shouldnot be folded. Merely let the arms and hands hang at the sidesnaturally. 

Gestures. Should a speaker make gestures? Certainly never if thegesture detracts from the force of an expression, as when a preacherpounds the book so hard that the congregation cannot hear his words. Certainly yes, when the feeling of the speaker behind the phrase makeshim enforce his meaning by a suitable movement. In speaking todayfewer gestures are indulged in than years ago. There should never bemany. Senseless, jerky, agitated pokings and twitchings should beeradicated completely. Insincere flourishes should be inhibited. Beginners should beware of gestures until they become such practisedmasters of their minds and bodies that physical emphasis may be addedto spoken force. 

A speaker should feel perfectly free to change his position or movehis feet during his remarks. Usually such a change should be made tocorrespond with a pause in delivery. In this way it reinforces theindication of progress or change of topic, already cited in discussingpauses. 

Delivery. A speaker should never begin to talk the very instant he hastaken his place before his audience. He should make a slight pause tocollect the attention before he utters his salutation (to beconsidered later) and should make another short pause between it andthe opening sentences of his speech proper. After he has spoken thelast word he should not fling away from his station to his seat. Thisalways spoils the effect of an entire address by ruining theimpression that the last phrase might have made. 

As for the speech itself, there are five ways of delivering it:

1. To write it out in full and read it. 

2. To write it out in full and commit it to memory. 

3. To write out and memorize the opening and closing sentences andother especially important parts, leaving the rest for extemporedelivery. 

4. To use an outline or a brief which suggests the headings in logicalorder. 

5. To speak without manuscript or notes. 

Reading the Speech. The first of these methods--to read the speechfrom a prepared manuscript--really changes the speech to a lecture orreading. True, it prevents the author from saying anything he wouldnot say in careful consideration of his topic. It assures him ofgetting in all he wants to say. It gives the impression that all hisutterances are the result of calm, collected thinking. On the otherhand, so few people can read from a manuscript convincingly that thereproduction is likely to be a dull, lifeless proceeding in whichalmost anything might be said, so little does the material impress theaudience. This method can hardly be considered speech-making at all. 

Memorizing the Speech. The second method--of repeating memorizedcompositions--is better. It at least seems alive. It has an appearanceof direct address. It possesses the other advantages of the firstmethod--definite reasoning and careful construction. But its dangersare grave. Few people can recite memorized passages with the personalappeal and direct significance that effective spoken discourse shouldhave. Emphasis is lacking. Variety is absent. The tone becomesmonotonous. The speech is so well committed that it flows too easily. If several speakers follow various methods, almost any listener canunerringly pick the memorized efforts. Let the speaker in deliverystrive for variety, pauses, emphasis; let him be actor enough tosimulate the feeling of spontaneous composition as he talks, yet nomatter how successful he may be in his attempts there will still beslight inconsistencies, trifling incongruities, which will disturb alistener even if he cannot describe his mental reaction. The secretlies in the fact that written and spoken composition differ in certaindetails which are present in each form in spite of the utmost care toweed them out. 

Memorizing Parts. The third manner can be made effective if thespeaker can make the gap just described between written and spokendiscourse extremely narrow. If not, his speech will appear just whatit is--an incongruous patchwork of carefully prepared, reconsideredwriting, and more or less spontaneously evolved speaking. 

Speaking from Outline or Brief. The fourth method is by far the bestfor students training themselves to become public speakers. After atime the brief or outline can be retained in the mind, and the speakerpasses from this method to the next. A brief for an important law casein the United States Supreme Court is a long and elaborate instrument. But a student speaker's brief or outline need not be long. 

Directions, models, and exercises for constructing and using outlineswill be given in a later chapter. 

The Best Method. The last method is unquestionably the best. Let a manso command all the aspects of a subject that he fears no breakdown inhis thoughts, let him be able to use language so that he need neverhesitate for the best expression, let him know the effect he wants tomake upon his audience, the time he has to do it in, and he will knowby what approaches he can best reach his important theme, what he maysafely omit, what he must include, what he may hurry over, what hemust slowly unfold, what he may handle lightly, what he must treatseriously; in short, he will make a great speech. This manner is theideal towards which all students, all speakers, should strive. 

Attributes of the Speaker. Attributes of the speaker himself will aidor mar his speech. Among those which help are sincerity, earnestness, simplicity, fairness, self-control, sense of humor, sympathy. Allgreat speakers have possessed these traits. Reports upon significantspeakers describing their manner emphasize them. John Bright, thefamous English parliamentarian of the middle of the last century, isdescribed as follows:

 His style of speaking was exactly what a conventional demagogue's ought not to be. It was pure to austerity; it was stripped of all superfluous ornament. It never gushed or foamed. It never allowed itself to be mastered by passion. The first peculiarity that struck the listener was its superb self-restraint. The orator at his most powerful passages appeared as if he were rather keeping in his strength than taxing it with effort. 

 JUSTIN MCCARTHY: _History of Our Own Time_

In American history the greatest speeches were made by AbrahamLincoln. In Cooper Union, New York, he made in 1860 the most powerfulspeech against the slave power. The _New York Tribune_ the next dayprinted this description of his manner. 

Mr. Lincoln is one of nature's orators, using his rare powers solelyto elucidate and convince, though their inevitable effect is todelight and electrify as well. We present herewith a very full andaccurate report of this speech; yet the tones, the gestures, thekindling eye, and the mirth-provoking look defy the reporter's skill. The vast assemblage frequently rang with cheers and shouts ofapplause, which were prolonged and intensified at the close. No manever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New Yorkaudience. 

Shakespeare's Advice. Some of the best advice for speakers was writtenby Shakespeare as long ago as just after 1600, and although it wasintended primarily for actors, its precepts are just as applicable toalmost any kind of delivered discourse. Every sentence of it is fullof significance for a student of speaking. Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, is airing his opinions about the proper manner of speaking upon thestage. 

HAMLET'S SPEECH

Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly onthe tongue; but if you mouth it, as many of your players do, I had aslief the town-crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too muchwith your hand, thus, but use all gently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, whirlwind of your passion, you mustacquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness. Oh, itoffends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow teara passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of thegroundlings, who for the most part are capable of nothing butinexplicable dumb-shows and noise. I would have such a fellow whippedfor o'erdoing Termagant. It out-herods Herod. Pray you, avoid it. 

Be not too tame neither, but let your own discretion be your tutor. Suit the action to the word, the word to the action; with this specialobservance, that you o'erstep not the modesty of nature. For anythingso overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at thefirst and now, was and is, to hold, as 't were, the mirror up tonature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and thevery age and body of the time his form and pressure. Now thisoverdone, or come tardy off, though it make the unskilful laugh, cannot but make the judicious grieve; the censure of the which onemust in your allowance o'erweigh a whole theater of others. Oh, therebe players that I have seen play, and heard others praise, and thathighly, not to speak it profanely, that, neither having the accent ofChristians nor the gait of Christian, pagan, nor man, have so struttedand bellowed that I have thought some of nature's journeymen had mademen and not made them well, they imitated humanity so abominably. 

Oh, reform it altogether. And let those that play your clowns speak nomore than is set down for them; for there be of them that willthemselves laugh, to set on some quantity of barren spectators tolaugh too, though in the meantime some necessary question of the playbe then to be considered. That's villainous, and shows a most pitifulambition in the fool that uses it. Go make you ready. 

EXERCISES

1. 'Neath our feet broke the brittle bright stubble like chaff. 

2. The first sip of love is pleasant; the second, perilous; the third, pestilent. 

3. Our ardors are ordered by our enthusiasms. 

4. She's positively sick of seeing her soiled, silk, Sunday dress. 

5. The rough cough and hiccough plowed me through. 

6. She stood at the gate welcoming him in. 

7. Five miles meandering with a mazy motion. 

8. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers: if Peter Piper pickeda peck of pickled peppers, where is the peck of pickled peppers thatPeter Piper picked?

9. Theophilus Thistle, the thistle-sifter, sifted a sieve of unsiftedthistles. If Theophilus Thistle, the thistle-sifter, sifted a sieve ofunsifted thistles, where is the sieve of unsifted thistles thatTheophilus Thistle, the thistle-sifter, sifted?

10. Alone, alone, all, all alone, Alone on a wide, wide sea!

11. The splendor falls on castle walls, And snowy summits old in story. 

12. Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow Creeps in this petty pace from day to day To the last syllable of recorded time. 

13. The moan of doves in immemorial elms, And murmurings of innumerable bees. 

14. The Ladies' Aid ladies were talking about a conversation they hadoverheard, before the meeting, between a man and his wife. 

"They must have been at the Zoo, " said Mrs. A. ; "because I heard hermention 'a trained deer. '"

"Goodness me!" laughed Mrs. B. "What queer hearing you must have! Theywere talking about going away, and she said, 'Find out about thetrain, dear. '"

"Well, did anybody ever!" exclaimed Mrs. C. "I am sure they weretalking about musicians, for she said, 'a trained ear, ' as distinctlyas could be. "

The discussion began to warm up, and in the midst of it the ladyherself appeared. They carried the case to her promptly, and asked fora settlement. 

"Well, well, you do beat all!" she exclaimed, after hearing each one. "I'd been out in the country overnight and was asking my husband if itrained here last night. "

15. Learning condemns beyond the reach of hope The careless lips that speak of s[)o]ap for soap; Her edict exiles from her fair abode The clownish voice that utters r[)o]ad for road; Less stern to him who calls his coat a c[)o]at, And steers his boat believing it a b[)o]at. She pardoned one, our classic city's boast, Who said at Cambridge, m[)o]st instead of most, But knit her brows and stamped her angry foot To hear a Teacher call a root a r[)o]ot. 

16. Hear the tolling of the bells-- Iron bells! What a world of solemn thought their monody compels! In the silence of the night, How we shiver with affright At the melancholy menace of their tone! For every sound that floats From the rust within their throats Is a groan. And the people--ah, the people-- They that dwell up in the steeple, All alone, And who, tolling, tolling, tolling, In that muffled monotone, Feel a glory in so rolling On the human heart a stone--They are neither man nor woman--They are neither brute nor human-- They are Ghouls: And their king it is who tolls; And he rolls, rolls, rolls, Rolls A Paean from the bells! And his merry bosom swells With the paean of the bells! And he dances, and he yells; Keeping time, time, time, In a sort of Runic rhyme, To the paean of the bells-- Of the bells. 

17. Collecting, projecting, Receding and speeding, And shocking and rocking, And darting and parting. And threading and spreading, And whizzing and hissing, And dripping and skipping, And hitting and splitting, And shining and twining, And rattling and battling, And shaking and quaking, And pouring and roaring, And waving and raving, And tossing and crossing, And flowing and going, And running and stunning, And foaming and roaming, And dinning and spinning, And dropping and hopping, And working and jerking, And guggling and struggling, And heaving and cleaving, And moaning and groaning;

 And glittering and frittering, And gathering and feathering, And whitening and brightening, And quivering and shivering, And hurrying and skurrying, And thundering and floundering;

 Dividing and gliding and sliding, And falling and brawling and sprawling, And driving and riving and striving, And sprinkling and twinkling and wrinkling, And sounding and bounding and rounding, And bubbling and troubling and doubling, And grumbling and rumbling and tumbling, And clattering and battering and shattering;

 Retreating and beating and meeting and sheeting, Delaying and straying and playing and spraying, Advancing and prancing and glancing and dancing, Recoiling, turmoiling and toiling and boiling, And gleaming and streaming and steaming and beaming, And rushing and flushing and brushing and gushing, And flapping and rapping and clapping and slapping, And curling and whirling and purling and twirling, And thumping and plumping and bumping and jumping, And dashing and flashing and splashing and clashing; And so never ending, but always descending, Sounds and motions for ever and ever are blending, All at once and all o'er, with a mighty uproar; And this way the water comes down at Lodore. 

18. Sister Susie's sewing shirts for soldiers, Such skill at sewing shirts our shy young Sister Susie shows. Some soldiers send epistles Say they'd rather sleep in thistles Than the saucy, soft, short shirts for soldiers Sister Susie sews. 

CHAPTER III

WORDS AND SENTENCES

Vocabularies. The collection of words a person can command either inuse or understanding is a vocabulary. Every person has three distinctones: his reading vocabulary, his writing vocabulary, his speakingvocabulary. Of these, the reading vocabulary is the largest. There arethousands of words he recognizes in reading and although he might notbe able to construct a dictionary definition for everyone, he has asufficiently clear idea to grasp the meaning. In this rudeapproximation to sense he is aided by the context, but for allpractical purposes he understands the word. If he were writing, carefully taking time to note exactly what he was expressing, he mightrecall that word and so consciously put it into a sentence. He mightuse it in exactly the same sense in which he had seen it in print. Butnever in the rush of ideas and words in spoken discourse would he riskusing a word he knew so slightly. If nothing more, he would beware ofmispronunciation. 

Thus a person could easily deduce from his reading that a _hangar_ isa building to house airplanes. He might--to avoid repeating the word_shed_ too frequently--use it in writing. But until he was absolutelycertain of its significance and its sound he would hardly venture tosay it to other men. 

Spoken discourse is so alive, it moves so rapidly, that it is never soprecise, so varied in its choice of words, as written material. Thephraseology of written discourse sounds slightly or markedly stilted, bookish, if repeated by the tongue. This difference--though it mayappear almost trifling--is apparent to everyone. Its recognition canbe partly illustrated by the fact that after President Lowell andSenator Lodge had debated on the topic, the League of Nations, inBoston and were shown the reports of their speeches, each made changesin certain expressions. The version for print and reading is a littlemore formal than the delivered sentences. The Senator said, "I want"but preferred to write "I wish"; then he changed "has got to be" into"must, " and "nothing to see" into "nothing visible. "

One might say that all three vocabularies should correspond, but thereis no real need of this. So long as people read they will meetthousands of words for which they have no need in speaking. Everybodymust be able to understand the masterpieces of the past with theirarchaic (old-fashioned) words like _eftsoons_ or _halidom_, but no oneneed use such expressions now. So there is no discredit in the factthat one's speaking vocabulary is more restricted than his readingvocabulary. 

New Ideas, New Words. It is true, however, that an educated personshould never rest content with the size of his usable speakingvocabulary. The addition of every new word is likely to indicate thegrasp of a new idea. Likewise, every new idea is almost certain torequire its individual terms for expression. An enlarging vocabularyis the outward and visible sign of an inward and intellectual growth. No man's vocabulary can equal the size of a dictionary, the latest ofwhich in English is estimated to contain some 450, 000 words. Life maybe maintained upon a surprisingly meager group of words, as travelersin foreign lands can testify. Shakespeare's vocabulary is said to haveincluded as many as 15, 000 words. Figures for that of the averageperson vary considerably. 

Increasing the Vocabulary. The method of increasing a vocabulary is aquite simple process. Its procedure is a fascinating exercise. Itcovers four steps. When a new word is encountered it should be noticedwith keen attention. If heard, its pronunciation will be fixed uponthe ear. If seen, its spelling should be mastered at once. The nextstep is to consult a dictionary for either spelling or pronunciation. Then all its meanings should be examined. Still the word is not yoursuntil you have used it exactly. This you should do at the firstopportunity. If the opportunity seems long in coming make it foryourself by discussing with some one the topic with which it was usedor frankly discuss the word itself. How many unfamiliar words have youheard or seen recently? How many do you easily use now in your ownremarks? You might find it a good plan to take a linguistic inventoryevery night. A little practice in this will produce amazinglyinteresting and profitable results in both use and understanding. Akeenness for words will be rapidly developed. Word-lists of all kindswill take on entirely new meanings. A spontaneous receptivity willdevelop into permanent retention of words and phrases. 

EXERCISES

1. Tell of some new word you have added to your vocabulary recently. Explain when you met it, how it happened to impress you, what youlearned of it. 

2. In studying a foreign language how did you fix in your mind thewords which permanently stuck there?

3. Look over a page in a dictionary. Report to the class on someinteresting material you find. 

4. Make a list of ten slang or technical expressions. Explain them inexact, clear language. 

5. Find and bring to class a short printed passage, which because ofthe words, you cannot understand. Unusual books, women's fashionmagazines, technical journals, books of rules for games, financialreports, contain good examples. 

6. How much do you know about any of the following words?

chassis fuselage orthodox sablecomptometer germicide plebescite self-determinationcovenant layman purloin sovietethiopian morale querulous vers librefarce nectar renegade zoom

7. Comment on the words in the following extracts:

 "Of enchanting crimson brocade is the slipover blouse which follows the lines of the French cuirasse. Charmingly simple, this blouse, quite devoid of trimming, achieves smartness by concealing the waistline with five graceful folds. "

 "The shift bid consists in bidding a suit, of which you have little or nothing, with the ultimate object of transferring later to another declaration, which is perfectly sound. The idea is to keep your adversaries from leading this suit up to your hand, which they will likely avoid doing, thinking that you are strong in it. "

 "While sentiment is radically bearish on corn there is so little pressure on the market other than from shorts that a majority of traders are inclined to go slow in pressing the selling side on breaks until the situation becomes more clearly defined. The weekly forecast for cool weather is regarded as favorable for husking and shelling, and while there was evening up on the part of the pit operators for the double holiday, some of the larger local professionals went home short expecting a lower opening Tuesday. "

8. Make a list of ten new words you have learned recently. 

Suffixes and Prefixes. Definite steps for continuous additions can bemapped out and covered. Careful attention to prefixes and suffixeswill enlarge the vocabulary. 

PREFIXES

1. A = on, in, at, to; _abed, aboard, afield, afire_

2. Ab (a, abs) = from, away; _absent, abstract, abdicate_

3. Ad, etc. = to, in addition to; _adapt, admit, adduce_

4. Ante = before, _anteroom, antebellum_

5. Anti = against, opposite; _anticlimax, antipodes, antipathy_

6. Bi= two; _bicycle, biennial, biped, biplane_

7. Circum = around, about; _circumnavigate, circumscribe, circumvent_

8. Con (col, com, co, cor, etc. ) = with, together; _consent, collect, coördinate, composite, conspiracy_

9. Contra (counter) = against; _contradict, counteract, countermand_

10. De = down, from, away; _depose, desist, decapitate, denatured_

11. Demi, hemi, semi = half; _demi-tasse, hemisphere, semiannual, semitransparent_

12. Di (dis) = twice, double; _dissyllable_

13. Dis (di, dif) = apart, away, not; _distract, diverge, diversion, disparage_

14. En (em) = in, on, into; _engrave, embody, embrace_

15. Extra = beyond; _extraordinary, extravagant_

16. Hyper = above; _hypercritical_

17. In (il, im, ir) = in, into, not; _inclose, illustrate, irrigate, inform, illiterate, impious, irregular_

18. Ex (e, ec, ef) = out of, from, beyond, thoroughly, formerlybut not now; _exclude, excel, ex-senator. _

19. Inter = between, among; _intercede, interchange, interfere, interurban, interlude_

20. Mis = wrongly, badly; _miscalculate, misspell, misadventure_

21. Mono = one; _monoplane_

22. Per = through, thoroughly, by; _perchance, perfect, per-adventure_

23. Poly = many; _polygon, polytheism_

24. Post = behind, after; _postgraduate, post-mortem, postlude_, _postscript, post-meridian_ (P. M. )

25. Pre = before (in time, place, or order); _preëminent, predict, prefer, prefix, prejudge, prejudice_

26. Preter = beyond; _preternatural_

27. Pro = before, forth, forward; _proceed, prosecute_

28. Pro = siding with; _pro-ally_

29. Re = back, again; _recover, renew, recall_

30. Sub, etc. = under; _submerge, subscribe, subterranean, subterfuge_

31. Super (sur) = over, above; _superintend, supercargo_

32. Trans (tra) = across; _translate, transmit, transfer_

33. Vice (vis) = instead of; _vice-president, vice-admiral_

SUFFIXES

1. Ee, er = one who; _absentee_, _profiteer_, _mower_

2. Ard, art= term of disparagement; _drunkard_, _braggart_

3. Esque = like; _statuesque_

4. Ism = state of being; _barbarism_, _atheism_

5. Et, let = little; _brooklet_, _bracelet_, _eaglet_

6. Ling = little, young; _duckling_, _gosling_

7. Kin = little; _lambkin_, _Peterkin_

8. Stead = a place; _bedstead_, _homestead_, _instead_

9. Wright = a workman; _wheelwright_

Thesaurus. Besides frequently consulting a good modern dictionary astudent speaker should familiarize himself with a _Thesaurus_ of wordsand phrases. This is a peculiarly useful compilation of expressionsaccording to their meaning relations. A dictionary lists words, thengives their meanings. A Thesaurus arranges meanings, then gives thewords that express those ideas. The value of such a book can be bestillustrated by explaining its use. 

Suppose a speaker is going to attack some principle, some act, someparty. He knows that his main theme will be denunciation of something. In the index of a Thesaurus he looks under _denunciation_, finding twonumbers of paragraphs. Turning to the first he has under his eye agroup of words all expressing shades of this idea. There are furtherreferences to other related terms. Let us look at the first group, taken from Roget's _Thesaurus_. 

MALEDICTON, curse, imprecation, denunciation, execration, anathema, ban, proscription, excommunication, commination, fulmination. 

Cursing, scolding, railing, Billingsgate language. 

_V_. To curse, accurse, imprecate, scold, rail, execrate. 

To denounce, proscribe, excommunicate, fulminate. 

_Adj_. Cursing, &c, cursed, &c. 

THREAT, menace, defiance, abuse, commination, intimidation. 

_V_. To threaten, menace, defy, fulminate; to intimidate. 

_Adj_. Threatening, menacing, minatory, abusive. 

The second reference leads us farther. It presents the expressionsdealing with the methods and results of _denunciation_, providinghundreds of words and phrases to use in various ways. It does evenmore, for in a parallel column it gives a list of opposites for thewords indicating _condemnation_. This more than doubles its value. Finally having reached the word _punishment_ it lists its cognatesuntil the idea _penalty_ is reached, where it balances that idea with_reward_ and its synonyms. A portion of this section follows. 

LAWSUIT, suit, action, cause, trial, litigation. 

Denunciation, citation, arraignment, persecution, indictment, impeachment, apprehension, arrest, committal, imprisonment. 

Pleadings, writ, summons, plea, bill, affidavit, &c. 

Verdict, sentence, judgment, finding, decree, arbitrament, adjudication, award. 

_V_. To go to law; to take the law of; to appeal to the law; to joinissue; file a bill, file a claim. 

To denounce, cite, apprehend, arraign, sue, prosecute, bring to trial, indict, attach, distrain, to commit, give in charge or custody; throwinto prison. 

To try, hear a cause, sit in judgment. 

To pronounce, find, judge, sentence, give judgment; bring in averdict; doom, to arbitrate, adjudicate, award, report. 

ACQUITTAL, absolution, _see_ Pardon, 918, clearance, discharge, release, reprieve, respite. 

Exemption from punishment; impunity. 

_V_. To acquit, absolve, clear, discharge, release, reprieve, respite. 

_Adj_. Acquitted, &c. 

Uncondemned, unpunished, unchastised. 

CONDEMNATION, conviction, proscription; death warrant. 

Attainder, attainment. 

_V_. To condemn, convict, cast, find guilty, proscribe. 

_Adj_. Condemnatory, &c. 

PUNISHMENT, chastisement, castigation, correction, chastening, discipline, infliction, etc. 

An observer will see at once just how far these lists go and what mustsupplement them. They do not define, they do not discriminate, they donot restrict. They are miscellaneous collections. A person mustconsult the dictionary or refer to some other authority to preventerror or embarrassment in use. For instance, under the entry_newspaper_ occurs the attractive word _ephemeris_. But one should becareful of how and where he uses that word. 

Another exercise which will aid in fixing both words and meanings inthe mind and also help in the power of recalling them for instant useis to make some kind of word-list according to some principle orscheme. One plan might be to collect all the words dealing with theidea of _book_. Another might be to take some obvious word root andthen follow it and other roots added to it through all its forms, meanings, and uses. One might choose _tel_ (distant) and _graph_(record) and start with _telegraph_. _Telephone_ will introduce_phone_, _phonograph_; they will lead on to _dictaphone_, _dictagraph_; the first half links with _dictation_; that may lead asfar away as _dictatorial_. In fact there is no limit to the extent, the interest, and the value of these various exercises. The single aimof all of them should be, of course, the enlargement of the speakingvocabulary. Mere curiosities, current slang, far-fetched metaphors, passing foreign phrases, archaisms, obsolete and obsolescent terms, too new coinages, atrocities, should be avoided as a plague. 

Consistent, persistent, insistent word-study is of inestimable valueto a speaker. And since all people speak, it follows that it wouldbenefit everybody. 

EXERCISES

1. Explain what is meant by each entry in the foregoing list. 

2. List some verbal curiosities you have met recently. Examples: "Mr. Have-it-your-own-way is the best husband. " "He shows a great deal ofstick-to-it-iveness. "

3. What should be the only condition for using foreign expressions?Can you show how foreign words become naturalized? Cite some foreignwords used in speech. 

4. Are archaic (old-fashioned), obsolete (discarded), and obsolescent(rapidly disappearing) terms more common in speech or books? Explainand illustrate. 

Synonyms. As has already been suggested, a copious vocabulary must notbe idle in a person's equipment. He must be able to use it. He must beable to discriminate as to meaning. This power of choosing the exactword results from a study of synonyms. It is a fact that no two wordsmean _exactly_ the same thing. No matter how nearly alike the twomeanings may appear to be, closer consideration will unfailingly showat least a slight difference of dignity, if nothing more--as _red_ and_crimson_, _pure_ and _unspotted_. Synonyms, then, are groups of wordswhose meanings are almost the same. These are the words which give somuch trouble to learners of our language. A foreigner is told that_stupid_ means _dull_, yet he is corrected if he says _a stupidknife_. Many who learn English as a native tongue fail to comprehendthe many delicate shades of differences among synonyms. 

In this matter, also, a dictionary goes so far as to list synonyms, and in some cases, actually adds a discussion to define the variouslimits. For fuller, more careful discrimination a good book ofsynonyms should be consulted. Except for some general consideration ofwords which everyone is certain to use or misuse, it is better toconsult a treatise on synonyms when need arises than to study itconsecutively. In consultation the material will be fixed by instantuse. In study it may fade before being employed; it may never berequired. 

The subjoined paragraphs show entries in two different volumes uponsynonyms:

 Adjacent, adjoining, contiguous. Adjacent, in Latin, _adjiciens_, participle of _adjicio_, is compounded of _ad_ and _jacio_, to lie near. _Adjoining_, as the word implies, signifies being joined together. Contiguous, in French _contigu_, Latin _contiguus_, comes from _contingo_, or _con_ and _tango_, signifying to touch close. 

 What is _adjacent_ may be separated altogether by the intervention of some third object; what is _adjoining_ must touch in some part; and what is _contiguous_ must be fitted to touch entirely on one side. Lands are _adjacent_ to a house or town; fields are _adjoining_ to each other; and houses _contiguous_ to each other. 

 CRABBE: _English Synonyms_

 Victory: Synonyms: achievement, advantage, conquest, mastery, success, supremacy, triumph. _Victory_ is the state resulting from the overcoming of an opponent or opponents in any contest, or from the overcoming of difficulties, obstacles, evils, etc. , considered as opponents or enemies. In the latter sense any hard-won _achievement_, _advantage, _ or _success_ may be termed a victory. In _conquest_ and _mastery_ there is implied a permanence of state that is not implied in _victory_. _Triumph_, originally denoting the public rejoicing in honor of a _victory_, has come to signify also a peculiarly exultant, complete, and glorious _victory_. Compare _conquer_. Antonyms: defeat, destruction, disappointment, disaster, failure, frustration, miscarriage, overthrow, retreat, rout. 

 FERNALD: _English Synonyms, Antonyms and Prepositions_

Antonyms. Notice that this second paragraph adds a newword-list--_antonyms_. To reinforce the understanding of what a thingis, it is desirable to know what it is not, or what its opposite is. This kind of explanation or description is especially valuable to aspeaker. He can frequently impress an audience more definitely byexplaining the opposite of what he wants them to apprehend. At timesthe term is not the extreme opposite; it is merely the negative of theother. Logically the other side of _white_ is _not white_, while theantonym is the extreme _black_. Trained speakers use with great effectthe principle underlying such groups of words. When Burke arguedbefore the House of Commons for a plan to secure harmony with theAmerican colonies he described the scheme he considered necessary byshowing what it should not be. "No partial, narrow, contracted, pinched, occasional system will be at all suitable to such an object. "Describing the peace he hoped would be secured he used this principleof opposites. "Not peace through the medium of war; not peace to behunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations, not peace to arise out of universal discord, fomented from principlein all parts of the empire; not peace to depend on the juridicaldetermination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking theshadowy boundaries of a complex government. "

We are told by an investigator that one of the reasons for aFrenchman's keen insight into the capabilities of his language is theearly training received in schools covering differences among words. This continual weighing of the meaning or the suitability of anexpression is bound to result in a delicate appreciation of its valueas a means of effective communication. In all mental action the senseof contrast is an especially lively one. In a later chapter thisprinciple, as applied to explanation and argument, will be discussed. Just here, the point is that the constant study of contrasts willsharpen the language sense and rapidly enlarge the vocabulary. 

EXERCISES

1. Put down a group of five words having similar meanings. Explain thedifferences among them. 

2. Choose any word. Give its exact opposite. 

3. From any short paragraph copy all the nouns. In a parallel columnput opposites or contrasts. 

4. Do the same for the adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. 

5. Write down all the common nouns which correspond to _a man_, _agirl_, _a leader_, _a house_, _a costume_, _a crime_. 

Composition of the English Language. Turning now from the means ofimproving the speaker's language equipment let us pass to some remarksupon his use of words. The English language is the largest, the mostvaried in the universe. Almost entirely free from difficulties ofinflection and conjugation, with a simplified grammar, and a greatfreedom of construction, it suffers from only two signaldrawbacks--its spelling and its pronunciation. While it has preservedto a great degree its original Anglo-Saxon grammar, it has enrichedits vocabulary by borrowings from everywhere. Its words have nodistinctive forms, so every foreign word can usually be naturalized bya mere change of sound. No matter what their origin, all belong to onefamily now; _gnu_ is as much English as _knew_, _japan_ as _pogrom_, _fête_ as _papoose_, _batik_ as _radii_, _ohm_ as _marconigram_, _macadamized_ as _zoomed_. Most of the modern borrowings--as justillustrated--were to serve for new things or ideas. But there was onetime when a great reduplication of the vocabulary occurred. After theFrench conquered England in 1066, English and Norman-French werespoken side by side. The resultant tongue, composed of both, offeredmany doubles for the same idea. In some instances the fashionable andaristocratic French word marked a difference of meaning as is clearlyindicated by such pairs as _beef_ and _ox_, _veal_ and _calf, mutton_and _sheep_, _pork_ and _pig_. In many other cases words of French andEnglish origin are separated by differences less distinct. Such are_love_ and _affection_, _worship_ and _adoration_. A speaker must takethought of such groups, and consciously endeavor to use the moreappropriate for his purpose. 

Anglo-Saxon and Romance. It may help him to remember that theAnglo-Saxon words are the more homely, the closer to our everydayfeelings and experiences, the expression of our deepest ideas andsentiments, the natural outspoken response to keen emotion. On theother hand, the Romance words--as they are called, whether from theFrench or directly from the Latin--are likely to be longer; theybelong generally to the more complicated relationships of society andgovernment; they are more intellectual in the sense that theyrepresent the operations of the brain rather than the impulses of theheart. They deal with more highly trained wills, with more abstruseproblems; they reason, they argue, they consider; they arephilosophical, scientific, legal, historical. Listen to a soldierrelate his war experiences. What will his vocabulary be? Listen to adiplomat explaining the League of Nations. What will his vocabularybe? Have you ever heard a speaker who gave you the impression that allhis words ended in _tion_? This was because his vocabulary waslargely Romance. 

The inferences from the foregoing are perfectly plain. Subject andaudience will determine to a large extent what kinds of words aspeaker will choose. The well-equipped speaker will be master of bothkinds; he will draw from either as occasion offers. He will not insultone audience by talking below their intelligence, nor will he boreanother by speaking over their heads. 

General and Specific Terms. Effective speaking depends to a largeextent upon the inclusion of specific terms as contrasted with generalterms. "Glittering generalities" never make people listen. They meannothing because they say too much. Study the following selections tosee how the concrete phraseology used makes the material more telling, how it enforces the meaning. Pick out the best expressions and explainwhy they are better than more general terms. In the first, note howthe last sentence drives home the meaning of the first two. Listenersmay understand the first two, they remember the last. 

 Civil and religious liberty in this country can be preserved only through the agency of our political institutions. But those institutions alone will not suffice. It is not the ship so much as the skilful sailing that assures the prosperous voyage. 

 GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS: _The Public Duty of Educated Men_, 1877

Describe the significance of the best expressions in the followingspeech made in Parliament by Thomas Babington Macaulay. 

 All those fierce spirits whom you hallooed on to harass us now turn round and begin to worry you. The Orangeman raises his war-whoop; Exeter Hall sets up its bray; Mr. Macneill shudders to see more costly cheer than ever provided for the Priest of Baal at the table of the Queen; and the Protestant operatives of Dublin call for impeachments in exceedingly bad English. But what did you expect? Did you think when, to serve your turn, you called the devil up that it was as easy to lay him as to raise him? Did you think when you went on, session after session, thwarting and reviling those whom you knew to be in the right, and flattering all the worst passions of those whom you knew to be in the wrong, that the day of reckoning would never come? It has come. There you sit, doing penance for the disingenuousness of years. 

Why was the style of the extract below especially good for the evidentpurpose and audience? Why did the author use names for the candidates?

 When an American citizen is content with voting merely, he consents to accept what is often a doubtful alternative. His first duty is to help shape the alternative. This, which was formerly less necessary, is now indispensable. In a rural community such as this country was a hundred years-ago, whoever was nominated for office was known to his neighbors, and the consciousness of that knowledge was a conservative influence in determining nominations. But in the local elections of the great cities of today, elections that control taxation and expenditure, the mass of the voters vote in absolute ignorance of the candidates. The citizen who supposes that he does all his duty when he votes, places a premium upon political knavery. Thieves welcome him to the polls and offer him a choice, which he has done nothing to prevent, between Jeremy Diddler and Dick Turpin. The party cries for which he is responsible are: "Turpin and Honesty, " "Diddler and Reform. " And within a few years, as a result of this indifference to the details of public duty, the most powerful politicians in the Empire State of the Union was Jonathan Wild, the Great, the captain of a band of plunderers. 

 GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS: _The Public Duty of Educated Men_, 1877

Appropriate Diction. The final test of any diction is itsappropriateness. The man who talks of dignified things as he would ofa baseball game--unless he is doing it deliberately for humor, caricature, or burlesque--is ruining his own cause. The man whodiscusses trifles in the style of philosophy makes himself anegregious bore. As Shakespeare said, "Suit the action to the word, theword to the action; with this special observance, that you o'erstepnot the modesty of nature. "

Beware of the flowery expression; avoid metaphorical speech; flee fromthe lure of the overwrought style. In the first place it is soold-fashioned that audiences suspect it at once. It fails to movethem. It may plunge its user into ridiculous failure. In theexcitement of spontaneous composition a man sometimes takes risks. Hemay--as Pitt is reported to have said he did--throw himself into asentence and trust to God Almighty to get him out. But a beginner hadbetter walk before he tries to soar. If he speaks surely rather thanamazingly his results will be better. The temptation to leave theground is ever present in speaking. 

A Parliamentary debater describing the Church of England wound up in aflowery conclusion thus: "I see the Church of England rising in theland, with one foot firmly planted in the soil, the other stretchedtoward Heaven!"

An American orator discussing the character of Washington dischargedthe following. 

 The higher we rise in the scale of being--material, intellectual, and moral--the more certainly we quit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling contrasts which belong to a vulgar greatness. Order and proportion characterize the primordial constitution of the terrestrial system; ineffable harmony rules the heavens. All the great eternal forces act in solemn silence. The brawling torrent that dries up in summer deafens you with its roaring whirlpools in March; while the vast earth on which we dwell, with all its oceans and all its continents and its thousand millions of inhabitants, revolves unheard upon its soft axle at the rate of a thousand miles an hour, and rushes noiselessly on its orbit a million and a half miles a day. Two storm-clouds encamped upon opposite hills on a sultry summer's evening, at the expense of no more electricity, according to Mr. Faraday, than is evolved in the decomposition of a single drop of water, will shake the surrounding atmosphere with their thunders, which, loudly as they rattle on the spot, will yet not be heard at the distance of twenty miles; while those tremendous and unutterable forces which ever issue from the throne of God, and drag the chariot wheels of Uranus and Neptune along the uttermost path-ways of the solar system, pervade the illimitable universe in silence. 

Of course, today, nobody talks like that. At least no one should. 

Trite Expressions. Less easily guarded against is the delivery oftrite expressions. These are phrases and clauses which at first wereso eloquent that once heard they stuck in people's minds, who then inan endeavor themselves to be emphatic inserted continually into theirspeeches these overworked, done-to-death expressions, which nowhaving been used too frequently have no real meaning. One of the mostfrequently abused is "of the people, by the people, for the people. "Others are words and phrases made popular by the war. Many are no morethan jargon--meaningless counterfeits instead of the legal tender ofreal speech. It is amazing to notice how persistently some of themrecur in the remarks of apparently well-trained men who should knowbetter than to insert them. The following were used by a prominentUnited States political leader in a single speech. He could; easilyhave replaced them by living material or dispensed with them entirely. 

Jot or tittle; the plain unvarnished truth; God forbid; the jackalpress; that memorable occasion; tooth and nail; the God of ourfathers; the awful horrors of Valley Forge; the blood-stained heightsof Yorktown; tell it not in Gath; proclaim it not in the streets ofAskalon; peace with honor; the Arabian Nights; Munchausen; thefathers; our globe-encircling domain; I am a Democrat; the pirates ofthe Barbary Coast; Democratic gospel pure and undefiled; Janus-faceddouble; Good Lord, good devil; all things to all men; God-fearingpatriots; come what may; all things are fair in love or war; thesilken bowstring; the unwary voter; bait to catch gudgeons; to live byor to die by; these obsequious courtiers; Guttenburg; rubber stamp; atall hazards; the most unkindest cut of all. 

With the artificiality, the stiltedness of the foregoing contrast thesimplicity, the sincerity of these two extracts from Abraham Lincoln. 

 And now, if they would listen--as I suppose they will not--I would address a few words to the Southern people. 

 I would say to them: You consider yourselves a reasonable and a just people; and I consider that in the general qualities of reason and justice you are not inferior to any other people. Still, when you speak of us Republicans, you do so only to denounce us as reptiles, or, at the best, as no better than outlaws. You will grant a hearing to pirates or murderers, but nothing like it to "Black Republicans. " In all your contentions with one another, each of you deems an unconditional condemnation of "Black Republicanism" as the first thing to be attended to. Indeed, such condemnation of us seems to be an indispensable prerequisite--license, so to speak--among you to be admitted or permitted to speak at all. Now can you or not be prevailed upon to pause and to consider whether this is quite just to us, or even to yourselves? Bring forward your charges and specifications, and then be patient long enough to hear us deny or justify. 

 _Cooper Union Speech_, 1860

 My Friends: No one, not in my situation, can appreciate my feeling of sadness at this parting. To this place, and the kindness of these people, I owe everything. Here I have lived a quarter of a century, and have passed from a young to an old man. Here my children have been born, and one is buried. I now leave, not knowing when or whether ever I may return, with a task before me greater than that which rested upon Washington. Without the assistance of that Divine Being who ever attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance I cannot fail. Trusting in Him who can go with me, and remain with you, and be everywhere for good, let us confidently hope that all will yet be well. To His care commending you, as I hope in your prayers you will commend me, I bid you an affectionate farewell. 

 _Farewell Address at Springfield_, 1861

Kinds of Sentences. What kinds of sentences shall a speaker constructas he speaks? That there is a difference between those a personcomposes when he writes and those the same person is likely to evolvewhen he speaks is realized by everyone. We hear that a speaker is"booky, " or conversational, that he is stilted or lively, that he istoo formal, that his discourse is dull and flat. To a great degreethese criticisms are based upon the sentence structure. 

The Simple Sentence. The simple sentence contains only one subject andone predicate. The complex sentence contains one independent clauseand at least one subordinate clause. The compound sentence containstwo or more independent clauses. It would be good advice to urge theemployment of the simple sentence were it not for the fact that a longsuccession of sentences constructed exactly alike, making the sameimpression of form and sound and length, is likely to produce a deadlymonotony of emphasis and pause, an impression of immaturity on thepart of the speaker and of lack of skill in molding his phrases. Yet, in the main, the simple sentence is a valuable kind to know how todeliver. Containing but a single thought it is likely to make adefinite impression upon a listener. It offers him not too much tograsp. It leads him a single step along the way. It speaks clearly, concisely. Its advantages follow from its qualities. At the beginningof addresses it is especially efficient in leading the audience at thesame rate--slowly, it should be--as the speaker. In intricateexplanation, in close reasoning, in matters of paramount importance, it should be employed. 

Management of the short, simple sentence in written prose isdifficult. In spoken discourse, as well, it is so easy to fall intothe First Primer style that while the advantages of the use of thesimple sentence are great, the ability to produce good sentences insuccession must be developed. 

The Complex Sentence. The complex sentence offers a good form forintroducing pertinent, minor details, which are necessary, yet whichdo not merit inclusion in the general level of the speech. Aided byproper pitch and inflection of the voice, they can be skilfullysubordinated to main ideas, yet introduced so adroitly that they attimes relieve attention, at others briefly explain, at others keepadding up in a series the effect of which is a large total. Frequentlysuch sentences indicate clearly the progress of the discussion. Atopic introduced in a subordinate clause may later be raised to moreimportance without abruptness, for hearers are already familiar withit. A topic already treated may be recalled by citation in a laterclause. So various parts of a speech may be closely knit together topresent a coherent, progressive, unified whole. 

In easily grasped general, descriptive, narrative, explanatorymaterial, complex sentences will allow the covering of a wide field, or a long time, in short order by condensing facts into the few wordsof subordinate clauses. 

The Compound Sentence. Somewhat like the use of complex sentences forgeneral material is the use of compound ones for informal topics, familiar discourse, easy address, lighter material. Valuable, too, isthis form for the speaker who knows accurately the meaning ofconjunctions, who can avoid the stringing together of what should besimple sentences by a dozen senseless _ands_. A good rule for thebeginner is to allow no _ands_ in his speeches except those soimbedded in phrases--husband and wife, now and then, principal andinterest--that he cannot avoid them. Let him never speak suchsentences as, "I came to this meeting and discovered only when I gothere that I was scheduled to speak. " Let him be careful of beginningsentence's with _and_ after he has made a pause. 

The Exclamatory Sentence. Many speakers yield to the temptation tostrive for effect by delivering exclamatory sentences--sometimes onlyclauses and phrases so enunciated. The disposition to do this is bornof the desire to be emphatic. Strong feeling makes one burst out inejaculation. Used sparingly this form may be extremely effective. Usedtoo frequently it reduces a speech to a mere series of ejaculations oflittle more value than a succession of grunts, groans, and sobs. Exclamatory sentences seldom convey much meaning. They indicateemotion. But a speech, to be worth listening to, must convey ideas. 

The Interrogative Sentence. A second sentence which may be classedwith the preceding is the interrogative. There is a disposition on thepart of speakers to ask direct questions of the audience. Frequentlythe rhetorical question--which is one asked because the answer is thequite apparent fact the speaker wants to impress upon his hearers--isan effective method of making a seemingly personal appeal to sluggishintellects or lazy wills. The interrogative form has the samedisadvantage as the exclamatory. Except when its answer is perfectlyplain it transfers no meaning. It would be easily possible for aspeaker with no ideas at all, no knowledge of a topic, to engage timeand attention by merely constructing a series of questions. At theconclusion the audience would wonder why in the world he spoke, for hehad so little to say. 

Long and Short Sentences. So far as long and short sentences areconcerned some general rules have already been hinted at in dealingwith other kinds. The advantages of the short sentence are mainlythose of clearness, directness, emphasis. Its dangers are monotony, bareness, over-compactness. The advantages of the long--that is, quitelong--sentence, are rather difficult to comprehend. A wordy sentenceis likely to defeat its own purpose. Instead of guiding it will loseits hearer. Somewhat long sentences--as already said--will serve ingeneral discussions, in rapidly moving descriptive and narrativepassages, in rather simple explanation and argument. No one can stateat just what number of words a short sentence becomes medium, and whenthe division of medium becomes long. Yet there must be some limits. Asentence in _Les Misérables_ includes nearly one thousand words inboth French original and English translation. John Milton producedsome extraordinarily long sentences. But these are in writtendiscourse. Some modern speakers have come dangerously near the limit. In one printed speech one sentence has four hundred ten words in it; alater one goes to five hundred forty. This second would fill abouthalf a column of the usual newspaper. Surely these are much too long. A speaker can frequently make a long sentence acceptable by breakingit up into shorter elements by sensible pauses. Yet the generaldirection must surely be: avoid sentences which are too long. 

Variety. The paramount rule of sentence structure in speech-making iscertainly: secure variety. Long, medium, short; declarative, exclamatory, interrogative; simple, loose, periodic; use them all asmaterial permits and economy of time and attention prescribes. Withthe marvelous variety possible in English sentence structure, noperson with ideas and language at command need be a monotonousspeaker. 

EXERCISES

1. Criticize this selection for its diction and sentence structure. What excellences has it? What can you find fault with? Does its dateexplain it?

 "The books in the library, the portraits, the table at which he wrote, the scientific culture of the land, the course of agricultural occupation, the coming-in of harvests, fruit of the seed his own hand had scattered, the animals and implements of husbandry, the trees planted by him in lines, in copses, in orchards by thousands, the seat under the noble elm on which he used to sit to feel the southwest wind at evening, or hear the breathings of the sea, or the not less audible music of the starry heavens, all seemed at first unchanged. The sun of a bright day from which, however, something of the fervors of midsummer were wanting, fell temperately on them all, filled the air on all sides with the utterances of life, and gleamed on the long line of ocean. Some of those whom on earth he loved best, still were there. The great mind still seemed to preside; the great presence to be with you; you might expect to hear again the rich and playful tones of the voice of the old hospitality. Yet a moment more, and all the scene took on the aspect of one great monument, inscribed with his name, and sacred to his memory. And such it shall be in all the future of America! The sensation of desolateness, and loneliness, and darkness, with which you see it now, will pass away; the sharp grief of love and friendship will become soothed; men will repair thither as they are wont to commemorate the great days of history; the same glance shall take in, and same emotions shall greet and bless, the Harbor of the Pilgrims and the Tomb of Webster. "

 RUFUS CHOATE: _A Discourse Commemorative of Daniel Webster_, 1853

2. What is the effect of the questions in the following? Are thesentences varied? If the occasion was momentous, what is the style?

 "And judging by the past, I wish to know what there has been in the conduct of the British ministry for the last ten years, to justify those hopes with which gentlemen have been pleased to solace themselves and the house? Is it that insidious smile with which our petition has been lately received? Trust it not, Sir; it will prove a snare to your feet. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. Ask yourselves how this gracious reception of our petition comports with those warlike preparations which cover our water and darken our land. Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love and reconciliation? Have we shown ourselves so unwilling to be reconciled that force must be called in to win back our love?"

 PATRICK HENRY: _Speech in the Virginia Convention_, 1775

3. List the concrete details given below. What effect have they? Whatelements give the idea of the extent of the Colonies' fisheries? Arethe sentences long or short? Does their success justify them?

 "Look at the manner in which the people of New England have of late carried on the whale fishery. Whilst we follow them among the tumbling mountains of ice, and behold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recess of Hudson's Bay and Davis' Straits, whilst we are looking for them beneath the arctic circle, we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar cold, that they are at the antipodes, and engaged under the frozen Serpent of the South. Falkland Islands, which seemed too remote and romantic an object for the grasp of national ambition, is but a stage and resting-place in the progress of their victorious industry. Nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging to them than the accumulated winter of both the poles. We know that whilst some of them draw the line and strike the harpoon on the coast of Africa, others run the longitude and pursue their gigantic game along the coast of Brazil. No sea but what is vexed by their fisheries; no climate that is not witness to their toil. Neither the perseverance of Holland, nor the activity of France, nor the dexterous and firm sagacity of English enterprise ever carried this most perilous mode of hardy industry to the extent to which it has been pushed by, this recent people; a people who are still, as it were, but in the gristle, and not yet hardened into the bone of manhood. "

 EDMUND BURKE: _Conciliation with America_, 1775

4. Is the following clear? What kind of sentence is it? What minorphrase? Is this phrase important? Why? Why did Lincoln repeat thissentence, practically with no change, twelve times in a single speech?

 "The sum of the whole is that of our thirty-nine fathers who framed the original Constitution, twenty-one--a clear majority of the whole--certainly understood that no proper division of local from Federal authority, nor any part of the Constitution, forbade the Federal Government to control slavery in the Federal Territories. "

 ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Cooper Union Speech_, 1860

5. Is the following well phrased? What makes it so? Is any expressiontoo strong? Do you object to any? How many of the words would you belikely not to use?

 "It is but too true that there are many whose whole scheme of freedom is made up of pride, perverseness, and insolence. They feel themselves in a state of thraldom; they imagine that their souls are cooped and cabined in, unless they have some man, or some body of men, dependent on their mercy. The desire of having some one below them descends to those who are the very lowest of all; and a Protestant cobbler, debased by his poverty, but exalted by his share of the ruling church, feels a pride in knowing it is by his generosity alone that the peer, whose footman's instep he measures, is able to keep his chaplain from a gaol. This disposition is the true source of the passion which many men, in very humble life, have taken to the American war. Our subjects in America; our colonies; our dependents. This lust of party power is the liberty they hunger and thirst for; and this Siren song of ambition has charmed ears that we would have thought were never organized to that sort of music. "

 EDMUND BURKE: _Speech at Bristol_, 1780

6. Describe the effects of the questions in the next. How is sentencevariety secured? What effects have the simple, declarative sentences?

 "And from what have these consequences sprung? We have been involved in no war. We have been at peace with all the world. We have been visited with no national calamity. Our people have been advancing in general intelligence, and, I will add, as great and alarming as has been the advance of political corruption among the mercenary corps who look to government for support, the morals and virtue of the community at large have been advancing in improvement. What, I again repeat, is the cause?"

 JOHN C. CALHOUN: _Speech on the Force Bill_, 1833

7. What quality predominates in the following? Does it lower the toneof the passage too much? Is the interrogative form of the lastsentence better than the declarative? Why? Has the last observationany close connection with the preceding portion? Can it be justified?

 "Modesty is a lovely trait, which sets the last seal to a truly great character, as the blush of innocence adds the last charm to youthful beauty. When, on his return from one of his arduous campaigns in the Seven Years' War, the Speaker of the Virginia Assembly, by order of the House, addressed Colonel Washington in acknowledgment of his services, the youthful hero rose to reply; but humility checked his utterance, diffidence sealed his lips. 'Sit down, Colonel Washington, ' said the Speaker; 'the House sees that your modesty is equal to your merit, and that exceeds my power of language to describe. ' But who ever heard of a modest Alexander or a modest Caesar, or a modest hero or statesman of the present day?--much as some of them would be improved by a measure of that quality. "

 EDWARD EVERETT: _Character of Washington_, 1858

8. Look up the meaning of every unfamiliar expression in this extract. Is the quotation at the end in good taste? Give reasons for youranswer. For what kinds of audiences would this speech be fitting?

 "The remedy for the constant excess of party spirit lies, and lies alone, in the courageous independence of the individual citizen. The only way, for instance, to procure the party nomination of good men, is for every self-respecting voter to refuse to vote for bad men. In the medieval theology the devils feared nothing so much as the drop of holy water and the sign of the cross, by which they were exorcised. The evil spirits of party fear nothing so much as bolting and scratching. _In hoc signo vinces_. If a farmer would reap a good crop, he scratches the weeds out of his field. If we would have good men upon the ticket, we must scratch bad men off. If the scratching breaks down the party, let it break: for the success of the party, by such means would break down the country. The evil spirits must be taught by means that they can understand. 'Them fellers, ' said the captain of a canal-boat of his men, 'Them fellers never think you mean a thing until you kick 'em. They feel that, and understand. '"

 GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS: _The Public Duty of Educated Men_, 1877

9. Describe the quality of the next extract. What is its style? Arerepetitions allowable? What then of variety? Point out contrasts ofwords and phrases. 

 "What, then it is said, would you legislate in haste? Would you legislate in times of great excitement concerning matters of such deep concern? Yes, Sir, I would; and if any bad consequences should follow from the haste and excitement, let those be answerable who, when there was no need to haste, when there existed no excitement, refused to listen to any project of reform; nay, made it an argument against reform that the public mind was not excited. . . . I allow that hasty legislation is an evil. But reformers are compelled to legislate fast, just because bigots will not legislate early. Reformers are compelled to legislate in times of excitement, because bigots will not legislate in times of tranquillity. "

 THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY: _On the Reform Bill_, 1832

10. Describe the diction of the next extract. Describe the prevailingkind of sentences. Do you approve of these in such an instance?Explain your answer. Does it remind you--in tone--of any other passagealready quoted in this book? What is your opinion of the style?

 "There has been a change of government. It began two years ago, when the House of Representatives became Democratic by a decisive majority. It has now been completed. The Senate about to assemble will also be Democratic. The offices of President and Vice-President have been put into the hands of Democrats. What does the change mean? That is the question that is uppermost in our minds today. That is the question I am going to try to answer in order, if I may, to interpret the occasion. 

 "This is not a day of triumph; it is a day of dedication. Here muster, not the forces of party, but the forces of humanity. Men's hearts wait upon us; men's lives hang in the balance; men's hopes call upon us to say what we will do. Who shall live up to the great trust? Who dares fail to try? I summon all honest men, all patriotic, all forward-looking men to my side. God helping me, I will not fail them, if they will but counsel and sustain me. "

 WOODROW WILSON: _Inaugural_, 1918

11. Consider sentence length in the following: Which words aresignificant? How is concreteness secured?

 "Ours is a government of liberty by, through, and under the law. No man is above it and no man is below it. The crime of cunning, the crime of greed, the crime of violence, are all equally crimes, and against them all alike the law must set its face. This is not and never shall be a government either of plutocracy or of a mob. It is, it has been, and it will be a government of the people; including alike the people of great wealth, of moderate wealth, the people who employ others, the people who are employed, the wage worker, the lawyer, the mechanic, the banker, the farmer; including them all, protecting each and everyone if he acts decently and squarely, and discriminating against any one of them, no matter from what class he comes, if he does not act squarely and fairly, if he does not obey the law. While all people are foolish if they violate or rail against the law, wicked as well as foolish, but all foolish--yet the most foolish man in this Republic is the man of wealth who complains because the law is administered with impartial justice against or for him. His folly is greater than the folly of any other man who so complains; for he lives and moves and has his being because the law does in fact protect him and his property. "

 THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Spokane, 1903

CHAPTER IV

BEGINNING THE SPEECH

Speech-making a Formal Matter. Every speech is more or less a formalaffair. The speaker standing is separated from the other personspresent by his prominence. He is removed from them by standing whilethey sit, by being further away from them than in ordinaryconversation. The greater the distance between him and his listenersthe more formal the proceeding becomes. When a person speaks "from thefloor" as it is called, that is, by simply rising at his seat andspeaking, there is a marked difference in the manner of his deliveryand also in the effect upon the audience. In many gatherings, speechesand discussions "from the floor" are not allowed at all, in othersthis practice is the regular method of conducting business. Even inthe schoolroom when the student speaks from his place he feels lessresponsibility than when he stands at the front of the room before hisclassmates. As all formal exercises have their regular rules ofprocedure it will be well to list the more usual formulas forbeginnings of speeches. 

The Salutation. In all cases where speeches are made there is someperson who presides. This person may be the Vice-President of theUnited States presiding over the Senate, the Speaker of the House ofRepresentatives, the Chief Justice of the United States SupremeCourt, the president of a city board of aldermen, the judge of acourt, the president of a corporation, of a lodge, of a churchsociety, of a club, the pastor of a church, the chancellor or provostor dean of a college, the principal of a school, the chairman of acommittee, the toastmaster of a banquet, the teacher of a class. Thefirst remark of a speaker must always be the recognition of thispresiding officer. 

Then there are frequently present other persons who are distinct fromthe ordinary members of the audience, to whom some courtesy should beshown in this salutation. Their right to recognition depends upontheir rank, their importance at the time, some special peculiar reasonfor separating them from the rest of the audience. The speaker willhave to decide for himself in most cases as to how far he willclassify his hearers. In some instances there is no difficulty. Debaters must recognize the presiding officer, the judges if they bedistinct from the regular audience, the members of the audienceitself. Lawyers in court must recognize only the judge and the"gentlemen of the jury. " In a debate on the first draft for the Leagueof Nations presided over by the Governor of Massachusetts, SenatorLodge's salutation was "Your Excellency, Ladies and Gentlemen, MyFellow Americans. " The last was added unquestionably because patrioticfeeling was so strong at the time that reference to our nationalitywas a decidedly fitting compliment, and also perhaps, because thespeaker realized that his audience might be slightly prejudicedagainst the view he was going to advance in criticizing the LeagueCovenant. At times a formal salutation becomes quite long to includeall to whom recognition is due. At a university commencement a speakermight begin: "Mr. Chancellor, Members of the Board of Trustees, Gentlemen of the Faculty, Candidates for Degrees, Ladies andGentlemen. "

Other salutations are Your Honor, Mr. President, Mr. Speaker, MadamePresident, Madame Chairman, Mr. Chairman, Mr. Stevenson, Sir, Mr. Toastmaster, Mr. Moderator, Honorable Judges, Ladies, Gentlemen, Fellow Citizens, Classmates, Fellow Workers, Gentlemen of the Senate, Gentlemen of the Congress, Plenipotentiaries of the German Empire, MyLord Mayor and Citizens of London; Mr. Mayor, Mr. Secretary, AdmiralFletcher and Gentlemen of the Fleet; Mr. Grand Master, GovernorMcMillan, Mr. Mayor, My Brothers, Men and Women of Tennessee. 

The most important thing about the salutation is that it should neverbe omitted. To begin to speak without having first recognized somepresiding officer and the audience stamps one immediately asthoughtless, unpractised, or worse still--discourteous. 

Having observed the propriety of the salutation the speaker shouldmake a short pause before he proceeds to the introduction of hisspeech proper. 

Length of the Introduction. There was a time when long elaborateintroductions were the rule, and textbooks explained in detail how todevelop them. The main assumption seems to have been that the fartheraway from his topic the speaker began, the longer and more indirectthe route by which he approached it, the more sudden and surprisingthe start with which it was disclosed to the audience, the better thespeech. Such views are no longer held. One of the criticisms of thespeeches of the English statesman, Burke, is that instead of coming atonce to the important matter under consideration--and all his speecheswere upon paramount issues--he displayed his rhetorical skill andliterary ability before men impatient to finish discussion and providefor action by casting their votes. If a student will read thebeginning of Burke's famous _Speech on Conciliation_ he will readilyunderstand the force of this remark, for instead of bringing forwardthe all-important topic of arranging for colonial adjustment Burkeuses hundreds of words upon the "flight of a bill for ever, " his ownpretended superstitiousness and belief in omens. So strong is therecognition of the opposite practice today that it is at timesasserted that speeches should dispense with introductions longer thana single sentence. 

Purpose of the Introduction. So far as the material of the speech isconcerned the introduction has but one purpose--to bring the topic ofthe succeeding remarks clearly and arrestingly before the audience. Itshould be clearly done, so that there shall be no misunderstandingfrom the beginning. It should be arrestingly done, so that theattention shall be aroused and held from this announcement even untilthe end. A man should not declare that he is going to explain themanufacture of paper-cutters, and then later proceed to describe themaking of those frames into which rolls of wrapping paper are fittedunderneath a long cutting blade, because to most people theexpression "paper-cutters" means dull-edged, ornamental knives fordesks and library tables. His introduction would not be clear. On theother hand if a minister were to state plainly that he was going tospeak on the truth that "it is more blessed to give than to receive"his congregation might turn its attention to its own affairs at oncebecause the topic promises no novelty. But if he declares that he isgoing to make a defense of selfishness he would surely startle hishearers into attention, so that he could go on to describe thepersonal satisfaction and peace of mind which comes to the doers ofgood deeds. A speaker could arrest attention by stating that heintended to prove the immorality of the principle that "honesty is thebest policy, " if he proceeded to plead for that virtue not as arepaying _policy_ but as an innate guiding principle of right, nomatter what the consequences. In humorous, half-jesting, ironicalmaterial, of course, clearness may be justifiably sacrificed topreserving interest. The introduction may state the exact opposite ofthe real topic. 

When nothing else except the material of the introduction need beconsidered, it should be short. Even in momentous matters this istrue. Notice the brevity of the subjoined introduction of a speechupon a deeply moving subject. 

 Gentlemen of the Congress:

 The Imperial German Government on the 31st day of January announced to this Government and to the Governments of the other neutral nations that on and after the 1st day of February, the present month, it would adopt a policy with regard to the use of submarines against all shipping seeking to pass through certain designated areas of the high seas, to which it is clearly my duty to call your attention. 

 WOODROW WILSON, 1917

The following, though much longer, aims to do the same thing--toannounce the topic of the speech clearly. Notice that in order toemphasize this endeavor to secure clearness the speaker declares thathe has repeatedly tried to state his position in plain English. Hethen makes clear that he is not opposed to _a_ League of Nations; heis merely opposed to the terms already submitted for the one about tobe formed. This position he makes quite clear in the last sentencehere quoted. 

 Your Excellency, Ladies and Gentlemen, My Fellow Americans:

 I am largely indebted to President Lowell for this opportunity to address this great audience. He and I are friends of many years, both Republicans. He is the president of our great university, one of the most important and influential places in the United States. He is also an eminent student and historian of politics and government. He and I may differ as to methods in this great question now before the people, but I am sure that in regard to the security of the peace of the world and the welfare of the United States we do not differ in purposes. 

 I am going to say a single word, if you will permit me, as to my own position. I have tried to state it over and over again. I thought I had stated it in plain English. But there are those who find in misrepresentation a convenient weapon for controversy, and there are others, most excellent people, who perhaps have not seen what I have said and who possibly have misunderstood me. It has been said that I am against any League of Nations. I am not; far from it. I am anxious to have the nations, the free nations of the world, united in a league, as we call it, a society, as the French call it, but united, to do all that can be done to secure the future peace of the world and to bring about a general disarmament. 

 SENATOR HENRY CABOT LODGE in a debate in Boston, 1919

The Introduction and the Audience. When we turn from the material ofthe introduction or the speech we naturally consider the audience. Just as the salutations already listed in this chapter indicate howcareful speakers are in adapting their very first words to the specialdemands of recognition for a single audience, so a study ofintroductions to speeches which have been delivered will support thesame principle. A speech is made to affect a single audience, therefore it must be fitted as closely as possible to that audience inorder to be effective. A city official invited to a neighborhoodgathering to instruct citizens in the method of securing a children'splayground in that district is not only wasting time but insulting thebrains and dispositions of his listeners if he drawls off a longintroduction showing the value of public playgrounds in a crowdedcity. His presence before that group of people proves that they acceptall he can tell them on that topic. He is guilty of making a badintroduction which seriously impairs the value of anything he may saylater concerning how this part of the city can induce the municipalgovernment to set aside enough money to provide the open space and theapparatus. Yet this speech was made in a large American city by anexpert on playgrounds. 

People remembered more vividly his wrong kind of opening remarks thanthey did his advice concerning a method of procedure. 

Effect of the Introduction upon the Audience. Many centuries ago afamous and successful Roman orator stipulated the purpose of anintroduction with respect to the audience. Cicero stated that anintroduction should render its hearers "_benevolos, attentos, dociles_"; that is, kindly disposed towards the speaker himself, attentive to his remarks, and willing to be instructed by hisexplanations or arguments. Not everyone has a pleasing personalitybut he can strive to acquire one. He can, perhaps, not add manyattributes to offset those nature has given him, but he can alwaysreduce, eradicate, or change those which interfere with his receptionby others. Education and training will work wonders for people who arenot blessed with that elusive quality, charm, or that winner ofconsideration, impressiveness. Self-examination, self-restraint, self-development, are prime elements in such a process. Great men havenot been beyond criticism for such qualities. Great men haverecognized their value and striven to rid themselves of hindrances andreplace them by helps. 

Every reader is familiar with Benjamin Franklin's account of his ownmethod as related in his _Autobiography_, yet it will bear quotationhere to illustrate this point:

 While I was intent on improving my language, I met with an English Grammar (I think it was Greenwood's), at the end of which there were two little sketches of the arts of rhetoric and logic, the latter "finishing with a specimen of a dispute in the Socratic method; and soon after I procured Xenophon's Memorable Things of Socrates, wherein there are many instances of the same method. I was charmed with it, adopted it, dropt my abrupt contradiction and positive argumentation, and put on the humble inquirer and doubter. . . . I found this method safest for myself and very embarrassing to those against whom I used it; therefore I took a delight in it, practised it continually, and grew very artful and expert in drawing people, even of superior knowledge, into concessions, the consequences of which they did not foresee, entangling them in difficulties out of which they could not extricate themselves, and so obtaining victories that neither myself nor my cause always deserved. I continued this method some few years, but gradually left it, retaining only the habit of expressing myself in terms of modest diffidence; never using, when I advanced anything that may possibly be disputed, the words _Certainly, Undoubtedly_, or any others that give the air of positiveness to an opinion; but rather say, I conceive or apprehend a thing to be so and so; it appears to me, or _I should think it so or so_, for such and such reasons; or _I imagine it to be so_; or _it is so if I am not mistaken_. This habit, I believe, has been of great advantage to me when I have had occasion to inculcate my opinions, and persuade men into measures that I have been from time to time engaged in promoting; and as the chief ends of conversation are to _inform_ or to be _informed_, to _please_ or to _persuade_, I wish well-meaning, sensible men would not lessen their power of doing good by a positive, assuming manner, that seldom fails to disgust, tends to create opposition, and to defeat everyone of those purposes for which speech was given to us, to wit, giving or receiving information or pleasure. For if you would inform, a positive and dogmatical manner in advancing your sentiments may provoke contradiction and prevent a candid attention. If you wish information and improvement from the knowledge of others, and yet at the same time express yourself as firmly fixed in your present opinions, modest, sensible men who do not love disputation will probably leave you undisturbed in the possession of your error. And by such a manner you can seldom hope to recommend yourself in _pleasing_ your hearers, or to persuade those whose concurrence you desire. Pope says, judiciously:

 "Men should be taught as if you taught them not, And things unknown propos'd as things forgot;"

 farther recommending to us

 "To speak, tho' sure, with seeming diffidence. "

Of course an audience must be induced to listen. The obligation isalways with the speaker. He is appealing for consideration, he wantsto affect the hearers, therefore he must have at his command all theresources of securing their respectful attention. He must be able toemploy all the legitimate means of winning their attention. A goodspeaker will not stoop to use any tricks or devices that are notlegitimate. A trick, even when it is successful, is still nothing buta trick, and though it secure the temporary attention of the lowerorders of intellect it can never hold the better minds of an audience. Surprises, false alarms, spectacular appeals, may find theirdefenders. One widely reputed United States lawyer in speaking beforeaudiences of young people used to advance theatrically to the edge ofthe stage, and, then, pointing an accusing finger at one part of theaudience, declare in loud ringing tones, "You're a sneak!" It isquestionable whether any attempt at arousing interest could justifysuch a brusque approach. Only in broadly comic or genuinely humorousaddresses can it be said that the end justifies the means. 

When the audience has been induced to listen, the rest should be easyfor the good speaker. Then comes into action his skill at explanation, his ability to reason and convince, to persuade and sway, which is thespeaker's peculiar art. If they will listen to him, he should be ableto instruct them. The introduction must, so far as this last isconcerned, clear the way for the remainder of the speech. The methodsby which such instruction, reasoning, and persuasion are effected bestwill be treated later in this book. 

Having covered the preceding explanation of the aims and forms ofintroductions, let us look at a few which have been delivered byregularly practising speech-makers before groups of men whoseinterest, concern, and business it was to listen. All men who speakfrequently are extremely uneven in their quality and just as irregularin their success. One of the best instances of this unevenness andirregularity was Edmund Burke, whose career and practice are bound toafford food for thought and discussion to every student of the powerand value of the spoken word. Some of Burke's speeches are models forimitation and study, others are warnings for avoidance. At one timewhen he felt personally disturbed by the actions of the House ofCommons, because he as a member of the minority could not affect thevoting, he began a speech exactly as no man should under anycircumstances. No man in a deliberative assembly can be excused forlosing control of himself. Yet Burke opened his remarks with theseplain words. 

 "Mr. Speaker! I rise under some embarrassment occasioned by a feeling of delicacy toward one-half of the House, and of sovereign contempt for the other half. "

This is childish, of course. A man may not infrequently be forced bycircumstances to speak before an audience whose sentiments, opinions, prejudices, all place them in a position antagonistic to his own. Howshall he make them well-disposed, attentive, willing to be instructed?The situation is not likely to surround a beginning speaker, but menin affairs, in business, in courts, must be prepared for suchcircumstances. One of the most striking instances of a man whoattempted to speak before an antagonistic group and yet by sheer powerof his art and language ended by winning them to his own party is inShakespeare's _Julius Caesar_ when Mark Antony speaks over his deadfriend's body. Brutus allows it, but insists on speaking to the peoplefirst that he may explain why he and his fellow conspiratorsassassinated the great leader. It was a mistake to allow a person fromthe opposite party to have the last word before the populace, but thatis not the point just here. Brutus is able to explain why a group ofnoble Romans felt that for the safety of the state and itsinhabitants, they had to kill the rising favorite who would soon asKing rule them all. When he ceases speaking, the citizens approve thekilling. Mark Antony perceives that, so at the beginning of his speechhe seems to agree with the people. Caesar was his friend, yet Brutussays he was ambitious, and Brutus is an honorable man. Thus theskilful orator makes the populace well-disposed towards him, thenattentive. 

Having secured those things he proceeds slowly and unobtrusively toinstruct them. It takes only a few lines until he has made thembelieve all he wants them to; before the end of his oration he hasthem crying out upon the murderers of their beloved Caesar, for whoselives they now thirst. Yet only ten minutes earlier they were loudlyacclaiming them as deliverers of their country. The entire sceneshould be analyzed carefully by the student. It is the second scene ofthe third act of the play. 

In actual life a man would hardly have to go so far as seemingly toagree with such opposite sentiments as expressed in this situationfrom a stage tragedy. It is general knowledge that during the earlyyears of the American Civil War England sympathized with the southernstates, mainly because the effective blockade maintained by the Northprevented raw cotton from reaching the British mills. Henry WardBeecher attempted to present the union cause to the English in aseries of addresses throughout the country. When he appeared upon theplatform in Liverpool the audience broke out into a riot of noisewhich effectively drowned all his words for minutes. The speakerwaited until he could get in a phrase. Finally he was allowed todeliver a few sentences. By his patience, his appeal to their Englishsense of fair play, and to a large degree by his tolerant sense ofhumor, he won their attention. His material, his power as a speakerdid all the rest. 

 It is a matter of very little consequence to me, personally, whether I speak here tonight or not. [_Laughter and cheers. _] But one thing is very certain, if you do permit me to speak here tonight, you will hear very plain talking. [_Applause and hisses_. ] You will not find me to be a man that dared to speak about Great Britain three thousand miles off, and then is afraid to speak to Great Britain when he stands on her shores. [_Immense applause and hisses_. ] And if I do not mistake the tone and temper of Englishmen they had rather have a man who opposes them in a manly way [_applause from all parts of the hall_] than a sneak that agrees with them in an unmanly way. [_Applause and "Bravo!"_] Now, if I can carry you with me by sound convictions, I shall be immensely glad [_applause_]; but if I cannot carry you with me by facts and sound arguments, I do not wish you to go with me at all; and all that I ask is simply fair play. [_Applause, and a voice: "You shall have it too. "_. ]

 Those of you who are kind enough to wish to favor my speaking--and you will observe that my voice is slightly husky, from having spoken almost every night in succession for some time past--those who wish to hear me will do me the kindness simply to sit still and to keep still; and I and my friends the Secessionists will make the noise. [_Laughter. _]

 HENRY WARD BEECHER, in speech at Liverpool, 1863

The beginning of one of Daniel Webster's famous speeches was a triumphof the deliverer's recognition of the mood of an audience. In theSenate in 1830 feeling had been running high over a resolutionconcerning public lands. Innocent enough in its appearance, thisresolution really covered an attempt at the extension of the slaveryterritory. Both North and South watched the progress of the debateupon this topic with almost held breath. Hayne of South Carolina hadspoken upon it during two days when Webster rose to reply to him. TheSenate galleries were packed, the members themselves were stirred upto the highest pitch of keen intensity. Nearly the entire effect ofWebster's statement and argument for the North depended upon theeffect he could make upon the Senators at the very opening of hisspeech. 

Webster began in a low voice, with a calm manner, to speak veryslowly. In a second he had soothed the emotional tension, set all thehearers quite at ease, and by the time the Secretary had read theresolution asked by Webster, he had them in complete control. His taskwas to make them attentive, but more especially, ready to beinstructed. 

 Mr. President: When the mariner has been tossed for many days in thick weather and on an unknown sea, he naturally avails himself of the first pause in the storm, the earliest glance of the sun, to take his latitude and ascertain how far the elements have driven him from his true course. Let us imitate this prudence; and, before we float farther on the waves of this debate, refer to the point from which we departed, that we may, at least, be able to conjecture where we now are. I ask for the reading of the resolution before the Senate. 

 DANIEL WEBSTER: _Reply to Hayne_, 1830

Linking the Introduction to Preceding Speeches. So many speeches arereplies to preceding addresses that many introductions adaptthemselves to their audiences by touching upon such utterances. Indebates, in pleas in court, in deliberative assemblies, this is moreusually the circumstance than not. The following illustrates howcourteously this may be done, even when it serves merely to make allthe clearer the present speaker's position. In moments of tensestfeeling great speakers skilfully move from any one position orattitude to another as Patrick Henry did. While you are regardingthese paragraphs as an example of introduction do not overlook theirvocabulary and sentences. 

 Mr. President: No man thinks more highly than I do of the patriotism, as well as abilities, of the very worthy gentlemen who have just addressed the house. But different men often see the same subject in different lights; and, therefore, I hope it will not be thought disrespectful to those gentlemen, if, entertaining as I do opinions of a character very opposite to theirs, I shall speak forth my sentiments freely, and without reserve. This is no time for ceremony. The question before the house is one of awful moment to the country. For my own part, I consider it as nothing less than a question of freedom or slavery. And in proportion to the magnitude of the subject ought to be the freedom of the debate. It is only in this way that we can hope to arrive at truth, and fulfill the great responsibility which we hold to God and our country. Should I keep back my opinions at such a time, through fear of giving offense, I should consider myself as guilty of treason towards my country, and of an act of disloyalty toward the Majesty of Heaven, which I revere above all earthly things. 

 Mr. President, it is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. We are apt to shut our eyes against a painful truth, and listen to the song of that Siren till she transforms us into beasts. Is this the part of wise men, engaged in a great and arduous struggle for liberty? Are we disposed to be of the number of those who having eyes see not, and having ears hear not, the things which so nearly concern their temporal salvation? For my part, whatever anguish of spirit it may cost, I am willing to know the whole truth; to know the worst and to provide for it. 

 PATRICK HENRY in the Virginia Convention, 1775

Difficulties of Introductions. People who are scheduled to makespeeches are heard to declare that they know exactly what they want tosay but they do not know how to begin. Another way they have ofexpressing this is that they do not know how to bring their materialbefore their hearers. Undoubtedly the most difficult parts of speechesare the beginnings and conclusions. In Chapter II one of the methodsof preparing for delivery recognized this difference by recording thatone way is to memorize the beginning and ending, the opening andclosing sentences. Practised speakers are more likely not to fix toorigidly in their minds any set way for starting to speak. They realizethat a too carefully prepared opening will smack of the study. Theconditions under which the speech is actually delivered may differ sowidely from the anticipated surroundings that a speaker should be ableto readjust his ideas instantly, seize upon any detail of feeling, remark, action, which will help him into closer communication with hisaudience. Many practised speakers, therefore, have at their wits' endsa dozen different manners, so that their appearance may fit in bestwith the circumstances, and their remarks have that air of easyspontaneity which the best speaking should have. Thus, sometimes, theexactly opposite advice of the method described above and in ChapterII is given. A speaker will prepare carefully his speech proper, butleave to circumstances the suggestion of the beginning he will use. This does not mean that he will not be prepared--it means that he willbe all the more richly furnished with expedients. A speaker shouldcarefully think over all the possibilities under which his speech willbe brought forward, then prepare the best introduction to suit eachset. 

Spirit of the Introduction. The combination of circumstances andmaterial will determine what we shall call the spirit of theintroduction. In what spirit is the introduction treated? There are asmany different treatments as there are human feelings and sentiments. The spirit may be serious, informative, dignified, scoffing, argumentative, conversational, startling, humorous, ironic. Thestudent should lengthen this list by adding as many other adjectivesas he can. 

The serious treatment is always effective when it is suitable. Thereis a conviction of earnestness and sincerity about the speech of a manwho takes his subject seriously. Without arousing opposition by toogreat a claim of importance for his topic he does impress itssignificance upon listeners. This seriousness must be justified by theoccasion. It must not be an attempt to bolster up weakness of ideas orcommonplaceness of expression. It must be straightforward, manly, womanly. Notice the excellent effect of the following whichillustrates this kind of treatment. 

 MAY IT PLEASE YOUR HONOR: I was desired by one of the court to look into the books, and consider the question now before them concerning Writs of Assistance. I have accordingly considered it, and appear not only in obedience to your order, but likewise in behalf of the inhabitants of this town, who have presented another petition, and out of regard to the liberties of the subject. And I take this opportunity to declare, that whether under a fee or not (for in such a cause as this I despise a fee) I will to my dying day oppose with all the powers and faculties God has given me, all such instruments of slavery on the one hand and villainy on the other, as this Writ of Assistance is. 

 It appears to me the worst instrument of arbitrary power, the most destructive of English liberty and the fundamental principles of law, that ever was found in an English law-book. 

 JAMES OTIs: _On Writs of Assistance_, 1761

Informative and argumentative introductions are quite usual. Theyabound in legislative bodies, business organizations, and courts oflaw. Having definite purposes to attain they move forward as directlyand clearly as they can. In such appearances a speaker should know howto lead to his topic quickly, clearly, convincingly. Introductionsshould be reduced to a minimum because time is valuable. Ideas count;mere talk is worthless. 

Attempts at humorous speeches are only too often the saddestexhibitions of life. The mere recital of "funny stories" in successionis in no sense speech-making, although hundreds of misguidedindividuals act as though they think so. Nor is a good introductionthe one that begins with a comic incident supposedly with a point patto the occasion or topic, yet so often miles wide of both. The funnystory which misses its mark is a boomerang. Even the apparently"sure-fire" one may deliver a disturbing kick to its perpetrator. Thegrave danger is the "o'er done or come tardy off" of Hamlet's adviceto the players. Humor must be distinctly marked off from the merelycomic or witty, and clearly recognized as a wonderful gift bestowed onnot too many mortals in this world. The scoffing, ironic introductionmay depend upon wit and cleverness born in the head; the humorousintroduction depends upon a sympathetic instinct treasured in theheart. Look back at the remarks made by Beecher to his turbulentdisturbers in Liverpool. Did he help his cause by his genialappreciation of their sentiments?

The student should study several introductions to speeches in thelight of all the preceding discussions so that he may be able toprepare his own and judge them intelligently. Printed speeches willprovide material for study, but better still are delivered remarks. Ifthe student can hear the speech, then see it in print, so much thebetter, for he can then recall the effect in sound of the phrases. 

Preparing and Delivering Introductions. Actual practice in preparationand delivery of introductions should follow. These should be deliveredbefore the class and should proceed no farther than the adequateintroduction to the hearers of the topic of the speech. They need notbe so fragmentary as to occupy only three seconds. By supposing themto be beginnings of speeches from six to fifteen minutes long theseremarks may easily last from one to two minutes. 

Aside from the method of its delivery--pose, voice, speed, vocabulary, sentences--each introduction should be judged as an actualintroduction to a real speech. Each speaker should keep in mind thesequestions to apply during his preparation. Each listener should applythem as he hears the introduction delivered. 

Is the topic introduced gracefully?Is it introduced clearly?Is the introduction too long?Does it begin too far away from the topic?Is it interesting?Has it any defects of material?Has it any faults of manner?Can any of it be omitted?Do you want to hear the entire speech?Can you anticipate the material?Is it adapted to its audience?Is it above their heads?Is it beneath their intelligences?

Topics for these exercises in delivering introductions should befurnished by the interests, opinions, ideas, experiences, ambitions ofthe students themselves. Too many beginning speakers cause endlessworry for themselves, lower the quality of their speeches, bore theirlisteners, by "hunting" for things to talk about, when near at hand inthemselves and their activities lie the very best things to discuss. The over-modest feeling some people have that they know nothing totalk about is usually a false impression. In Elizabethan England ayoung poet, Sir Phillip Sidney, decided to try to tell his sweethearthow much he loved her. So he "sought fit words, studying inventionsfine, turning others' leaves, to see if thence would flow, some freshand fruitful showers upon my sunburnt brain. " But "words came haltingforth" until he bit his truant pen and almost beat himself for spite. Then said the Muse to him, "Fool, look in thy heart and write. " Andwithout that first word, this is the advice that should be given toall speakers. "Look in your heart, mind, life, experiences, ideas, ideals, interests, enthusiasms, and from them draw the material ofyour speeches--_yours_ because no one else could make that speech, soessentially and peculiarly is it your own. "

The following may serve as suggestions of the kind of topic to chooseand the various methods of approaching it. They are merely hints, foreach student must adapt his own method and material. 

EXERCISES

1. By a rapid historical survey introduce the discussion that womenwill be allowed to vote in the United States. 

2. By a historical survey introduce the topic that war will cease uponthe earth. 

3. Using the same method introduce the opposite. 

4. Using some history introduce the topic that equality for all men isapproaching. 

5. Using the same method introduce the opposite. 

6. Starting with the amount used introduce an explanation of themanufacture of cotton goods. Any other manufactured article may beused. 

7. Starting with an incident to illustrate its novelty, or speed, orconvenience, or unusualness, lead up to the description or explanationof some mechanical contrivance. 

DictaphoneAdding machineComptometerWireless telegraphKnitting machineMoving picture cameraMoving picture machineSelf-starterEgg boilerNewspaper printing pressPower churnBottle-making machineVoting machineStorm in a playPneumatic tubePeriscope, etc. 

8. Describe some finished product (as a cup of tea, a copper cent) asintroduction to an explanation of its various processes ofdevelopment. 

9. Start with the opinion that reading should produce pleasure tointroduce a recommendation of a book. 

10. Start with the opinion that reading should impart information tointroduce a recommendation of a book. 

11. Start with the money return a business or profession offers tointroduce a discussion advising a person to follow it or not. 

12. Beginning with the recent war lead up to the topic that militarytraining should be a part of all regular education. 

13. Beginning from the same point introduce the opposite. 

14. Beginning with an item--or a fictitious item--from a newspaperrecounting an accident lead up to workmen's compensation laws, orpreventive protective measures in factories, or some similar topic. 

15. Using a personal or known experience introduce some topic dealingwith the survival of superstitions. 

16. Choosing your own material and treatment introduce some themerelated to the government, or betterment of your community. 

17. Introduce a topic dealing with the future policy of your city, county, state, or nation. 

18. Lead up to the statement of a change you would like to recommendstrongly for your school. 

19. In as interesting a manner as possible lead up to a statement ofthe business or profession you would like to follow. 

20. Introduce a speech in which you intend to condemn something, bydealing with your introductory material ironically. 

21. Imagine that you are presiding at a meeting of some club, society, or organization which has been called to discuss a definite topic. Choose the topic for discussion and deliver the speech bringing itbefore the session. 

22. You have received a letter from a member of some organization whosuggests that a society to which you belong join with it in some kindof contest or undertaking. Present the suggestion to your society. 

23. You believe that soma memorial to the memory of some person shouldbe established in your school, lodge, church, club. Introduce thesubject to a group of members so that they may discuss itintelligently. 

24. Introduce some topic to the class, but so phrase your materialthat the announcement of the topic will be a complete surprise to themembers. Try to lead them away from the topic, yet so word yourremarks that later they will realize that everything you said appliesexactly to the topic you introduce. 

25. Lead up to the recital of some mystery, or ghostly adventure. 

26. Lead up to these facts. "For each 10, 000 American-born workmen ina steel plant in eight years, 21 were killed; and for each non-Englishspeaking foreign born, 26 were killed. Non-English speaking show 65permanently disabled as compared with 28 who spoke English. Oftemporarily disabled only 856 spoke English as compared with 2035 whodid not. "

27. Introduce the topic: Training in public speaking is valuable forall men and women. 

28. In a genial manner suitable to the season's feelings introducesome statement concerning New Year's resolutions. 

29. Frame some statement concerning aviation. Introduce it. 

30. Introduce topics or statements related to the following:

The eight-hour day. The principles of Socialism. Legitimate methods of conducting strikes. Extending the Monroe Doctrine. Studying the classics, or modern languages. Private fortunes. College education for girls. Direct presidential vote. A good magazine. Some great woman. Sensible amusements. Fashions. Agriculture. Business practice. Minimum wages. Equal pay for men and women. 

CHAPTER V

CONCLUDING THE SPEECH

Preparing the Conclusion. No architect would attempt to plan abuilding unless he knew the purpose for which it was to be used. Nowriter of a story would start to put down words until he knew exactlyhow his story was to end. He must plan to bring about a certainconclusion. The hero and heroine must be united in marriage. Thescheming villain must be brought to justice. Or if he scorn the usualending of the "lived happily ever after" kind of fiction, he can planto kill his hero and heroine, or both; or he can decide for once thathis story shall be more like real life than is usually the case, andhave wickedness triumph over virtue. Whatever he elects to do at theconclusion of his story, whether it be long or short, the principle ofhis planning is the same--he must know what he is going to do andadequately prepare for it during the course of, previous events. 

One other thing every writer must secure. The ending of a book must bethe most interesting part of it. It must rise highest in interest. Itmust be surest of appeal. Otherwise the author runs the risk of nothaving people read his book through to its conclusion, and as everybook is written in the hope and expectation that it will be readthrough, a book which fails to hold the attention of its readersdefeats its own purpose. 

The foregoing statements are self-evident but they are set downbecause their underlying principles can be transferred to aconsideration of the preparation of conclusions for speeches. 

Is a Conclusion Necessary? But before we use them let us ask whetherall speeches require conclusions. 

There are some people--thoughtless, if nothing worse--who habituallyend letters by adding some such expression as "Having nothing more tosay, I shall now close. " Is there any sense in writing such asentence? If the letter comes only so far and the signature follows, do not those items indicate that the writer has nothing more to sayand is actually closing? Why then, when a speaker has said all he hasto say, should he not simply stop and sit down? Will that not indicatequite clearly that he has finished his speech? What effect would suchan ending have?

In the first place the speaker runs the risk of appearing at leastdiscourteous, if not actually rude, to his audience. To fling hismaterial at them, then to leave it so, would impress men and womenmuch as the brusque exit from a group of people in a room would or theslamming of a door of an office. 

In the second place the speaker runs the graver risk of not makingclear and emphatic the purpose of his speech. He may have been quiteplain and effective during the course of his explanation or argumentbut an audience hears a speech only once. Can he trust to theirrecollection of what he has tried to impress upon them? Will theycarry away exactly what he wants them to retain? Has he made the maintopics, the chief aim, stand out prominently enough? Can he merelystop speaking? These are quite important aspects of a graveresponsibility. 

In the third place--though this may be considered less important thanthe preceding--the speaker gives the impression that he has notactually "finished" his speech. No one cares for unfinished articles, whether they be dishes of food, pieces of furniture, poems, orspeeches. Without unduly stressing the fact that a speech is acarefully organized and constructed product, it may be stated that itis always a profitable effort to try to round off your remarks. A goodconclusion gives an impression of completeness, of an effectiveproduct. Audiences are delicately susceptible to these impressions. 

Twenty-two centuries ago Aristotle, in criticizing Greek oratory, declared that the first purpose of the conclusion was to conciliatethe audience in favor of the speaker. As human nature has not changedmuch in the ages since, the statement still holds true. 

Speakers, then, should provide conclusions for all their speeches. 

Although the entire matter of planning the speech belongs to a laterchapter some facts concerning it as they relate to the conclusion mustbe set down here. 

Relation of the Conclusion to the Speech. The conclusion shouldreflect the purpose of the speech. It should enforce the reason forthe delivery of the speech. As it emphasizes the purpose of the speechit should be in the speaker's mind before he begins to plan thedevelopment of his remarks. It should be kept constantly in his mindas he delivers his material. A train from Chicago bound for New Yorkis not allowed to turn off on all the switches it meets in itsjourney. A speaker who wants to secure from a jury a verdict fordamages from a traction company does not discuss presidentialcandidates. He works towards his conclusion. A legislator who wantsvotes to pass a bill makes his conclusion and his speech conform tothat purpose. In all likelihood, his conclusion plainly asks for thevotes he has been proving that his fellow legislators should cast. Aschool principal pleading with boys to stop gambling knows that hisconclusion is going to be a call for a showing of hands to pledgesupport of his recommendations. A labor agitator knows that hisconclusion is going to be an appeal to a sense of class prejudice, sohe speaks with that continually in mind. An efficiency expert in shopmanagement knows that his conclusion is going to enforce the saving indamages for injury by accident if a scheme of safety devices beinstalled, so he speaks with that conclusion constantly in his mind. In court the prosecuting attorney tells in his introduction exactlywhat he intends to prove. His conclusion shows that he has proved whathe announced. 

One is tempted to say that the test of a good speech, a well-preparedspeech, is its conclusion. How many times one hears a speakerfloundering along trying to do something, rambling about, making noimpression, not advancing a pace, and then later receives from theunfortunate the confession, "I wanted to stop but I didn't know how todo it. " No conclusion had been prepared beforehand. It is quite asdisturbing to hear a speaker pass beyond the place where he could havemade a good conclusion. If he realizes this he slips into the state ofthe first speaker described in this paragraph. If he does not realizewhen he reaches a good conclusion he talks too long and weakens theeffect by stopping on a lower plane than he has already reached. Thisfault corresponds to the story teller whose book drops in interest atthe end. The son of a minister was asked whether his father's sermonthe previous Sunday had-not had some good points in it. The boyreplied, "Yes, three good points where he should have stopped. "

Length of the Conclusion. It must not be inferred from anything herestated concerning the importance of the conclusion that it need belong. A good rule for the length of the conclusion is the same rulethat applies to the length of the introduction. It should be just longenough to do best what it is intended to do. As in the case of theintroduction, so for the conclusion, the shorter the better, ifconsistent with clearness and effect. If either introduction orconclusion must deliberately be reduced the conclusion will stand themost compression. A conclusion will frequently fail of its effect ifit is so long that the audience anticipates its main points. It failsif it is so long that it adds nothing of clearness or emphasis to thespeech itself. It will end by boring if it is too long for theimportance of its material. It will often produce a deeper, morelasting impression by its very conciseness. Brevity is the soul ofmore than mere humor. A brief remark will cut deeper than a longinvolved sentence. The speaker who had shown that the recent greatwar fails unless the reconstruction to be accomplished is worthyneeded no more involved conclusion than the statement, "It is what wedo tomorrow that will justify what we did yesterday. "

Coupled with this matter of effect is the length of the speech itself. Short speeches are likely to require only short conclusions. Longspeeches more naturally require longer conclusions. 

Consider the following conclusions. Comment upon them. It would beinteresting to try to decide the length of the speeches from whichthey are taken, then look at the originals, all of which are easilyprocurable at libraries. 

 That is in substance my theory of what our foreign policy should be. Let us not boast, not insult any one, but make up our minds coolly what it is necesary to say, say it, and then stand to it, whatever the consequences may be. 

 THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Waukesha, 1903

The foregoing is quite matter-of-fact. It contains no emotional appealat all. Yet even a strong emotional feeling can be put into a shortconclusion. From the date and the circumstances surrounding the nextthe reader can easily picture for himself the intense emotion of theaudience which listened to these words from the leader of the freestates against the South. 

 Neither let us be slandered from our duty by false accusations against us, nor frightened from it by menaces of destruction to the government, nor of dungeons to ourselves. Let us have faith that right makes might, and in that faith let us to the end dare to do our duty as we understand it. 

 ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Cooper Union Speech_, 1860

While the student planning his own speech must determine exactly whathe shall put into his conclusion--depending always upon his materialand his purpose--there are a few general hints which will help him. 

The Retrospective Conclusion. A conclusion may be entirelyretrospective. This means merely that it may refer back to the remarkswhich have been delivered in the body of the speech. A speaker doesthis to emphasize something he has already discussed by pointing outto his audience that he wants them to remember that from what he hassaid. Conclusions of this kind usually have no emotional appeal. Theyare likely to be found in explanatory addresses, where the clearnessof the exposition should make hearers accept it as true. If a man hasproven a fact--as in a law court--he does not have to make an appealto feeling to secure a verdict. Juries are supposed to decide on thefacts alone. This kind of conclusion emphasizes, repeats, clarifies, enforces. The first of the following is a good illustration of onekind of conclusion which refers to the remarks made in the speechproper. Notice that it enforces the speaker's opinions by a calmexplanation of his sincerity. 

 I want you to think of what I have said, because it represents all of the sincerity and earnestness that I have, and I say to you here, from this platform, nothing that I have not already stated in effect, and nothing I would not say at a private table with any of the biggest corporation managers in the land. 

 THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Fitchburg, 1902

The next, while it is exactly the same kind in material, adds someelements of stronger feeling. Yet in the main it also enforces thespeaker's opinion by a clear explanation of his action. From thisconclusion alone we know exactly the material and purpose of theentire speech. 

 Sir, I will detain you no longer. There are some parts of this bill which I highly approve; there are others in which I should acquiesce; but those to which I have now stated my objections appear to me so destitute of all justice, so burdensome and so dangerous to that interest which has steadily enriched, gallantly defended, and proudly distinguished us, that nothing can prevail upon me to give it my support. 

 DANIEL WEBSTER: _The Tariff_, 1824

The Anticipatory Conclusion. Just as a conclusion may beretrospective, so it may be anticipatory. It may start from theposition defined or explained or reached by the speech and lookforward to what may happen, what must be done, what should beinstituted, what should be changed, what votes should be cast, whatpunishment should be inflicted, what pardons granted. The studentshould make a list of all possible things in the future which could beanticipated in the conclusions of various speeches. If one will thinkof the purposes of most delivered speeches he will realize that thiskind of conclusion is much more frequent than the previous kind as somany speeches anticipate future action or events. Dealing withentirely different topics the three following extracts illustrate thiskind of conclusion. Washington was arguing against the formation ofparties in the new nation, trying to avert the inevitable. 

 There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon the administration of the government, and serve to keep alive the spirit of liberty. This within certain limits is probably true; and in governments of a monarchical cast, patriotism may look with indulgence if not with favor upon the spirit of party. But in those of the popular character, in governments purely elective, it is a spirit not to be encouraged. From their natural tendency it is certain there will always be enough of that spirit for every salutary purpose. And there being constant danger of excess, the effort ought to be by force of public opinion to mitigate and assuage it. A fire not to be quenched, it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting into a flame, lest, instead of warming, it should consume. 

 GEORGE WASHINGTON: _Farewell Address_, 1796

With the dignity and the calmness of the preceding, contrast theBiblical fervor of the next--the magnanimous program of the reuniterof a divided people. 

 With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphan--to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves, and with all nations. 

 ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Second Inaugural_, 1865

In totally different circumstances the next conclusion was delivered, yet it bears the same aspect of anticipation. There is not a singlehint in it of the material of the speech which preceded it, it takesno glance backward, it looks forward only. Its effectiveness comesfrom the element of leadership, that gesture of pointing the way forloyal Americans to follow. 

 No nation as great as ours can expect to escape the penalty of greatness, for greatness does not come without trouble and labor. There are problems ahead of us at home and problems abroad, because such problems are incident to the working out of a great national career. We do not shrink from them. Scant is our patience with those who preach the gospel of craven weakness. No nation under the sun ever yet played a part worth playing if it feared its fate overmuch--if it did not have the courage to be great. We of America, we, the sons of a nation yet in the pride of its lusty youth, spurn the teachings of distrust, spurn the creed of failure and despair. We know that the future is ours if we have in us the manhood to grasp it, and we enter the new century girding our loins for the contest before us, rejoicing in the struggle, and resolute so to bear ourselves that the nation's future shall even surpass her glorious past. 

 THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Philadelphia, 1902

Grave times always make men look into the future. All acts are judgedand justified after they are performed. All progress depends upon thisstraining the vision into the darkness of the yet-to-be. Upon the eveof great struggles anticipation is always uppermost in men's minds. Inthe midst of the strife it is man's hope. In the next extract, onlyone sentence glances backward. 

 For us there is but one choice. We have made it. Woe be to the man or group of men that seeks to stand in our way in this day of high resolution when every principle we hold dearest is to be vindicated and made secure for the salvation of the nations. We are ready to plead at the bar of history, and our flag shall wear a new luster. Once more we shall make good with our lives and fortunes the great faith to which we were born, and a new glory shall shine in the face of our people. 

 WOODROW WILSON: _Flag Day Address_, 1917

Retrospective and Anticipatory Conclusion. While it does not occur sofrequently as the two kinds just illustrated it is possible for aconclusion to be both retrospective and anticipatory--to look bothbackward and forward. The conclusion may enforce what the speech hasdeclared or proved, then using this position as a safe starting pointfor a new departure, look forward and indicate what may follow or whatshould be done. The only danger in such an attempt is that the dualaspect may be difficult to make effective. Either one may neutralizethe other. Still, a careful thinker and master of clear language maybe able to carry an audience with him in such a treatment. Thedivision in the conclusion between the backward glance and the forwardvision need not be equal. Here again the effect to be made upon theaudience, the purpose of the speech, must be the determining factor. Notice how the two are blended in the following conclusion from a muchread commemorative oration. 

 And now, friends and fellow-citizens, it is time to bring this discourse to a close. 

 We have indulged in gratifying recollections of the past, in the prosperity and pleasures of the present, and in high hopes for the future. But let us remember that we have duties and obligations to perform, corresponding to the blessings which we enjoy. Let us remember the trust, the sacred trust, attaching to the rich inheritance which we have received from our fathers. Let us feel our personal responsibility, to the full extent of our power and influence, for the preservation of the principles of civil and religious liberty. And let us remember that it is only religion, and morals, and knowledge, that can make men respectable, under any form of government. . . . 

 DANIEL WEBSTER: _Completion of Bunker Hill Monument_, 1843

Conclusions are classified in general under three headings: 1. Recapitulation; 2. Summary; 3. Peroration. 

The Recapitulation. The first of these--recapitulation--is exactlydefined by the etymology of the word itself. Its root is Latin_caput_, head. So recapitulation means the repetition of the heads ormain topics of a preceding discussion. Coming at the end of animportant speech of some length, such a conclusion is invaluable. Ifthe speaker has explained clearly or reasoned convincingly hisaudience will have been enlightened or convinced. Then at the end, toassure them they are justified in their knowledge or conviction, herepeats in easily remembered sequence the heads which he has treatedin his extended remarks. It is as though he chose from his largeassortment a small package which he does up neatly for his audience tocarry away with them. Frequently, too, the recapitulation correspondsexactly to the plan as announced in the introduction and followedthroughout the speech. This firmly impresses the main points upon thebrains of the hearers. 

A lawyer in court starts by announcing that he will prove a certainnumber of facts. After his plea is finished, in the conclusion of hisspeech, he recapitulates, showing that he has proved these things. Aminister, a political candidate, a business man, a social worker--infact, every speaker will find such a clear-cut listing an informative, convincing manner of constructing a conclusion. This extract shows aclear, direct, simple recapitulation. 

 To recapitulate what has been said, we maintain, first, that the Constitution, by its grants to Congress and its prohibitions on the states, has sought to establish one uniform standard of value, or medium of payment. Second, that, by like means, it has endeavored to provide for one uniform mode of discharging debts, when they are to be discharged without payment. Third, that these objects are connected, and that the first loses much of its importance, if the last, also, be not accomplished. Fourth, that, reading the grant to Congress and the prohibition on the States together, the inference is strong that the Constitution intended to confer an exclusive power to pass bankrupt laws on Congress. Fifth, that the prohibition in the tenth section reaches to all contracts, existing or future, in the same way that the other prohibition, in the same section, extends to all debts, existing or future. Sixth, that, upon any other construction, one great political object of the Constitution will fail of its accomplishment. 

 DANIEL WEBSTER: _Ogden vs. Saunders_, 1827

The Summary. The second kind--a summary--does somewhat the same thingthat the recapitulation does, but it effects it in a different matter. Note that the recapitulation _repeats_ the main headings of thespeech; it usually uses the same or similar phrasing. 

The summary does not do this. The summary condenses the entirematerial of the speech, so that it is presented to the audience inshortened, general statements, sufficient to recall to them what thespeaker has already presented, without actually repeating his previousstatements. This kind of conclusion is perhaps more usual than thepreceding one. It is known by a variety of terms--summing up, resume, epitome, review, precis, condensation. 

In the first of the subjoined illustrations notice that the words"possible modes" contain practically all the speech itself. So thefour words at the end, "faction, corruption, anarchy, and despotism, "hold a great deal of the latter part of the speech. These expressionsdo not repeat the heads of divisions; they condense long passages. Theextract is a summary. 

 I have thus presented all possible modes in which a government founded upon the will of an absolute majority will be modified; and have demonstrated that, in all its forms, whether in a majority of the people, as in a mere democracy, or in a majority of their representatives, without a constitution, to be interpreted as the will of the majority, the result will be the same: two hostile interests will inevitably be created by the action of the government, to be followed by hostile legislation, and that by faction, corruption, anarchy, and despotism. 

 JOHN C. CALHOUN: _Speech on the Force Bill, 1833_

From the following pick out the expressions which summarize longpassages of the preceding speech. Amplify them to indicate what theymight cover. 

 I firmly believe in my countrymen, and therefore I believe that the chief thing necessary in order that they shall work together is that they shall know one another--that the Northerner shall know the Southerner, and the man of one occupation know the man of another occupation; the man who works in one walk of life know the man who works in another walk of life, so that we may realize that the things which divide us are superficial, are unimportant, and that we are, and must ever be, knit together into one indissoluble mass by our common American brotherhood. 

 THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Chattanooga, 1902

The Peroration. A peroration is a conclusion which--whatever may beits material and treatment--has an appeal to the feelings, to theemotions. It strives to move the audience to act, to arouse them to anexpression of their wills, to stir them to deeds. It usually comes atthe end of a speech of persuasion. It appeals to sentiments of right, justice, humanity, religion. It seldom merely concludes a speech; itlooks forward to some such definite action as casting a vote, joiningan organization or movement, contributing money, going out on strike, returning to work, pledging support, signing a petition. 

These purposes suggest its material. It is usually a direct appeal, personal and collective, to all the hearers. Intense in feeling, tinged with emotion, it justifies itself by its sincerity and honestyalone. Its apparent success is not the measure of its merit. Toofrequently an appeal to low prejudices, class sentiment and prejudice, base motives, mob instincts will carry a group of people in a certaindirection with as little sense and reason as a flock of sheep display. Every student can cite a dozen instances of such unwarranted andunworthy responses to skilful perverted perorations. Answering to itsemotional tone the style of a peroration is likely to rise above theusual, to become less simple, less direct. In this temptation for thespeaker lies a second danger quite as grave as the one just indicated. In an attempt to wax eloquent he is likely to become grandiloquent, bombastic, ridiculous. Many an experienced speaker makes an unworthyexhibition of himself under such circumstances. One specimen of suchnonsense will serve as a warning. 

When the terms for the use of the Panama Canal were drawn up therearose a discussion as to certain kinds of ships which might passthrough the canal free of tolls. A treaty with Great Britain preventedtolls-exemption for privately owned vessels. In a speech in Congressupon this topic one member delivered the following inflated andinconsequential peroration. Can any one with any sanity see anyconnection of the Revolutionary War, Jefferson, Valley Forge, with aplain understanding of such a business matter as charging tolls forthe use of a waterway? To get the full effect of this piece of"stupendous folly"--to quote the speaker's own words--the studentshould declaim it aloud with as much attempt at oratorical effect asits author expended upon it. 

 Now, may the God of our fathers, who nerved 3, 000, 000 backwoods Americans to fling their gage of battle into the face of the mightiest monarch in the world, who guided the hand of Jefferson in writing the charter of liberty, who sustained Washington and his ragged and starving army amid the awful horrors of Valley Forge, and who gave them complete victory on the blood-stained heights of Yorktown, may He lead members to vote so as to prevent this stupendous folly--this unspeakable humiliation of the American republic. 

When the circumstances are grave enough to justify impassionedlanguage a good speaker need not fear its effect. If it be suitable, honest, and sincere, a peroration may be as emotional as humanfeelings dictate. So-called "flowery language" seldom is the medium ofdeep feeling. The strongest emotions may be expressed in the simplestterms. Notice how, in the three extracts here quoted, the feeling ismore intense in each succeeding one. Analyze the style. Consider thewords, the phrases, the sentences in length and structure. Explain theclose relation of the circumstances and the speaker with the materialand the style. What was the purpose of each?

 Sir, let it be to the honor of Congress that in these days of political strife and controversy, we have laid aside for once the sin that most easily besets us, and, with unanimity of counsel, and with singleness of heart and of purpose, have accomplished for our country one measure of unquestionable good. 

 DANIEL WEBSTER: _Uniform System of Bankruptcy_, 1840

Lord Chatham addressed the House of Lords in protest against theinhumanities of some of the early British efforts to suppress theAmerican Revolution. 

 I call upon that right reverend bench, those holy ministers of the Gospel, and pious pastors of our Church--I conjure them to join in the holy work, and vindicate the religion of their God. I appeal to the wisdom and law of this learned bench, to defend and support the justice of their country. I call upon the Bishops to interpose the unsullied sanctity of their lawn; upon the learned Judges, to interpose their purity upon the honor of your Lordships, to reverence the dignity of your ancestors and to maintain your own. I call upon the spirit and humanity of my country, to vindicate the national character. I invoke the genius of the Constitution. From the tapestry that adorns these walls the immortal ancestor of this noble Lord frowns with indignation at the disgrace of his country. . . . 

 I again call upon your Lordships, and the united powers of the state, to examine it thoroughly and decisively, and to stamp upon it an indelible stigma of the public abhorrence. And I again implore those holy prelates of our religion to do away with these iniquities from among us! Let them perform a lustration; let them purify this House, and this country, from this sin. 

 My Lords, I am old and weak, and at present unable to say more; but my feelings and indignation were too strong to have said less. I could not have slept this night in my bed, nor reposed my head on my pillow, without giving vent to my eternal abhorrence of such preposterous and enormous principles. 

At about the same time the same circumstances evoked several famousspeeches, one of which ended with this well-known peroration. 

 It is in vain, Sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry, Peace, Peace--but there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps from the North will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethren are already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!

 PATRICK HENRY in the Virginia Convention, 1775

Preparing and Delivering Conclusions. Students cannot very well beasked to prepare and deliver conclusions to speeches which do not yetexist, so there is no way of devising conclusions until later. Butstudents should report upon conclusions to speeches they have recentlylistened to, and explain to the class their opinions concerning theirmaterial, methods, treatment, delivery, effect. The followingquestions will help in judging and criticizing:

Was the conclusion too long?Was it so short as to seem abrupt?Did it impress the audience?How could it have been improved?Was it recapitulation, summary, peroration?Was it retrospective, anticipatory, or both?What was its relation to the main part of the speech?Did it refer to the entire speech or only a portion?What was its relation to the introduction?Did the speech end where it began?Did it end as it began?Was the conclusion in bad taste?What was its style?What merits had it?What defects?What suggestions could you offer for its improvement?With reference to the earlier parts of the speech, how was it delivered?

The following conclusions should be studied from all the anglessuggested in this chapter and previous ones. An air of reality will besecured if they are memorized and spoken before the class. 

EXERCISES

1. There are many qualities which we need alike in private citizen and in public man, but three above all--three for the lack of which no brilliancy and no genius can atone--and those three are courage, honesty, and common sense. 

 THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Antietam, 1903

2. Poor Sprat has perished despite his splendid tomb in the Abbey. Johnson has only a cracked stone and a worn-out inscription (for the Hercules in St. Paul's is unrecognizable) but he dwells where he would wish to dwell--in the loving memory of men. 

 AUGUSTINE BIRRELL: _Transmission of Dr. Johnson's Personality_, 1884

3. So, my fellow citizens, the reason I came away from Washington is that I sometimes get lonely down there. There are so many people in Washington who know things that are not so, and there are so few people who know anything about what the people of the United States are thinking about. I have to come away and get reminded of the rest of the country. I have to come away and talk to men who are up against the real thing and say to them, "I am with you if you are with me. " And the only test of being with me is not to think about me personally at all, but merely to think of me as the expression for the time being of the power and dignity and hope of the United States. 

 WOODROW WILSON: _Speech to the American Federation of Labor_, 1917

4. But if, Sir Henry, in gratitude for this beautiful tribute which I have just paid you, you should feel tempted to reciprocate by taking my horses from my carriage and dragging me in triumph through the streets, I beg that you will restrain yourself for two reasons. The first reason is--I have no horses; the second is--I have no carriage. 

 SIMEON FORD: _Me and Sir Henry_ (Irving), 1899

5. Literature has its permanent marks. It is a connected growth and its life history is unbroken. Masterpieces have never been produced by men who have had no masters. Reverence for good work is the foundation of literary character. The refusal to praise bad work or to imitate it is an author's professional chastity. 

 Good work is the most honorable and lasting thing in the world. Four elements enter into good work in literature:--

 An original impulse--not necessarily a new idea, but a new sense of the value of an idea. 

 A first-hand study of the subject and material. 

 A patient, joyful, unsparing labor for the perfection of form. 

 A human aim--to cheer, console, purify, or ennoble the life of the people. Without this aim literature has never sent an arrow close to the mark. 

 It is only by good work that men of letters can justify their right to a place in the world. The father of Thomas Carlyle was a stone-mason, whose walls stood true and needed no rebuilding. Carlyle's prayer was: "Let me write my books as he built his houses. "

 HENRY VAN DYKE: _Books, Literature and the People_, 1900

6. All this, I know well enough, will sound wild and chimerical to the profane herd of those vulgar and mechanical politicians who have no place among us--a sort of people who think that nothing exists but what is gross and material; and who, therefore, far from being qualified to be directors of the great movement of empire, are unfit to turn a wheel in the machine. But to men truly initiated and rightly taught, these ruling and master principles, which in the opinion of such men as I have mentioned have no substantial existence, are in truth everything and all in all. Magnanimity in politics is not seldom the truest wisdom: and a great empire and little minds go ill together. If we are conscious of our station, and glow with zeal to fill our places as becomes our situation and ourselves, we ought to auspicate all our public proceedings on America with the old warning of the church, _Sursum corda!_ We ought to elevate our minds to the greatness of that trust to which the order of Providence has called us. By adverting to the dignity of this high calling, our ancestors have turned a savage wilderness into a glorious empire; and have made the most extensive, and the only honorable conquests, not by destroying, but by promoting the wealth, the number, the happiness of the human race. Let us get an American revenue as we have got an American empire. English privileges have made it all that it is; English privileges alone will make it all it can be. 

 In full confidence of this unalterable truth, I now (_quod felix faustumque sit!_) lay the first stone of the Temple of Peace; and I move you;--

 That the colonies and plantations of Great Britain in North America, consisting of fourteen separate governments, and containing two millions and upwards of free inhabitants, have not had the liberty and privilege of electing and sending any knights and burgesses, or others, to represent them in the high court of Parliament. 

 EDMUND BURKE: _Conciliation with America_, 1775

7. Now, Mr. Speaker, having fully answered all the arguments of my opponents, I will retire to the cloak-room for a few moments, to receive the congratulations of admiring mends. 

 JOHN ALLEN in a speech in Congress

8. Relying then on the patronage of your good will, I advance with obedience to the work, ready to retire from it whenever you become sensible how much better choice it is in your power to make. And may that Infinite Power which rules the destinies of the universe lead our councils to what is best, and give them a favorable issue for your peace and prosperity. 

 THOMAS JEFFERSON, _First Inaugural_, 1801

9. My friends, this is wholly an unprepared speech. I did not expect to be called or to say a word when I came here. I supposed I was merely to do something toward raising a flag. I may, therefore, have said something indiscreet. But I have said nothing but what I am willing to live by, and, if it be the pleasure of Almighty God, to die by. 

 ABRAHAM LINCOLN at Philadelphia, 1861

10. I have spoken plainly because this seems to me the time when it is most necessary to speak plainly, in order that all the world may know that even in the heat and ardor of the struggle and when our whole thought is of carrying the war through to its end we have not forgotten any ideal or principle for which the name of America has been held in honor among the nations and for which it has been our glory to contend in the great generations that went before us. A supreme moment of history has come. The eyes of the people have been opened and they see. The hand of God is laid upon the nations. He will show them favor, I devoutly believe, only if they rise to the clear heights of His own justice and mercy. 

 WOODROW WILSON in a speech to Congress, 1917

11. This is what I have to say--ponder it; something you will agree with, something you will disagree with; but think about it, if I am wrong, the sooner the wrong is exposed the better for me--this is what I have to say: God is bringing the nations together. We must establish courts of reason for the settlement of controversies between civilized nations. We must maintain a force sufficient to preserve law and order among barbaric nations; and we have small need of an army for any other purpose. We must follow the maintenance of law and the establishment of order and the foundations of civilization with the vitalizing forces that make for civilization. And we must constantly direct our purpose and our policies to the time when the whole world shall have become civilized; when men, families, communities, will yield to reason and to conscience. And then we will draw our sword Excalibur from its sheath and fling it out into the sea, rejoicing that it is gone forever. 

 LYMAN ABBOTT: _International Brotherhood_, 1899

12. I give you, gentlemen, in conclusion, this sentiment: "The Little Court-room at Geneva--where our royal mother England, and her proud though untitled daughter, alike bent their heads to the majesty of Law and accepted Justice as a greater and better arbiter than Power. "

 WILLIAM M. EVARTS: _International Arbitration_, 1872

13. You recollect the old joke, I think it began with Preston of South Carolina, that Boston exported no articles of native growth but granite and ice. That was true then, but we have improved since, and to these exports we have added roses and cabbages. Mr. President, they are good roses, and good cabbages, and I assure you that the granite is excellent hard granite, and the ice is very cold ice. 

 EDWARD EVERETT HALE: _Boston_, 1880

14. Long live the Republic of Washington! Respected by mankind, beloved of all its sons, long may it be the asylum of the poor and oppressed of all lands and religions--long may it be the citadel of that liberty which writes beneath the Eagle's folded wings, "We will sell to no man, we will deny to no man, Right and Justice. "

 Long live the United States of America! Filled with the free, magnanimous spirit, crowned by the wisdom, blessed by the moderation, hovered over by the guardian angel of Washington's example; may they be ever worthy in all things to be defended by the blood of the brave who know the rights of man and shrink not from their assertion--may they be each a column, and altogether, under the Constitution, a perpetual Temple of Peace, unshadowed by a Caesar's palace, at whose altar may freely commune all who seek the union of Liberty and Brotherhood. 

 Long live our Country! Oh, long through the undying ages may it stand, far removed in fact as in space from the Old World's feuds and follies, alone in its grandeur and its glory, itself the immortal monument of Him whom Providence commissioned to teach man the power of Truth, and to prove to the nations that their Redeemer liveth. 

 JOHN W. DANIEL: _Washington_, 1885

15. When that great and generous soldier, U. S. Grant gave back to Lee, crushed, but ever glorious, the sword he had surrendered at Appomattox, that magnanimous deed said to the people of the South: "You are our brothers. " But when the present ruler of our grand republic on awakening to the condition of war that confronted him, with his first commission placed the leader's sword in the hands of those gallant Confederate commanders, Joe Wheeler and Fitzhugh Lee, he wrote between the lines in living letters of everlasting light the words: "There is but one people of this Union, one flag alone for all. "

 The South, Mr. Toastmaster, will feel that her sons have been well given, that her blood has been well spilled, if that sentiment is to be indeed the true inspiration of our nation's future. God grant it may be as I believe it will. 

 CLARE HOWELL: _Our Reunited Country_, 1898

16. Two years ago last autumn, we walked on the sea beach together, and with a strange and prophetic kind of poetry, he likened the scene to his own failing health, the falling leaves, the withered sea-weed, the dying grass upon the shore, and the ebbing tide that was fast receding from us. He told me that he felt prepared to go, for he had forgiven his enemies, and could even rejoice in their happiness. Surely this was a grand condition in which to step from this world across the threshold to the next!

 JOSEPH JEFFERSON: _In Memory of Edwin Booth_, 1893

17. A public spirit so lofty is not confined to other lands. You are conscious of its stirrings in your soul. It calls you to courageous service, and I am here to bid you obey the call. Such patriotism may be yours. Let it be your parting vow that it shall be yours. Bolingbroke described a patriot king in England; I can imagine a patriot president in America. I can see him indeed the choice of a party, and called to administer the government when sectional jealousy is fiercest and party passion most inflamed. I can imagine him seeing clearly what justice and humanity, the national law and the national welfare require him to do, and resolved to do it. I can imagine him patiently enduring not only the mad cry of party hate, the taunt of "recreant" and "traitor, " of "renegade" and "coward, " but what is harder to bear, the amazement, the doubt, the grief, the denunciation, of those as sincerely devoted as he to the common welfare. I can imagine him pushing firmly on, trusting the heart, the intelligence, the conscience of his countrymen, healing angry wounds, correcting misunderstandings, planting justice on surer foundations, and, whether his party rise or fall, lifting his country heavenward to a more perfect union, prosperity, and peace. This is the spirit of a patriotism that girds the commonwealth with the resistless splendor of the moral law--the invulnerable panoply of states, the celestial secret of a great nation and a happy people. 

 GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS: _The Public Duty of Educated Men_, 1877

CHAPTER VI. 

GETTING MATERIAL

The Material of Speeches. So far this book has dealt almost entirelywith the manner of speaking. Now it comes to the relatively moreimportant consideration of the material of speech. Necessary as it isthat a speaker shall know how to speak, it is much more valuable thathe shall know what to speak. We frequently hear it said of a speaker, "It wasn't what he said, it was the way he said it, " indicatingclearly that the striking aspect of the delivery was his manner; buteven when this remark is explained it develops frequently that therewas some value in the material, as well as some charm or surprise ornovelty in the method of expression. In the last and closest analysisa speech is valuable for what it conveys to its hearers' minds, whatit induces them to do, not what temporary effects of charm andentertainment it affords. 

Persons of keen minds and cultivated understandings have come awayfrom gatherings addressed by men famous as good speech-makers andconfessed to something like the following: "I was held spellbound allthe time he was talking, but for the life of me, I can't tell you onething he said or one idea he impressed upon me. " A student shouldjudge speeches he hears with such things in mind, so that he can holdcertain ones up as models, and discard others as "horrible examples. "

It should be the rule that before a man attempts to speak he shouldhave something to say. This is apparently not always the case. Many aman tries to say something when he simply has nothing at all to say. Recall the description of Gratiano's talk, quoted earlier in thisbook. 

A speaker then must have material. He must get material. The clergymanknows that he must deliver about a hundred sermons a year. The lawyerknows he must go into court on certain days. The lecturer mustinstruct his various audiences. The business man must addressexecutive boards, committees, conventions, customers. The student mustaddress classes, societies. The beginner in speech training must seizeevery opportunity to talk. Certainly the natural reserve stock ofideas and illustrations will soon be exhausted, or it will grow sostale that it will be delivered ineffectively, or it will beunsuitable to every occasion. A celebrated Frenchman, called uponunexpectedly to speak, excused himself by declaring, "What is suitableto say I do not know, and what I know is not suitable. "

Getting Material. There are three ways of getting material. The firstis by observation, the second by interview, the third by reading. 

Observation. The value of securing material by observation is apparentat first glance. That which you have experienced you know. That whichyou have seen with your own eyes you can report correctly. That whichhas happened to you you can relate with the aspect of absolute truth. That which you have done you can teach others to do. That which hastouched you you can explain correctly. That which you know to be thefact is proof against all attack. 

These are the apparent advantages of knowledge gained at first hand. The faculty of accurate observation is one of the most satisfying thatcan enter into a person's mental equipment. It can be trained, broadened, and made more and more accurate. In some trades andprofessions it is an indispensable part of one's everyday ability. Thefaculty may be easily developed by exercise and test for accuracy. 

Everyone acknowledges the weight and significance of material gainedby observation. In America especially we accord attention and regardto the reports and accounts made by men who have done things, the menwho have experienced the adventures they relate. There is such avividness, a reality, a conviction about these personal utterancesthat we must listen respectfully and applaud sincerely. Magazines andnewspapers offer hundreds of such articles for avid readers. Hundredsof books each year are based upon such material. 

With all its many advantages the field of observation is limited. Notevery person can experience or see all he is interested in and wantsto talk about. We must choose presidents but we cannot observe thecandidates themselves and their careers. We must have opinions aboutthe League of Nations, the Mexican situation, the radical labormovements, the changing taxes, but we cannot observe all phases ofthese absorbing topics. If we restrict speeches to only what we canobserve we shall all be uttering merely trivial personalities basedupon no general knowledge and related to none of the really importantthings in the universe. 

Nor is it always true that the person who does a thing can report itclearly and accurately. Ask a woman or girl how she hemstitches ahandkerchief, or a boy how he swims or throws a curve, and note theinvolved and inaccurate accounts. If you doubt this, explain one ofthese to the class. It is not easy to describe exactly what one hasseen, mainly because people do not see accurately. People usually seewhat they want to see, what they are predisposed to see. Witnesses incourt, testifying upon oath concerning an accident, usually produce asmany different versions as there are pairs of eyes. Books uponpsychology report many enlightening and amusing cases of this defectof accurate observation in people. [1]

The two negative aspects of material secured in this first manner--1, limited range of observation, 2, inaccuracy of observation--placedbeside the advantages already listed will clearly indicate in whatsubjects and circumstances this method should be relied upon forsecuring material for speeches. 

[Footnote 1: Good cases are related by Swift, E. J. : _Psychology andthe Day's Work_. ]

EXERCISES

1. Make a list of recent articles based upon observation which youhave seen or read in newspapers and magazines. 

2. With what kind of material does each deal?

3. Which article is best? Why?

4. List four topics upon which your observation has given youmaterial which could be used in a speech. 

5. What kind of speech? A speech for what purpose?

6. Consider and weigh the value of your material. 

7. Why is it good?

8. What limits, or drawbacks has it?

9. What could be said against it from the other side?

Interview. If a person cannot himself experience or observe all hewants to use for material his first impulse will be to interviewpeople who have had experience themselves. In this circumstance thespeaker becomes the reporter of details of knowledge furnished byothers. The value of this is apparent at once. Next to first-handknowledge, second-hand knowledge will serve admirably. 

Every newspaper and magazine in the world uses this method because itsreaders' first query, mental or expressed, of all its informativearticles is "Is this true?" If the author is merely repeating theexperience of an acknowledged expert in the field under discussion, the value of the interview cannot be questioned. In this case theresulting report is almost as good as the original testimony orstatement of the man who knows. 

The first requisite, therefore, of material gathered in such a manneris that it be reproduced exactly as first delivered. The man who tolda woman that a critic had pronounced her singing "heavenly" had goodintentions but he was not entirely accurate in changing to thatnattering term the critic's actual adjective "unearthly. " Thefrequency with which alleged statements published in the daily pressare contradicted by the supposed utterers indicates how usual suchmisrepresentation is, though it may be honestly unintentional. Thespeaker before an audience must be scrupulously correct in quoting. This accuracy is not assured unless a stenographic transcript be takenat the time the information is given, or unless the person quotedreads the sentiments and statements credited to him and expresses hisapproval. 

Signed statements, personal letters, printed records, photographs, certified copies, and other exhibits of all kinds are employed tosubstantiate material secured from interviews and offered in speeches. If you notice newspaper accounts of lectures, political speeches, legislative procedure, legal practice, you will soon become familiarwith such usages as are described by the expressions, filing as partof the record, taking of a deposition in one city for use in a lawsuitin another, Exhibit A, photograph of an account book, statement madein the presence of a third party, as recorded by a dictaphone, etc. 

The first danger in securing material by the personal interview is thenatural error of misunderstanding. The second danger is the naturaldesire--not necessarily false, at that--to interpret to the user'sbenefit, the material so secured, or to the discredit of all viewsother than his own. It is so easy, so tempting, in making out a strongcase for one's own opinions to omit the slight concession which maygrant ever so little shade of right to other beliefs. Judiciousmanipulation of any material may degenerate into mere juggling forsupport. Quotations and reports, like statistics, can be made to proveanything, and the general intellectual distrust of mere numbers iscleverly summed up in the remark, "Figures can't lie, but liars canfigure. "

To have the material accepted as of any weight or value the personfrom whom it is secured must be recognized as an authority. He must beof such eminence in the field for which his statements are quoted asnot only to be accepted by the speaker using his material but asunqualifiedly recognized by all the opponents of the speaker. Hisremarks must have the definiteness of the expert witness whosetestimony in court carries so much weight. To secure dueconsideration, the speaker must make perfectly clear to his audiencethe position of his authority, his fitness to be quoted, hisunquestioned knowledge, sincerity, and honesty. 

Knowledge secured in this manner may be used with signal effect in aspeech, either to supply all the material or to cover certainportions. If you listen to many speeches (and you should), notice howoften a speaker introduces the result of his interviews--formal ormerely conversational--with persons whose statement he is certain willimpress his audience. 

EXERCISES

1. Make a list of five topics of which you know so little that youwould have to secure information by interviews. 

2. Of these choose two, define your opinion or feeling in each, andtell to whom you could apply for material. 

3. Choose one dealing with some topic of current interest in yourlocality; define your own opinion or feeling, and tell to whom youcould apply for material. 

4. Explain exactly why you name this person. 

5. Prepare a set of questions to bring out material to support yourposition. 

6. Prepare some questions to draw out material to dispose of otherviews. 

7. Interview some person upon one of the foregoing topics or adifferent one, and in a speech present this material before the class. 

8. In general discussion comment on the authorities reported and thematerial presented. 

Reading. The best way and the method most employed for gatheringmaterial is reading. Every user of material in speeches must dependupon his reading for the greatest amount of his knowledge. The oldexpression "reading law" shows how most legal students secured theinformation upon which their later practice was based. Nearly all realstudy of any kind depends upon wide and careful reading. 

Reading, in the sense here used, differs widely from the entertainingperusal of current magazines, or the superficial skimming throughshort stories or novels. Reading for material is done with a moreserious purpose than merely killing time, and is regulated accordingto certain methods which have been shown to produce the best resultsfor the effort and time expended. 

The speaker reads for the single purpose of securing material to servehis need in delivered remarks. He has a definite aim. He must know howto serve that end. Not everyone who can follow words upon a printedpage can read in this sense. He must be able to read, understand, select, and retain. The direction is heard in some churches to "read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest. " This is a picturesque phrasing ofthe same principles. 

You must know how to read. Have you often in your way through a booksuddenly realized at the bottom of a page that you haven't theslightest recollection of what your eye has been over? You may havefelt this same way after finishing a chapter. People often read poetryin this manner. This is not really reading. The speaker who reads formaterial must concentrate. If he reaches the bottom of a page withoutan idea, he must go back to get it. It is better not to read toorapidly the first time, in order to save this repetition. The abilityto read is trained in exactly the same way as any other ability. Accuracy first, speed later. Perhaps the most prevalent fault ofstudents of all kinds is lack of concentration. 

Understanding. After reading comes understanding. To illustrate this, poetry again might be cited, for any one can _read_ poetry, thoughmany declare they cannot understand it. The simplest looking prose maybe obscure to the mind which is slow in comprehending. When we read weget general ideas, cursory impressions; we catch the drift of theauthor's meaning. Reading for material must be more thorough thanthat. It must not merely believe it understands; it must preclude theslightest possibility of misunderstanding. 

A reader who finds in a printed speech approval of a system of_representation_ but a condemnation of a system of _representatives_must grasp at once, or must work out for himself, the differencebetween these two: the first meaning a relationship only, the secondmeaning men serving as delegates. When he meets an unusual word like_mandatory_, he must not be content to guess at its significance bylinking it with _command_ and _mandate_, for as used in internationalaffairs it means something quite definite. To secure this completeunderstanding of all his reading he will consult consistently everybook of reference. He should read with a good dictionary at his elbow, and an atlas and an encyclopedia within easy reach. If he is able totalk over with others what he reads, explaining to them what is notclear, he will have an excellent method of testing his ownunderstanding. The old-fashioned practice of "saying lessons over" athome contributed to this growth of a pupil's understanding. 

Selecting. Third, the reader for material must know how to select. Ashe usually reads to secure information or arguments for a certaindefinite purpose, he will save time by knowing quickly what not toread. All that engages his attention without directly contributing tohis aim is wasting time and energy. He must learn how to use books. Ifhe cannot handle alphabetized collections quickly he is wasting time. If he does not know how material is arranged he will waste both timeand energy. He must know books. 

Every printed production worthy of being called a book should have anindex. Is the index the same as the table of contents? The table ofcontents is printed at the beginning of the volume. It is a synopsis, by chapter headings or more detailed topics, of the plan of the book. It gives a general outline of the contents of the book. You areinterested in public speaking. You wonder whether a book contains achapter on debating. Does this one? You notice that a speaker used aseries of jerky gesticulations. You wonder whether this book containsa chapter upon gestures. Does it?

The table of contents is valuable for the purposes just indicated. Itappears always at the beginning of a work. If the work fills more thanone volume, the table of contents is sometimes given for all of themin the first; sometimes it is divided among the volumes; sometimesboth arrangements are combined. 

The table of contents is never so valuable as the index. This alwayscomes at the end of the book. If the work is in more than one volumethe index comes at the _end of the last volume_. What did you learn ofthe topic _gestures_ in this book from your reference to the table ofcontents? Now look at the index. What does the index do for a topic?If a topic is treated in various parts of a long work the volumes areindicated by Roman numerals, the pages by ordinary numerals. 

Interpret this entry taken from the index of _A History of the UnitedStates_ by H. W. Elson. 

 Slavery, introduced into Virginia, i, 93; in South Carolina, 122; in Georgia, 133; in New England, 276; in the South, 276; during colonial period, iii, 69, 70; in Missouri, 72; attacked by the Abolitionists, 142-6; excluded from California, 184; character of, in the South, 208 _seq_. ; population, iv, 82; abolished in District of Columbia, in new territories, 208; abolished by Thirteenth Amendment, 320, 321. 

Retaining Knowledge. The only valid test of the reader's realequipment is what he retains and can use. How much of what you read doyou remember? The answer depends upon education, training in thisparticular exercise, and lapse of time. What method of remembering doyou find most effective in your own case? To answer this you shouldgive some attention to your own mind. What kind of mind have you? Doyou retain most accurately what you see? Can you reproduce eitherexactly or in correct substance what you read to yourself without anysupporting aids to stimulate your memory? If you have this kind ofmind develop it along that line. Do not weaken its power by letting itlean on any supports at all. If you find you can do without them, donot get into the habit of taking notes. If you can remember to doeverything you should do during a trip downtown don't make a list ofthe items before you go. If you can retain from a single reading thematerial you are gathering, don't make notes. Impress things upon yourmemory faculty. Develop that ability in yourself. 

Have you a different kind of mind, the kind which remember best whatit tells, what it explains, what it does? Do you fix things in yourbrain by performing them? Does information become rooted in yourmemory because you have imparted it to others? If so you should securethe material you gather from your reading by adapting some methodrelated to the foregoing. You may talk it over with some one else, youmay tell it aloud to yourself, you may imagine you are before anaudience and practise impressing them with what you want to retain. Any device which successfully fixes knowledge in your memory islegitimate. You should know enough about your own mental processes tofind for yourself the best and quickest way. It is often said ofteachers that they do not actually feel that they _know_ a subjectuntil they have tried to teach it to others. 

Taking Notes. Another kind of mind recalls or remembers material ithas read when some note or hint suggests all of it. This kind of minddepends upon the inestimably valuable art of note-taking, a methodquite as worthy as the two just considered if its results justify itsemployment. Note-taking does not mean a helter-skelter series ofexclamatory jottings. It means a well-planned, regularly organizedseries of entries so arranged that reference to any portion recallsvividly and exactly the full material of the original. Books andspeeches are well planned. They follow a certain order. Notes basedupon them should reproduce that plan and show the relative value ofparts. 

When completed, such notes, arranged in outline form, should enablethe maker to reproduce the extended material from which they weremade. If he cannot do that, his reading and his note-taking were tolittle purpose. A speaker who has carefully written out his fullspeech and delivers it form the manuscript can use that speech overand over again. But that does not indicate that he really _knows_ muchabout the topic he is discussing. He did know about it once. But theman who from a series of notes can reconstruct material worked up longbefore proves that he has retained his knowledge of it. Besides, thismethod gives him the chance to adapt his presentation to the changingconditions and the new audience. 

In using this method, when a particularly important bit of informationis met, it should be set down very carefully, usually verbatim, as itmay be quoted exactly in the speech. This copy may be made upon thepaper where the regular notes are being entered so that it may befound later embodied in the material it supports. Or it may later becut from this sheet to be shifted about and finally fixed whenplanning the speech, or preparing the outline (discussed in the nexttwo chapters). Many practised speech-makers copy such material uponthe regularly sized library catalog cards (3 by 5 inches), somedistinguishing by the colors of cards the various kinds of material, such as arguments supporting a position, opposite arguments, refutation, statistics, court judgments, etc. The beginner will findfor himself what methods he can use best. Of course he must never lethis discriminating system become so elaborate that he consumesunjustifiable time and thought in following its intricate plan. 

In all cases of quotations--either verbatim or in resume--theauthority must be noted. Author, official title or position, title ofwork, circumstances, date, volume, page, etc. , should be clearly setdown. In law cases the date is especially important as so frequentlythe latest decision reverses all the earlier ones. For convenience offiling and handling these items are placed at the top of the card. 

 Monroe Doctrine--Meaning

 W. Wilson--Hist. Amer. People, V, 245

 The U. S. Had not undertaken to maintain an actual formal protectorate over the S. Amer. States, but it did frankly undertake to act as their nearest friend in the settlement of controversies with European nations, and no President, whether Rep. Or Dem. , had hesitated since this critical dispute concerning the boundaries of Brit. Guiana arose to urge its settlement upon terms favorable to Venezuela. 

The following notes were made by a student in preparation for a speechupon the opposition to the Covenant of the League of Nations. Theseexcerpts are from the notes upon the newspaper reports of the debatein Boston in 1919 between Senator Lodge and President Lowell ofHarvard. Notice how accurately they suggest the material of theoriginal. The numbers represent the paragraph numbers. 

 [Sidenote: Monroe Doctrine. ]

 35. Monroe Doctrine a fence that cannot be extended by taking it down. 

 36. Monroe Doctrine a corollary of Washington's foreign policy. 

 37. Geographical considerations on which Monroe Doctrine rested still obtain. 

 38. Systems of morality and philosophy are not transient, because they rest on verities. 

 39. Monroe Doctrine rests on law of self-preservation. 

 40. Offers a larger reservation of Monroe Doctrine as third constructive criticism. 

 SENATOR LODGE

 [Sidenote: What a League should provide. ]

 3. Wants to consider what such a league must contain. 

 4. Must have provision for obligatory arbitration. 

 5. Obligation not to resort to war must be compulsory. 

 6. Compulsion must be such that no nation will venture to incur it. 

 7. Nation that does not submit to arbitration must be treated as outlaw. 

 8. If decisions of arbitrations are clear and generally considered just, a nation desiring to wage war should be prevented. 

 9. Points of contact are not points of friction except when made too infrequent. 

 10. Travel, intercourse, frequent meetings help amicable adjustments. 

 11. League should provide councils where men can meet and talk over differences. 

 12. Penalty for violating agreements should be automatic. 

 13. All should be obliged to make war on attacking nation. 

 PRESIDENT LOWELL. 

Using the Library. A reader must know how to use libraries. This meanshe must be able to find books by means of the card catalogs. These arearranged by both authors and subjects. If he knows the author of abook or its title he can easily find the cards and have the bookhanded to him. Very often he will seek information upon topicsentirely new to him. In this case he must look under the entry of thetopic for all the books bearing upon his. From the titles, the briefdescriptions, and (sometimes) the tables of contents upon the cards hecan select intelligently the books he needs. For instance, if he issearching for arguments to support a new kind of city government hecould discard at once several books cataloged as follows, while hecould pick unerringly the four which might furnish him the material hewants. These books are listed under the general topic "Cities. "

 _The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. Old English Towns. Municipal Administration. The Modern City and its Problems. Personality of American Cities. Historic Towns of the Southern States. Romantic Germany. Cities of Italy. American Municipal Progress_. 

Cross references are also valuable. In addition to books catalogedunder the topic consulted, others grouped under other subjects maycontain related information. Here are three actual cross referencestaken from a library catalog. 

 Land: Ownership, rights, and rent. See also conservation, production, agriculture. 

 Laboring classes: Morals and habits. See also ethics, amusements, Sunday. 

 Church. See also church and state, persecutions. 

The continual use of a library will familiarize a student with certainclasses of books to which he may turn for information. If he ispermitted to handle the books themselves upon the shelves he will soonbecome skilful in using books. Many a trained speaker can run his eyeover titles, along tables of contents, scan the pages, and unerringlypick the heart out of a volume. Nearly all libraries now are arrangedaccording to one general plan, so a visitor who knows this scheme caneasily find the class of books he wants in almost any library he uses. This arrangement is based upon the following decimal numbering andgrouping of subject matter. 

LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION

000 to 090, _General works_. Bibliography. Library economy. Cyclopedias. Collections. Periodicals. Societies, museums. Journalism, newspapers. Special libraries, polygraphy. Book rarities. 

100 to 190, _Philosophy_. Metaphysics. Special topics. Mind and body. Philosophic systems. Mental faculties, psychology. Logic, dialectics. Ethics. Ancient philosophers. Modern. 

200 to 290, _Religion_. Natural Theology. Bible. Doctrinal dogmatics, theology. Devotional, practical. Homiletic, pastoral, parochial. Church, institutions, work. Religious history. Christian churches andsects. Ethnic, non-christian. 

300 to 390, _Sociology_. Statistics. Political science. Politicaleconomy. Law. Administration. Associations, institutions. Education. Commerce, communication. Customs, costumes, folklore. 

400 to 490, _Philology_. Comparative. English. German. French. Italian. Spanish. Latin. Greek. Minor literatures. 

500 to 590, _Natural science_. Mathematics, Astronomy. Physics. Chemistry. Geology. Paleontology. Biology. Botany. Zoölogy. 

600 to 690, _Useful arts_. Medicine. Engineering. Agriculture. Domestic economy. Communication, commerce. Chemic technology. Manufactures. Mechanic trades. Building. 

700 to 790, _Fine arts_. Landscape gardening. Architecture. Sculpture. Drawing, decoration, design. Painting. Engraving. Photography. Music. Amusements. 

800 to 890, _Literature_ (same order as under _Philology_, 400). 

900 to 990, _History_. Geography and travels. Biography. Ancienthistory. Modern Europe. Asia. Africa. North America. South America. Oceanica and polar regions. 

M. DEWEY: _Decimal Classification_

Using Periodicals. In the section on taking notes the direction wasgiven that in citing legal decisions the latest should be secured. Why? That same principle applies to citing any kind of information ina speech. Science, history, politics, government, internationalquestions, change so rapidly in these times that the fact of yesterdayis the fiction of today, and _vice versa. _ A speaker must be up todate in his knowledge. This he can be only by consulting currentperiodicals. He cannot read them all so he must use the aids providedfor him. The best of these is the _Reader's Guide to PeriodicalLiterature_ issued every month and kept in the reference room of alllibraries. In it, arranged under both subject and author's name, arelisted the articles which have appeared in the various magazines. TheDecember issue contains the entries for the entire year. A group oftopics from a recent monthly issue will show its value to the speakersecuring material. 

 Eastern Question. British case in the East. H. Sidebotham, Asia 19:261-1263 Mr '19. --England and her eastern policy. H. Sidebotham. Asia, 19:158-161. F '19. --Khanates of the Middle East. Ikbal Ali Shah. Contemp. 115:183-187 F '19. --More secret treaties in the Near East. L. Stoddard. Maps. World's Work. 37: 589-591. Mr '19. --Part of the United States in the Near East. R of Rs 59:305-306 Mr '19. --Should America act as trustee of the Near East? Asia, 19:141-144 F'19. 

By this time the student speaker will have that mental alertnessreferred to early in this book. He will be reading regularly somemagazine--not to pass the time pleasantly--but to keep himself postedon current topics and questions of general interest, in which thearticles will direct him to other periodicals for fuller treatment ofthe material he is gathering. The nature of some of these is suggestedhere. 

 _The Outlook_, "An illustrated weekly journal of current events. "

 _Current Opinion_, Monthly. Review of the World, Persons in the Foreground, Music and Drama, Science and Discovery, Religion and Social Ethics, Literature and Art, The Industrial World, Reconstruction. 

 _The Literary Digest_, Weekly. Topics of the Day, Foreign Comment, Science and Invention, Letters and Art, Religion and Social Service, Current Poetry, Miscellaneous, Investments and Finance. 

 _The Independent_, an illustrated weekly. 

EXERCISES

1. Describe to the class the contents of a recent issue of a magazine. Concentrate upon important departments, articles, or policies, so thatyou will not deliver a mere list. 

2. Tell how an article in some periodical led you to read more widelyto secure fuller information. 

3. Explain why you read a certain periodical regularly. 

4. Speak upon one of the following topics:

Freak magazines. My magazine. Policies of magazines. Great things magazines have done. Technical magazines. Adventures at a magazine counter. Propaganda periodicals. 

5. Explain exactly how you study. 

6. How would you secure an interview with some person of prominence?

7. Is the "cramming" process of studying a good one?

8. Is it ever justifiable?

9. Explain how, why, and when it may be used by men in theirprofession. 

10. Give the class an idea of the material of some book you have readrecently. 

11. Explain how reading a published review or hearing comments on abook induced you to read a volume which proved of value to you. 

12. Can you justify the reading of the last part only of a book?Consider non-fiction. 

13. For preserving clippings, notes, etc. , which method isbetter--cards filed in boxes or drawers, scrap-books, or slips andclippings grouped in envelopes?

14. Report to the class some information upon one of the following. Tell exactly how and where you secured your information. 

Opium traffic in China. Morphine habit in the United States. Women in literature. A drafted army as compared with a volunteer army. Orpheum as a theater name. Prominent business women. War time influence of D'Annunzio. Increasing cost of living. Secretarial courses. The most beautiful city of the American continent. Alfalfa. Women surgeons. The blimp. Democracy in Great Britain compared with that of the United States. The root of the Mexican problem. San Marino. Illiteracy in the United States. How women vote. 

(NOTE. --The teacher should supply additions, substitutes, andmodifications. )

CHAPTER VII

PLANNING THE SPEECH

Selecting Material. It can be assumed, by the time you have reachedthis point in the study and practice of making speeches, that you havewords to express your thoughts and some fair skill of delivery, thatyou know something about preparing various kinds of introductions andconclusions, that you know how your own mind operates in retaining newinformation, and that you know how to secure material for variouspurposes. Either clearly assimilated in your brain or accurately notedupon paper you have all the ideas that are to appear in your speech. 

The Length of the Speech. Look over this material again. Consider itcarefully in your thoughts, mentally deciding how long a time or howmany words you will devote to each topic or entry. Can you from such apractical consideration determine how long in time your speech willbe? Are you limited by requirements to a short time as were the FourMinute Speakers? Have you been allotted a half hour? Will you holdyour audience longer?

These may appear simple things, but they cover the first essential ofplanning any speech. It should be just the correct length--neither toolong nor too short. Many beginners--timid, hesitant, untrained--willfrequently fill too short a time, so that they must drill themselvesinto planning longer productions. On the other hand, it may be stated, as a general criticism, that many speakers talk too long. 

A United States Senator, in order to block the vote on a bill he wasopposing, decided to speak until Congress had to adjourn, so hedeliberately planned to cover a long time. He spoke for sometwenty-two hours. Of course he did not say much, nor did he talkcontinuously; to get rests, he requested the clerk to call the roll, and while the list was being marked, he ate and drank enough tosustain him. Technically his speech was uninterrupted, for he stillhad the floor. Though we may not approve of such methods oflegislative procedure we must see that for this speech the firstelement of its plan was its length. 

Keep this consideration of time always in mind. Speakers always askhow long they are to speak, or they stipulate how much time theyrequire. Legislative bodies frequently have limiting rules. Courtssometimes allow lawyers so much time. A minister must fit his sermonto the length of the service. A business man must not waste hishearers' time. A lecturer must not tire his audience. In Congressmembers must be given chances to eat. In Parliament, which meets inthe evening, men grow anxious for bed. 

Making the Speech too Long. The rule is fundamental, yet it isviolated continually. I have known of instances when four men, askedto present material in a meeting announced months in advance aslasting two hours, have totally disregarded this fact, and preparedenough material to consume over an hour each. In such cases thepresiding officer should state to each that he will be allowed exactlythirty minutes and no more. He may tap on the table after twenty-fivehave elapsed to warn the speaker to pass to his conclusion, and at theexpiration of the time make him bring his remarks to a close and giveway to the next speaker. There is no unfairness in this. The realoffense is committed by the speaker who proves himself soinconsiderate, so discourteous of the conditions that he placeshimself in such an embarrassing circumstance. He deserves only justicetempered by no mercy. I have heard the first of two speakers who wereto fill an hour of a commemorative service in a church talk on for anhour and ten minutes, boring the congregation to fidgety restlessnessand completely preventing the second speaker--the more important--fromdelivering a single word. 

Mark Twain tells how he went to church one hot night to hear a citymission worker describe his experiences among the poor people of thecrowded districts who, though they needed help, were too modest orproud to ask for it. The speaker told of the suffering and bravery hefound. Then he pointed out that the best gifts to charity are not theadvertised bounties of the wealthy but the small donations of the lessfortunate. His appeals worked Mark Twain up to great enthusiasm andgenerosity. He was ready to give all he had with him--four hundreddollars--and borrow more. The entire congregation wanted to offer allit had. But the missionary kept on talking. The audience began tonotice the heat. It became hotter and hotter. They grew more and moreuncomfortable. Mark's generosity began to shrink. It dwindled to lessand less as the speech lengthened until when the plate did finallyreach him, he stole ten cents from it. He adds that this simply proveshow a little thing like a long-winded speech can induce crime. 

Plan your speech so that it will be the proper length. 

Discarding Material. This first consideration very likely indicates toyou that you have much more material than you can use in the timeallowed or assigned you. You must discard some. Strange as it mayseem, this is one of the must difficult directions to carry out. Itseems such a waste of time and material to select for actualpresentation so small a part of all you have carefully gathered. Thereis always the temptation to "get it all in somehow. " Yet the directionmust remain inflexible. You can use only part of it. You mustcarefully select what will serve your purpose. What is the purpose ofyour speech? What is the character of your audience? These two thingswill determine to a large extent, what and how much you mustrelinquish. Your finished speech will be all the better for theweeding-out process. Better still, in all your preliminary steps forsubsequent speeches you will become skilful in selecting while you aregathering the material itself. Finally you will become so practisedthat you will not burden yourself with waste, although you will alwayssecure enough to supply you with a reserve supply for assurance andemergency. 

Relation of Material to the Purpose of the Speech. A few examples willshow the wide application of this principle. A boy who has explainedto his father the scholarship rules of his school concerning athleteswill discard a great deal of that material when he addresses a studentgathering. A speaker on child labor in a state where women have votedfor a long time will discard much of the material presented in aneighboring state where general franchise has just been granted. If ina series of remarks you want to emphasize the thrilling experience youhave had with a large fish which jerked you out of a boat, you wouldnot include such material as the trip on the train to the lake whereyou had your adventure. Why not?

These are humble instances, but the principle of selection is the samefor all speeches. 

A man who was asked to lecture on Mark Twain knew the contents of thethirty published volumes written by him, all the biographies, practically every article written about him; he had conversed withpeople who had known him; he had visited scenes of his life; yet whenhe planned to talk for an hour he had to reject everything except twostriking periods of his life with their effects upon his writing. 

Burke, in one great effort, declared he had no intention of dealingwith the _right_ of taxation; he confined himself merely to the_expediency_ of Great Britain's revenue laws for America. Other greatspeakers have--in their finished speeches--just as clearly indicatedthe plans they have decided to follow. Such definite announcementsdetermine the material of many introductions. 

 My task will be divided under three different heads: first, The Crime Against Kansas, in its origin and extent; secondly, The Apologies for the Crime; and, thirdly, The True Remedy. 

 CHARLES SUMNER: _The Crime against Kansas_, 1856

 Mr. President and Fellow Citizens of New York:

 The facts with which I shall deal this evening are mainly old and familiar; nor is there anything new in the general use I shall make of them. If there shall be any novelty, it will be in the mode of presenting the facts, and the inferences and observations following that presentation. In his speech last autumn at Columbus, Ohio, as reported in the _New York Times_, Senator Douglas said: "Our fathers, when they framed the government under which we live, understood this question just as well, and even better, than we do now. "

 I fully indorse this, and I adopt it as a text for this discourse. I so adopt it because it furnishes a precise and an agreed starting-point for a discussion between Republicans and that wing of the Democracy headed by Senator Douglas. It simply leaves the inquiry: What was the understanding those fathers had of the question mentioned?

 ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Cooper Union Speech_, 1860

Indicating the Plan in the Speech. In some finished and long speechesparts of the plan are distributed to mark the divisions in theprogress of the development. The next quotation shows such aninsertion. 

 And now sir, against all these theories and opinions, I maintain--

 1. That the Constitution of the United States is not a league, confederacy, or compact between the people of the several States in their sovereign capacities; but a government proper, founded on the adoption of the people, and creating direct relations between itself and individuals. 

 2. That no State authority has power to dissolve these relations; that nothing can dissolve them but revolution; and that, consequently, there can be no such thing as secession without revolution. 

 3. That there is a supreme law, consisting of the Constitution of the United States, and acts of Congress passed in pursuance of it, and treaties; and that, in cases not capable of assuming the character of a suit in law or equity, Congress must judge of, and finally interpret, this supreme law so often as it has occasion to pass acts of legislation; and in cases capable of assuming, and actually assuming, the character of a suit, the Supreme Court of the United States is the final interpreter. 

 4. That an attempt by a State to abrogate, annul, or nullify an act of Congress, or to arrest its operation within her limits, on the ground that, in her opinion, such law is unconstitutional, is a direct usurpation on the just powers of the general Government, and on the equal rights of other States; a plain violation of the Constitution, a proceeding essentially revolutionary in its character and tendency. 

 DANIEL WEBSTER: _The Constitution Not a Compact between Sovereign States_, 1833

Such a statement to the audience is especially helpful when thespeaker is dealing with technical subjects, or material with whichmost people are not usually and widely conversant. Scientificconsiderations always become clearer when such plans are simplyconstructed, clearly announced, and plainly followed. 

 So far as I know, there are only three hypotheses which ever have been entertained, or which well can be entertained, respecting the past history of Nature. I will, in the first place, state the hypotheses, and then I will consider what evidence bearing upon them is in our possession, and by what light of criticism that evidence is to be interpreted. Upon the first hypothesis, the assumption is, that phenomena of Nature similar to those exhibited by the present world have always existed; in other words, that the universe has existed from all eternity in what may be broadly termed its present condition. 

 The second hypothesis is, that the present state of things has had only a limited duration; and that, at some period in the past, a condition of the world, essentially similar to that which we now know, came into existence, without any precedent condition from which it could have naturally proceeded. The assumption that successive states of Nature have arisen, each without any relation of natural causation to an antecedent state, is a mere modification of this second hypothesis. 

 The third hypothesis also assumes that the present state of things has had but a limited duration; but it supposes that this state has been evolved by a natural process from an antecedent state, and that from another, and so on; and, on this hypothesis, the attempt to assign any limit to the series of past changes is, usually, given up. 

 THOMAS H. HUXLEY: _Lectures on Evolution_, 1876

EXERCISES

1. According to what methods are the foregoing plans arranged? Whichdivision in Sumner's speech was the most important? Was he trying toget his listeners to do anything? What do you think that object was?

2. In Lincoln's speech do you think he planned the materialchronologically? Historically? What reasons have you for your answer?

3. Which of Webster's four parts is the most important? Give reasonsfor your answer. 

4. Which hypothesis (what does the word mean?) did Huxley himselfsupport? What induces you to think thus? Is this plan in any respectlike Sumner's? Explain your answer. 

5. Make a list of the ways in which material of speeches may bearranged. 

Arrangement. Importance. If you have several topics to cover in asingle speech where would you put the most important? First or last?Write upon a piece of paper the position you choose. You have giventhis plan some thought so you doubtlessly put down the correctposition. What did you write? First? That is usually the answer ofnine pupils out of every ten. Are you with the majority? If you wrotethat the most important topic should be treated first, you are wrong. The speech would be badly planned. Think for a moment. Which should bethe most important part of a story or a play? The beginning or theending? If it is the early part, why should any one read on to the endor stay for the curtain to come down the last time? So in speeches theimportance of topics should always increase as the speech proceeds. This, then, is a principle of planning. Arrange your topics in anascending order of importance. Work up to what is called the climax. 

The list you made in response to direction 5 given above should now bepresented to the class and its contents discussed. What kind ofmaterial is likely to be arranged according to each of yourprinciples? You have put down the chronological order, or the order oftime, or some similar phrase. Just what do you mean by that? Do youmean, begin with the earliest material and follow in chronologicalorder down to the latest? Could the reverse order ever be used? Canyou cite some instance? Is contrast a good order to follow inplanning? Cite material which could be so arranged. Would anarrangement from cause to effect be somewhat like one based on time?Explain your answer. Under what circumstances do you think theopposite might be used--from effect to cause?

While there are almost countless methods of arrangements--for any oneused in one part of a speech may be combined with any other in somedifferent portion--the plan should always be determined by threefundamental matters; the material itself, the audience to which it isto be presented, and the effect the speaker wants to produce. 

Even during this preliminary planning of the speech the author must becareful that when his arrangement is decided upon it possesses thethree qualities necessary to every good composition. These three areunity, coherence, and emphasis. 

Unity. Unity explains itself. A speech must be about one single thing. A good speech produces one result. It induces action upon one singlepoint. It allows no turning aside from its main theme. It does notstray from the straight and narrow road to pick flowers in theadjacent fields, no matter how enticing the temptation to loiter maybe. In plain terms it does not admit as part of its material anythingnot closely and plainly connected with it. It does not step aside foreverything that crops into the speaker's mind. It advances steadily, even when not rapidly. It does not "back water. " It goes somewhere. 

To preserve unity of impression a speaker must ruthlessly discard allmaterial except that which is closely associated with his centralintention. He must use only that which contributes to his purpose. Thesame temptation to keep unrelated material--if it be good initself--will be felt now as when the other unsuitable material was setaside. 

This does not prevent variety and relief. Illustrative and interestingminor sections may be, at times must be, introduced. But even by theirvividness and attractiveness they must help the speech, not hinder it. The decorations and ornaments must never be allowed to detract fromthe utility of the composition. 

Unity may be damaged by admitting parts not in the direct line of thetheme. It may be violated by letting minor portions become too long. The illustration may grow so large by the introduction of needlessdetails that it makes the listeners forget the point it was designedto enforce. Or it may be so far-fetched as to bear no real relation tothe thread of development. Here lies the pitfall of the overworked"funny, " story, introduced by "that reminds me. " Too often it is nothumorous enough to justify repetition; or--what is worse--it does notfit into the circumstances. Another fault of many speakers isover-elaboration of expression, not only for non-essentials, but inthe important passages as well. Involved language demands explanation. The attempts to clear up what should have been simply said at firstmay lead a speaker to devote too many words to a single point. 

This matter of unity must not be misunderstood as prohibiting theinclusion of more than one topic in a speech. A legislator in urgingthe repeal of a law might have several topics, such as how the law waspassed, its first operations, its increasing burdens upon people, thedisappearance of the necessity for it, better methods of securing thesame or better results, etc. , yet all grouped about the motivatingtheme of securing the repeal of the law. To emphasize the greatness ofa man's career a speaker might introduce such topics as his obscureorigin, his unmarked youth, the spur that stimulated his ambition, hisearly reverses, provided that they contribute to the impressionintended, to make vivid his real achievements. 

In early attempts at delivering speeches don't be afraid to pause atcertain places to consider whether what you are about to say reallycontributes to the unity or destroys it. Aside from helping you tothink upon your feet, this mental exercise will help your speech bymaking you pause at times--a feature of speaking often entirelydisregarded by many persons. 

Coherence. The second quality a finished composition should have iscoherence. If you know what _cohere_ and _cohesion_ mean (perhaps youhave met these words in science study) you have the germ of the term'smeaning. It means "stick-together-itive-ness. " The parts of a speechshould be so interrelated that every part leads up to all thatfollows. Likewise every part develops naturally from all that goesbefore, as well as what immediately precedes. There must be acontinuity running straight through the material from start to finish. Parts should be placed where they fit best. Each portion should be soplaced--at least, in thought--that all before leads naturally andconsistently up to it, and it carries on the thread to whateverfollows. This prevents rude breaks in the development of thought. Skilfully done, it aids the hearer to remember, because so easily didthe thought in the speech move from one point to another, that he cancarry the line of its progression with him long after. So theattainment of coherence in a speech contributes directly to thatdesired end--a deep impression. 

Incoherent speeches are so mainly because of absence of plan, whetherthey be short or long, conversational or formal. 

Emphasis. The third quality a speech should have is emphasis. Appliedto a connected sequence of words this means that what is of mostimportance shall stand out most forcefully; that what is not soimportant shall show its subordinate relation by its position, itsconnection with what goes before and after; that what is leastimportant shall receive no emphasis beyond its just due. Suchmanipulation requires planning and rearranging, careful weighing ofthe relative importance of all portions. Recall what was said of theplace of the most important part. 

Throughout the speech there must also be variety of emphasis. It wouldnot be fitting to have everything with a forceful emphasis upon it. Tosecure variation in emphasis you must remember that in speeches thebest effects will be made upon audiences by offering them slightrelief from too close attention or too impressive effects. If youobserve the plans finally followed by good speakers you will be ableto see that they have obeyed this suggestion. They have the power todo what is described as "swaying the audience. " In its simplest formthis depends upon varying the emphasis. 

In making an appeal for funds for destitute portions of Europe atelling topic would surely be the sufferings of the needy. Would it bewise to dwell upon such horrors only? Would a humorous anecdote of thehappy gratitude of a child for a cast-off toy be good to produceemphasis? Which would make the most emphatic ending--the absolutedestitution, the amount to be supplied, the relief afforded, or thehappiness to donors for sharing in such a worthy charity? You can seehow a mere mental planning, or a shuffling of notes, or a temporarynumbering of topics will help in clearing up this problem of how tosecure proper and effective emphasis. 

Making the First Plan. It would be a helpful thing at this point inthe planning to make a pencil list of the topics to be included. Thisis not a final outline but a mere series of jottings to be changed, discarded, and replaced as the author considers his material and hisspeech. It is hardly more than an informal list, a scrap of paper. Inworking with it, don't be too careful of appearances. Erase, crossout, interline, write in margins, draw lines and arrows to carryportions from one place to another, crowd in at one place, remove fromanother, cut the paper sheets, paste in new parts, or pin slipstogether. Manipulate your material. Mold it to suit your purposes. Make it follow your plan. By this you will secure a good plan. Ifthis seems a great deal to do, compare it with the time and energyrequired to learn how to swim, how to play a musical instrument, howto "shoot" in basketball, how to act a part in a play. 

Knowing how to speak well is worth the effort. Every time you plan aspeech these steps will merge into a continuous process while you aregathering the material. In informal discussion upon topics you arefamiliar with, you will become able to arrange a plan while you arerising to your feet. 

Transitions. As this preliminary plan takes its form under yourcareful consideration of the material you will decide that there areplaces between topics or sections which will require bridging over inorder to attain coherence and emphasis. These places of divisionshould be filled by transitions. A transition is a passage whichcarries over the meaning from what precedes to what follows. It servesas a connecting link. It prevents the material from falling apart. Itpreserves the continuity of ideas. A transition may be as short as asingle word, such as _however_, _consequently_, _nevertheless_. It maybe a sentence. It may grow into a paragraph. 

The purpose of transitions--to link parts together--may inducebeginners to consider them as of little importance since theymanifestly add no new ideas to the theme. This opinion is entirelyerroneous. Even in material for reading, transitions are necessary. Inmaterial to be received through the ear they are the most valuablehelps that can be supplied to have the listener follow thedevelopment. They mark the divisions for him. They show that acertain section is completed and a new one is about to begin. Theyshow the relation in meaning of two portions. 

The shorter forms of transitions--words and phrases--belong rather tothe expression, the language, of the speech than to this preliminaryplanning. 

A speaker should never fail to use such phrases as _on the otherhand_, _continuing the same line of reasoning_, _passing to the nextpoint_, _from a different point of view_, because they so clearlyindicate the relation of two succeeding passages of a speech. 

In planning, the speaker frequently has to consider the insertion oflonger transitions--paragraphs or even more extended passages. Justhow such links appear in finished speeches the following extractsshow. In the first selection Washington when he planned his materialrealized he had reached a place where he could conclude. He wanted toadd more. What reason should he offer his audience for violating theprinciple discussed in the chapter on conclusions? How could he makeclear to them his desire to continue? We cannot assert that heactually did this, but he might have jotted down upon the paperbearing a first scheme of his remarks the phrase, "my solicitude forthe people. " That, then, was the germ of his transition paragraph. Notice how clearly the meaning is expressed. Could any hearer fail tocomprehend? The transition also announces plainly the topic of therest of the speech. 

 Here, perhaps, I ought to stop. But a solicitude for your welfare, which cannot end but with my life, and the apprehension of danger, natural to that solicitude, urge me on an occasion like the present, to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, some sentiments which are the result of much reflection, of no inconsiderable observation, and which appear to me all-important to the permanency of your felicity as a people. These will be offered to you with the more freedom, as you can only see in them the disinterested warnings of a parting friend, who can possibly have no personal motive to bias his counsels. Nor can I forget, as an encouragement to it, your indulgent reception of my sentiment on a former and not dissimilar occasion. 

 GEORGE WASHINGTON: _Farewell Address_, 1796

The next selection answers to a part of the plan announced in apassage already quoted in this chapter. Notice how this transitionlooks both backward and forward: it is both retrospective andanticipatory. If you recall that repetition helps to emphasize facts, you will readily understand why a transition is especially valuable ifit adheres to the same language as the first statement of the plan. Ina written scheme this might have appeared under the entry, "pass from1 to 2; list 4 apologies for crime. " This suggests fully the materialof the passage. 

 And with this exposure I take my leave of the Crime against Kansas. Emerging from all the blackness of this Crime, where we seem to have been lost, as in a savage wood, and turning our backs upon it, as upon desolation and death, from which, while others have suffered, we have escaped, I come now to the Apologies which the Crime has found. . . . 

 They are four in number, and fourfold in character. The first is the Apology tyrannical; the second, the Apology imbecile; the third, the Apology absurd; and the fourth, the Apology infamous. That is all. Tyranny, imbecility, absurdity, and infamy all unite to dance, like the weird sisters, about this Crime. 

 The Apology tyrannical is founded on the mistaken act of Governor Reeder, in authenticating the Usurping Legislature, etc. 

 CHARLES SUMNER: _The Crime against Kansas_, 1856

The beginning speaker should not hesitate to make his transitionsperfectly clear to his audience. When they add to the merely bridginguse the additional value of serving as short summaries of what hasgone before and as sign posts of what is to follow, they are treblyserviceable. The attempt to be clear will seldom be waste of time oreffort. The obvious statements of the preceding selections, the use offigures, are excellent models for speakers to imitate. With practicewill come skill in making transitions of different kinds, in which thesame purposes will be served in various other ways, in what may beconsidered more finished style. The next extracts represent this kindof transition. 

 Sir, like most questions of civil prudence, this is neither black nor white, but gray. The system of copyright has great advantages and great disadvantages; and it is our business to ascertain what these are, and then to make an arrangement under which the advantages may be as far as possible secured, and the disadvantages as far as possible excluded. The charge which I bring against my honorable and learned friend's bill is this, that it leaves the advantages nearly what they are at present, and increases the disadvantages at least fourfold. 

 THOMAS B. MACAULAY: _Copyright Bill_, 1841

 One-third of the population of the South is of the Negro race. No enterprise seeking the material, civil, or moral welfare of this section can disregard this element of our population and reach the highest success. I but convey to you, Mr. President and Directors, the sentiment of the masses of my race when I say that in no way have the value and manhood of the American Negro been more fittingly and generously recognized than by the managers of this magnificent Exposition at every stage of its progress. It is a recognition that will do more to cement the friendship of the two races than any occurrence since the dawn of our freedom. 

 BOOKER T. WASHINGTON in a speech at the Atlanta Exposition, 1895

Thinking before You Speak. While students may feel that the stepsoutlined here demand a great deal of preparation before the finalspeech is delivered, the explanation may be given that after all, thiscareful preparation merely carries out the homely adage--think beforeyou speak. If there were more thinking there would be at once betterspeaking. Anybody can talk. The purpose of studying is to make one abetter speaker. The anticipation of some relief may be entertained, for it is comforting to know that after one has followed the processeshere explained, they move more rapidly, so that after a time they maybecome almost simultaneous up to the completion of the one justdiscussed--planning the speech. It is also worth knowing that none ofthis preliminary work is actually lost. Nor is it unseen. It appearsin the speech itself. The reward for all its apparent slowness andexacting deliberation is in the clearness, the significance of thespeech, its reception by the audience, its effect upon them, and theknowledge by the speaker himself that his efforts are producingresults in his accomplishments. 

All speakers plan carefully for speeches long in advance. 

A famous alumnus of Yale was invited to attend a banquet of Harvardgraduates. Warned that he must "speak for his dinner" he prepared morethan a dozen possible beginnings not knowing of course, in what mannerthe toastmaster would call upon him. The remainder of his speech wasas carefully planned, although not with so many possible choices. Notethat from each possible opening to the body of the speech he had toevolve a graceful transition. 

Edmund Burke, in his great speech on conciliation with the Americancolonies, related that some time before, a friend had urged him tospeak upon this matter, but he had hesitated. True, he had gone so faras to throw "my thoughts into a sort of parliamentary form"--that is, he made a plan or an outline, but the passage of a certain bill by theHouse of Commons seemed to have taken away forever the chance of hisusing the material. The bill, however, was returned from the House ofLords with an amendment and in the resulting debate he delivered thespeech he had already planned. 

Daniel Webster said that his reply to Hayne had been lying in his deskfor months already planned, merely waiting the opportunity or need forits delivery. 

Henry Ward Beecher, whose need for preliminary preparation was reducedto its lowest terms, and who himself was almost an instantaneousextemporizer, recognized the need for careful planning by youngspeakers and warned them against "the temptation to slovenliness inworkmanship, to careless and inaccurate statement, to repetition, toviolation of good taste. "

Slovenliness in planning is as bad as slovenliness in expression. 

EXERCISES

Choose any topic suggested in this book. Make a short preliminary planof a speech upon it. Present it to the class. Consider it from thefollowing requirements:

1. Does it show clearly its intention?

2. How long will the speech be?

3. Too long? Too short?

4. For what kind of audience is it intended?

5. Has it unity?

6. Has it coherence?

7. Where are transitions most clearly needed?

8. What suggestions would you make for rearranging any parts?

9. What reasons have you for these changes?

10. Is proper emphasis secured?

CHAPTER VIII

MAKING THE OUTLINE OR BRIEF

Orderly Arrangement. A speech should have an orderly arrangement. Theeffect upon an audience will be more easily made, more deeplyimpressed, more clearly retained, if the successive steps of thedevelopment are so well marked, so plainly related, that they may becarried away in a hearer's understanding. It might be said that onetest of a good speech is the vividness with which its framework isdiscernible. Hearers can repeat outlines of certain speeches. Thoseare the best. Of others they can give merely confused reports. Theseare the badly constructed ones. 

The way to secure in the delivered speech this delight of orderlyarrangement is by making an outline or brief. Most pupils hate to makeoutlines. The reason for this repugnance is easily understood. Ateacher directs a pupil to make an outline before he writes acomposition or delivers a speech. The pupil spends hours on the listof entries, then submits his finished theme or address. He feels thatthe outline is disregarded entirely. Sometimes he is not even requiredto hand it to the instructor. He considers the time he has spent uponthe outline as wasted. It is almost impossible to make him feel thathis finished product is all the better because of this effort spentupon the preliminary skeleton, so that in reality his outline is notdisregarded at all, but is judged and marked as embodied in thefinished article. Most students carry this mistaken feeling aboutoutlines to such an extent that when required to hand in both anoutline and a finished composition they will write in haphazardfashion the composition first, and then from it try to prepare theoutline, instead of doing as they are told, and making the outlinefirst. It is easier--though not as educating or productive of goodresults--to string words together than it is to do what outline-makingdemands--to think. 

Professional Writers' Use of Outlines. Professional writers realizethe helpfulness of outline-making and the time it saves. Many amagazine article has been sold before a word of the finishedmanuscript was written. The contributor submitted an outline fromwhich the editor contracted for the finished production. Many a playhas been placed in the same form. Books are built up in the samemanner. The ubiquitous moving-picture scenario is seldom produced inany other manner. 

Macaulay advised a young friend who asked how to keep his brain activeto read a couple of solid books, making careful outlines of theirmaterial at the same time. One of these should be--if possible--a workin a foreign tongue, so that the strangeness of the language wouldnecessitate slow, careful reading and close thinking. All goodstudents know that the best way to prepare for an examination is tomake outlines of all the required reading and study. 

It is just because the making of the outline demands such carefulthinking that it is one of the most important steps in the productionof a speech. 

The Outline in the Finished Speech. If the outline really shows in thefinished speech, let us see if we can pick the entries out from aportion of one. Edmund Burke in 1775 tried to prevent Great Britainfrom using coercive measures against the restive American colonies. Many Englishmen were already clamoring for war when Burke spoke inParliament upon conciliating the Colonies. 

 I am sensible, Sir, that all which I have asserted in my detail, is admitted in the gross; but that quite a different conclusion is drawn from it. America, gentlemen say, is a noble object. It is an object well worth fighting for. Certainly it is, if fighting a people be the best way of gaining them. Gentlemen in this respect will be led to their choice of means by their complexions and their habits. Those who understand the military art, will of course have some predilection for it. Those who wield the thunder of the state, may have more confidence in the efficacy of arms. But I confess, possibly for want of this knowledge, my opinion is much more in favor of prudent management, than of force; considering force not as an odious, but a feeble instrument, for preserving a people so numerous, so active, so growing, so spirited as this, in a profitable and subordinate connexion with us. 

 First, Sir, permit me to observe, that the use of force alone is but _temporary_. It may subdue for a moment; but it does not remove the necessity of subduing again; and a nation is not governed which is perpetually to be conquered. 

 My next objection is its _uncertainty_. Terror is not always the effect of force; and an armament is not a victory. If you do not succeed, you are without resource; for, conciliation failing, force remains; but, force failing, no further hope of reconciliation is left. Power and authority are sometimes bought by kindness; but they can never be begged as alms by an impoverished and defeated violence. 

 A further objection to force is, that you _impair the object_ by your very endeavors to preserve it. The thing you fought for is not the thing which you recover; but depreciated, sunk, wasted, and consumed in the contest. Nothing less will content me, than _whole America_. I do not choose to consume its strength along with our own; because in all parts it is the British strength that I consume. I do not choose to be caught by a foreign enemy at the end of this exhausting conflict, and still less in the midst of it. I may escape; but I can make no assurance against such an event. Let me add, that I do not choose wholly to break the American spirit; because it is the spirit that has made the country. 

 Lastly, we have no sort of _experience_ in favor of force as an instrument in the rule of our colonies. Their growth and their utility has been owing to methods altogether different. Our ancient indulgence has been said to be pursued to a fault. It may be so. But we know if feeling is evidence that our fault was more tolerable than our attempt to mend it; and our sin far more salutary than our penitence. 

 These, Sir, are my reasons for not entertaining that high opinion of untried force, by which many gentlemen, for whose sentiments in other particulars I have great respect, seem to be so greatly captivated. But there is still behind a third consideration concerning this object, which serves to determine my opinion on the sort of policy which ought to be pursued in the management of America, even more than its population and its commerce, I mean its _temper and character_. 

 EDMUND BURKE: _Conciliation with America_, 1775

Reconstructing the Outline. In the preliminary arrangement Burke knewthat he was going to give his reasons against the use of militaryforce. In his first plan he may not have decided just where he wasgoing to place his four arguments. So they very likely appeared asfour topic entries:

Against use of force. 1. Temporary 2. Uncertain 3. Damages America 4. No experience

Notice that these are jottings to suggest the germs of the arguments. When Burke revised this section he may have changed the expression toindicate more certainty. 

Force should not be used against the colonies, because: 1. It is only temporary 2. It is uncertain in its results 3. It would damage the wealth of the colonies 4. It is based on no experience of Great Britain with colonies

Of course, a practised statesman would not have to analyze farther, perhaps not so far, but to illustrate for a student how he might buildup his outline, let us analyze one degree farther. Just what is meantby such terms as _temporary, uncertain?_ Under each statement, then, might be added a detailed explanation. The finished part of theoutline would then appear somewhat like this. 

Force should not be used against the colonies, because: 1. It is only temporary, for _a. _ though it subdue for a time, it would have to be used again. 

 2. It is uncertain in its results, for _a. _ Great Britain might not subdue the colonies. 

 3. It would damage the wealth of the colonies, for _a. _ we would fight to retain a wealthy land, yet after the war we should have a ruined one. 

 4. It is based on no experience of Great Britain with colonies, for _a. _ Great Britain has always been indulgent rather than severely strict. 

Speaking or writing from such a detailed outline as this, consider howmuch thinking has already been done. With these entries under his eyethe speaker need think only of the phrasing of his remarks. He wouldfeel perfectly certain that he would not wander from his theme. Noticehow the ideas can be emphasized. The suggestion of damage can beexpressed in _impair the object_, and in _depreciated, sunk, wasted, consumed_. 

So far this outline--though it covers all its own material--does notindicate the place at which it shall be used in the speech. It couldbe used near the conclusion where Burke planned to answer all thesupporters of plans other than his own. That would be a good place forit. But Burke found a better one. He separated this from his otherremarks against his opponents, and brought it in much earlier, therebylinking it with what it most concerned, emphasizing it, and disposingof it entirely so far as his speech was concerned. He had justenumerated the wealth of the colonies as represented by theircommerce. He knew that the war party would argue, "If America is sowealthy, it is worth fighting for. " That was the place, then, torefute them. To introduce his material he had to make clear thetransition from the colonial wealth to his arguments. Notice howplainly the first paragraph quoted here does this. Having given hisfour reasons against the use of force, notice that he must bring hisaudience back to the theme he has been discussing. The last paragraphdoes this in a masterly manner. He has cited two facts about thecolonies. To make understanding doubly certain he repeatsthem--population and commerce--and passes to the next, plainlynumbering it as the third. 

This recital of the process is not an account of what actually tookplace in Burke's preparation, but it will give to the student themethod by which great speakers _may_ have proceeded; we do know thatmany did follow such a scheme. No amateur who wants to make hisspeeches worth listening to should omit this helpful step of outlineor brief making. Whether he first writes out his speeches in full, orcomposes them upon his feet, every speaker should prepare an outlineor brief of his material. This is a series of entries, so condensedand arranged as to show the relative significance of all the parts ofthe speech in the proper order of development. 

Outline, Brief, Legal Brief. An outline contains entries which aremerely topics, not completed statements or sentences. 

A brief contains completed statements (sentences). 

A legal brief is a formally prepared document (often printed)submitted to a certain court before a case is tried, showing thematerial the lawyer intends to produce, citing all his authorities, suggesting interpretations of laws and legal decisions to support hiscontentions, and giving all his conclusions. It is prepared for theuse of the court, to reduce the labor in examining records, etc. Practice in the drawing up of such briefs is an important phase oflegal study. 

The Outline. An outline may recall to a person's mind what he alreadyhas learned, but it is seldom definite and informative enough to be ashelpful as a brief. A good distinction of the two--besides the onerespecting the forms already given--is that the outline represents thepoint of view of the speaker while the brief represents that of thehearer. Consider again the analyses of Burke in this chapter. Noticethat the first list does not give nearly so clear an idea of whatBurke actually said as the third. A person seeing only the first might_guess_ at what the speaker intended to declare. A person who lookedat the third could not fail to _know exactly_ the opinions of thespeaker and the arguments supporting them. 

Pupils frequently make this kind of entry:

Introduction--Time Place Characters

The main objections to such an outline are that it tells nothingdefinite, and that it might fit a thousand compositions. Even anoutline should say more than such a list does. 

In one edition of Burke's speech the page from which the following isquoted is headed "Brief. " Is it a brief?

Part II. How to deal with America. 

 A. Introduction. B. First alternative and objections. C. Second alternative and objections. D. Third alternative. E. Introduction. F. Considerations. 

 1. Question one of policy, not of abstract right. 2. Trade laws. 3. Constitutional precedents. 4. Application of these. 

The Brief. One of the shortest briefs on record was prepared byAbraham Lincoln for use in a suit to recover $200 for the widow of aRevolutionary veteran from an agent who had retained it out of $400pension money belonging to her. It formed the basis of his speech incourt. 

 No contract. --Not professional services. --Unreasonable charge. --Money retained by Def't not given to Pl'ff. --Revolutionary War. --Describe Valley Forge privations. --Pl'ff's husband. --Soldier leaving for army. --_Skin Def't_. --Close. 

The following will give some idea of the form and definiteness ofbriefs for debate. 

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT

_Resolved:_ That capital punishment should be abolished. [1]

_Brief for the Affirmative_

I. Capital punishment is inexpedient. (_a_) It is contrary to the tendency of civilization. (_b_) It fails to protect society. (1) It does not prevent murder. (2) New crimes follow hard on executions. (_c_) It makes punishment uncertain. (1) Many criminals are acquitted who would be convicted if the penalty were imprisonment. (_d_) It is not reformatory. 

II. Capital punishment is immoral. (_a_) It rests on the old idea of retribution. (_b_) It tends to weaken the sacredness of human life. (_c_) It endangers the lives of innocent people. (_d_) Executions and the sensational newspaper accounts which follow have a corrupting influence. 

III. Capital punishment is unjust. (_a_) Its mistakes are irremediable. (_b_) Many men are criminals from force of circumstances. (1) From heredity. (2) From environment. (_c_) Inequalities in administration are marked. (1) In some states men are hung, in others imprisoned for the same crime. 

[Footnote 1: Taken from Brookings and Ringwalt: _Briefs for Debate_, Longmans, Green and Co. , where specific references of material formany of the topics are given, as well as general references for theentire subject. ]

 (2) Many jurors have conscientious scruples against condemning a man to death. (3) Men of wealth and influence are rarely convicted. 

IV. The abolition of capital punishment has been followed by satisfactory results, (_a_) In Europe. (1) Russia. (2) Switzerland. (3) Portugal. (4) Belgium. (5) Holland. (6) Finland. (_b_) In the United States. (1) Michigan. (2) Rhode Island. (3) Maine. (4) Wisconsin. 

_Brief for the Negative_

I. Capital punishment is permissible. (_a_) It has the sanction of the Bible. (1) Genesis ix, 2-6. (_b_) It has the sanction of history. (1) It has been in vogue since the beginning of the world. (_c_) It has the sanction of reason. (1) The most fitting punishment is one equal and similar to the injury inflicted. 

II. Capital punishment is expedient. (_a_) It is necessary to protect society from anarchy and private revenge. (1) Death is the strongest preventative of crime. (_b_) No sufficient substitute has been offered. (1) Life imprisonment is a failure. (2) Few serve the sentence. (_c_) Its abolition has not been successful. (1) In Rhode Island. (2) In Michigan. III. The objections made to capital punishment are not sound. (_a_) Prisons are not reformatory. (_b_) The fact that crimes have decreased in some places where executions have stopped is not a valid argument. (1) All causes which increase the moral well-being of the race decrease crime. (_c_) The objection that the innocent suffer is not strong. (1) The number of innocent thus suffering is inconsiderable when compared with the great number of murders prevented. (_d_) The objection that the penalty is uncertain may be overcome by making it certain. 

A few paragraphs back it was said that an outline or brief shows therelative significance of all the parts of a speech. This is done by asystematic use of margins and symbols. From the quoted forms in thischapter certain rules can easily be deduced. 

Margins. The speech will naturally divide into a few main parts. Thesecan be designated by spaces and general titles such as introduction, body, development, main argument, answer to opposing views, conclusion. Other captions will be suggested by various kinds ofmaterial. Main topics next in importance are placed the farthest tothe left, making the first margin. A reader can run his eye down thisline and pick out all the main topics of equal importance. Entriesjust subordinate to these are put each on a separate line, startingslightly to the right. This separation according to connection andvalue is continued as long as the maker has any minor parts torepresent in the brief. It should not be carried too far, however, forthe purpose of the entries is to mark clearness and accuracy. If thehelping system becomes too elaborate and complicated it destroys itsown usefulness. 

It is perfectly plain that such an outline might be made and be quiteclear, without the addition of any symbols at all, especially if itwas short. 

Discrimination in the use of words is secured by

The study of synonyms antonyms homonymsand care in employing them. 

Symbols. Some scheme of marking the entries is a great help. There isno fixed system. Every student may choose from among the many used. Ifthere are many main topics it might be a mistake to use Roman numerals(I, XVIII) as few people can read them quickly enough to follow theirsequence. Capital letters may serve better to mark the sequences, butthey do not indicate the numerical position. For instance, most of usdo not know our alphabets well enough to translate a main topic markedN into the fourteenth point. By combinations of Roman numerals, capitals, usual (Arabic) numerals, small letters, parentheses, enoughvariety to serve any student purpose can easily be arranged. 

The following are samples of systems used. 

 _Specimen_ 1

 Introduction Argument

I-------------------------------------------------- A------------------------------------------------ 1---------------------------------------------- _a_-------------------------------------------- _b_-------------------------------------------- _c_-------------------------------------------- (1)---------------------------------------- (2)---------------------------------------- (3)---------------------------------------- 2---------------------------------------------- B------------------------------------------------ 1---------------------------------------------- 2----------------------------------------------II------------------------------------------------- Conclusion

 _Specimen_ 2

A-------------------------------------------------- I------------------------------------------------ _a_---------------------------------------------- 1-------------------------------------------- 2-------------------------------------------- _b_---------------------------------------------- II----------------------------------------------- _a_---------------------------------------------- _b_---------------------------------------------- _c_---------------------------------------------- 1-------------------------------------------- 2-------------------------------------------- 3--------------------------------------------

 _Specimen_ 3

1-------------------------------------------------- 1^1---------------------------------------------- 2^1---------------------------------------------- _a_^1-------------------------------------------- _b_^1-------------------------------------------- _c_^1--------------------------------------------2-------------------------------------------------- 1^2---------------------------------------------- 2^2---------------------------------------------- _a_^2-------------------------------------------- _b_^2-------------------------------------------- _c_^2--------------------------------------------3-------------------------------------------------- 1^3---------------------------------------------- 2^3----------------------------------------------

Tabulations. With unusual kinds of material and for special purposesthere may be value in evolving other forms of outlines. A technicallytrained person accustomed to reading tabulated reports with hosts offigures to interpret might find a statistical statement at timesbetter suited to his needs. Such tabulations are not any easier toprepare than the regular brief. In fact to most people they areinfinitely more difficult to get into form and almost beyond speedycomprehension afterwards. The following is a good illustration of asimple one well adapted to the speaker's purpose--a report of theobjections to the first published covenant of the League of Nations. He knew the material of his introduction and conclusion so well thathe did not represent them in his carefully arranged sheet. The formwas submitted as regular work in a public speaking class and wasspoken from during more than forty minutes. 

CRITICISMS OF PROPOSED COVENANT OF LEAGUE OF NATIONS

1. --Draft indefinite and loosely written. Lg Lo Sp Tt Br Hu2. --Should have clause-limiting powers to those specifically granted. Lo3. --Proportion of votes required for action of Council not generally stated--should be unanimous. Lg Sp Tt Hu4. --Should have clause reserving the Monroe Doctrine. Lg Lo Sp Tt Br Hu5. --Should state that no nation can be required to become a mandatory without its consent. Lg Lo Br Hu6. --Should have provision for withdrawals. Lg Lo Sp Tt Hu7. --Jurisdiction of League over internal affairs (immigration, tariffs, coastwise trade) should be expressly excluded. Lg Br Hu8. --Terms of admission of other nations too strict. Br9. --Basis of representation not fair. Br10. --Provision should be made for expansion of nations by peaceable means. Br11. --Each nation should have right to decide whether it will follow advice of Council as to use of force. Br12. --Each nation should have right to determine whether it will boycott delinquent nations. Br Note:--items 11 and 12 are apparently directed against Art. XVI containing the Ipso Facto clause and Art. X. 13. --Should not guarantee the integrity and independence of all members of the league. Lg Hu

Above criticisms taken from published statements of

 Messrs. Lodge Lowell Spencer Taft Bryan Hughes(denoted respectively Lg, Lo, Sp, Tt, Br and Hu). 

Authorities in the Brief. Authorities for the statements made in thebrief may be put into parentheses, if they are to be included. Suchfurther devices will suggest themselves to students. In addition tosuch markings as here listed, some men who use many outlines emphasizeupon them details which they may have to find quickly by underliningthe symbol or first word with colored pencil. Such a device isespecially valuable to a technical expert whose system could beuniform through the outlines of all his reports, etc. Or a lecturerwith so much time to fill may mark upon the outline 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, toindicate to himself that his material is being covered at a properrate to correspond with the time. He might put in _15 min. _ or _30min. _ or _45 min. _ if he was to speak for an hour. The first divisionis the better, for he might be required to condense a twenty-minutespeech to ten. 

Selections for Briefing. Before the student makes many briefs of hisown he should work in the other direction by outlining materialalready in existence so that he can be assured he knows main topicsfrom minor ones, important issues from subordinate reasons, headingsfrom examples. If all the members of the class outline the samematerial the resulting discussion will provide additional exercise inspeaking in explanation or support of an interpretation. After theteacher and class together have made one, the students should workindependently. 

EXERCISES

Besides the extracts quoted here others should be supplied. Editorialsfrom a single issue of a newspaper can easily be secured by the entireclass for this work. A chapter from a book may be assigned. 

1. INCIDENTS OF GOVERNMENT TRADING

 An expert before the President's street railway commission of inquiry testified that he disapproved of public ownership and operation theoretically, but approved it practically, because it was the quickest and surest way of making people sick of it. Otherwise he thought that education of the public out of its favor for high costs and low profits by public utilities would require a generation, and the present emergency calls for prompt relief. 

 New York City has just resolved to build with its own funds a Coney Island bathhouse, and has on file an offer to build it with private money at a cost of $300, 000, with a guarantee of 15-cent baths. Accepting no responsibility for the merits of the private bidder's proposal, it does not appear likely that the city can supply cheaper baths or give more satisfaction to bathers than a management whose profits were related to its efforts to please patrons. On the other hand, it is sure that the city's financial embarrassment is due to supplying many privileges at the cost of the taxpayers, which might have been supplied both more cheaply and better by private enterprise with profit than by the city without profit, and with the use of ill-spared public funds. 

 New York does not stand alone in these misadventures, which are warnings against trading by either local or national government. Take, for example, the manner in which the army is disposing of its surplus blankets, as reported from Boston. A Chicago firm which wished to bid was permitted to inspect three samples of varying grades, but a guarantee that the goods sold would correspond to the samples was refused. The bales could neither be opened nor allowed to be opened, nor would information be given whether the blankets in the bales were cotton, wool, or mixed, whether single or double, whether bed blankets or regulation army blankets. The likelihood that the Government will get the worth of its blankets is small. There may be unknown reasons for such uncommercial procedure, but what shall be said of the fact that at the same time that these blankets are being sold the Interior Department is asking for bids to supply 10, 000 blankets for the Indians? The reason for buying more when there is an embarrassing over-supply is that the specifications call for the words "Interior Department" to be woven into the blankets. To an outsider it would seem that the words might be indelibly stamped on the old blankets of similar description, and that the departure from custom would be better than the loss on the old blankets and the increased expenditure for the new blankets. 

 The reason for mentioning such incidents is that there are so many more of which the public never hears. Their combined educative effect would be great, but it is wasted without publicity. Since the public is not unanimous against public ownership and operation, there must be a considerable number of persons who are proof against anything but a catastrophe greater than the prostration of the railway and utility industries. That is an expansive way of education, but perhaps Dr. Cooley, Dean of the University of Michigan, is right in his view that the method is necessary to prevent a greater calamity by persistence in the error. 

 _New York Times_, July 21, 1919

2. Fourscore and seven years ago our Fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. 

 Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived or so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. 

 But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate--we cannot consecrate--we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be here dedicated to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us--that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. 

 ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Gettysburg Address_, 1865

3. Every thoughtful and unprejudiced mind must see that such an evil as slavery will yield only to the most radical treatment. If you consider the work we have to do, you will not think us needlessly aggressive, or that we dig down unnecessarily deep in laying the foundations of our enterprise. A money power of two thousand millions of dollars, as the prices of slaves now range, held by a small body of able and desperate men; that body raised into a political aristocracy by special constitutional provisions; cotton, the product of slave labor, forming the basis of our whole foreign commerce, and the commercial class thus subsidized; the press bought up, the pulpit reduced to vassalage, the heart of the common people chilled by a bitter prejudice against the black race; our leading men bribed, by ambition, either to silence or open hostility;--in such a land, on what shall an Abolitionist rely? On a few cold prayers, mere lip-service, and never from the heart? On a church resolution, hidden often in its records, and meant only as a decent cover for servility in daily practice? On political parties, with their superficial influence at best, and seeking ordinarily only to use existing prejudices to the best advantage? Slavery has deeper root here than any aristocratic institution has in Europe; and politics is but the common pulse-beat, of which revolution is the fever-spasm. Yet we have seen European aristocracy survive storms which seemed to reach down to the primal strata of European life. Shall we, then, trust to mere politics, where even revolution has failed? How shall the stream rise above its fountain? Where shall our church organizations or parties get strength to attack their great parent and moulder, the slave power? Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus? The old jest of one who tried to lift himself in his own basket, is but a tame picture of the man who imagines that, by working solely through existing sects and parties, he can destroy slavery. Mechanics say nothing, but an earthquake strong enough to move all Egypt can bring down the pyramids. 

 Experience has confirmed these views. The Abolitionists who have acted on them have a "short method" with all unbelievers. They have but to point to their own success, in contrast with every other man's failure. To waken the nation to its real state, and chain it to the consideration of this one duty, is half the work. So much have we done. Slavery has been made the question of this generation. To startle the South to madness, so that every step she takes, in her blindness, is one step more toward ruin, is much. This we have done. Witness Texas and the Fugitive Slave Law. 

 WENDELL PHILLIPS: _The Abolition Movement_, 1853

4. Until just a few years ago flying was popularly regarded as a dangerous hobby and comparatively few had faith in its practical purposes. But the phenomenal evolutions of the aircraft industry during the war brought progress which would otherwise have required a span of years. With the cessation of hostilities considerable attention has been diverted to the commercial uses of aircraft, which may conveniently be classified as mail-and passenger-service. 

 Men who first ventured the prediction that postal and express matter would one day be carried through the air were branded as dreamers. Parts of that dream became a reality during 1918, and a more extensive aerial-mail program will be adopted this year. The dispatch with which important communications and parcels are delivered between large cities has firmly established its need. 

 Large passenger-carrying aircraft are now receiving pronounced attention. Lately developed by the Navy is a flying-boat having a wing area of 2, 400 square feet, equipped with three Liberty motors and weighing 22, 000 pounds with a full load. It is the largest seaplane in the world, and on a recent test-trip from Virginia to New York carried fifty-one passengers. At the present moment the public is awaiting the thrilling details of the first flight between Europe and America, which has just occurred as a result of the keen international rivalry involved between the various entrants. 

 The British are now constructing a super-triplane fitted with six 500 horse-power engines. Originally intended to carry 10, 000 pounds of bombs and a crew of eight over a distance of 1, 200 miles, the converted machine is claimed to be able to carry approximately one hundred passengers. It has a wing span of 141 feet and a fuselage length of 85 feet. 

 What about the power plants of the future aircraft? Will the internal-combustion engine continue to reign supreme, or will increasing power demands of the huge planes to come lead to the development of suitable steam-engines? Will the use of petroleum continue to be one of the triumphs of aviation, or will the time come when substitutes may be successfully utilized?

 For aerial motive-power, the principal requirements are: great power for weight with a fairly high factor of safety, compactness, reliability of operation under flying conditions, and safety from fire. Bulk and weight of steam-driven equipment apparently impose severe restrictions upon its practical development for present aircraft purposes, but who is willing to classify its future use as an absurdity?

 Steam operation in small model airplanes is no innovation. Langley, in 1891-1895, built four model airplanes, one driven by carbonic-acid gas and three by steam-engines. One of the steam-driven models weighed thirty pounds, and on one occasion flew a distance of about three thousand feet. In 1913 an Englishman constructed a power plant weighing about two pounds which consisted of a flash boiler and single-acting engine. This unit employed benzolin, impure benzine, as fuel, and propelled a model plane weighing five pounds. 

 _Power Plant Engineering_, Chicago, June 1, 1919

Making a Brief. The next step after making outlines or briefs ofmaterial already organized is to make your own from material yougather. Speeches you have already prepared or considered as fit forpresentation will supply you with ideas if you cannot work up newmaterial in a short time. At first you will be more concerned with theform than the meaning of the entries, but even from the first youshould consider the facts or opinions for which each topic orstatement stands. Weigh its importance in the general scheme ofdetails. Consider carefully its suitability for the audience who maybe supposed to hear the finished speech. Discard the inappropriate. Replace the weak. Improve the indefinite. Be sure your examples andillustrations are apt. 

Be wary about statistics. In listening to an address many people beginto distrust as soon as figures are mentioned. Statistics willillustrate and prove assertions, but they must be used judiciously. Donot use too many statistics. Never be too detailed. In a speech, $4, 000, 000 sounds more impressive than $4, 232, 196. 96. Use roundnumbers. Never let them stand alone. Show their relationship. Burkequotes exact amounts to show the growth of the commerce ofPennsylvania, but he adds that it had increased fifty fold. A hearerwill forget the numbers; he will remember the fact. 

Similar reasons will warn you concerning the use of too many dates. They can be easily avoided by showing lapses of time--by saying, "fifty years later, " or "when he was forty-six years old, " or "thiscondition was endured only a score of months. "

The chapters on introductions, conclusions, and planning material willhave suggested certain orders for your briefs. Glance back at them forhints before you attempt to make the general scheme. Let two factorsdetermine your resultant development--the nature of the materialitself and the effect you want to produce. 

In argumentative speeches a usual, as well as excellent, order isthis:

1. Origin of the question. The immediate cause for discussion. 

2. History of the question. 

3. Definition of terms. 

4. Main arguments. 

5. Conclusion. 

Why is the proposition worth discussing at this present time? Why doyou choose it? Why is it timely? What is its importance? Why is asettlement needed? Any of these would fall under the first heading. 

Has the matter engaged attention prior to the present? Has it changed?Was any settlement ever attempted? What was its result?

Are any of the words and phrases used likely to be misunderstood? Areany used in special senses? Do all people accept the same meaning?Good illustrations of this last are the ideas attached to _socialism_, _anarchist_, _soviet_, _union_. 

To illustrate: the question of woman suffrage was brought into publicinterest once more by the advance woman has made in all walks of lifeand by the needs and lessons of the great war. To make clear how itsimportance had increased a speaker might trace its history from itsfirst inception. As applied to women, what does "suffrage" meanexactly--the right to vote in all elections, or only in certain ones?Does it carry with it the right to hold office? Would the votingqualifications be the same for women as for men? Then would follow thearguments. 

How could this scheme be used for a discussion of the Monroe Doctrine?For higher education? For education for girls? For child working laws?For a league of nations? For admitting Asiatic laborers to the UnitedStates? For advocating the study of the sciences? For urging men tobecome farmers? For predicting aerial passenger service? For ascholarship qualification in athletics? For abolishing railroad gradecrossings? For equal wages for men and women?

EXERCISES

Make the completed brief for one or more of the preceding. 

Briefs should be made for propositions selected from the followinglist. 

1. The President of the United States should be elected by the directvote of the people. 

2. The States should limit the right of suffrage to persons who canread and write. 

3. The President of the United States should be elected for a term ofseven years, and be ineligible to reëlection. 

4. A great nation should be made the mandatory over an inferiorpeople. 

5. Students should be allowed school credit for outside reading inconnection with assigned work, or for editing of school papers, or forparticipation in dramatic performances. 

6. This state should adopt the "short ballot. "

7. The present rules of football are unsatisfactory. 

8. Coaching from the bench should be forbidden in baseball. 

9. Compulsory military drill should be introduced into all educationalinstitutions. 

10. Participation in athletics lowers the scholarship of students. 

11. Pupils should receive credit in school for music lessons outside. 

12. The United States should abandon the Monroe Doctrine. 

13. In jury trials, a three-fourths vote should be enough for therendering of a verdict. 

14. Strikes are unprofitable. 

15. Commercial courses should be offered in all high schools. 

16. Employers of children under sixteen should be required to provideat least eight hours of instruction a week for them. 

17. Current events should be studied in all history or civics courses. 

18. The practice of Christmas giving should be discontinued. 

19. School buildings should be used as social centers. 

20. Bring to class an editorial and an outline of it. Put the outlineupon the board, or read it to the class. Then read the editorial. 

Speaking from the Brief. Now that the brief is finished so that itrepresents exactly the material and development of the final speech, how shall it be used? To use it as the basis of a written article tobe memorized is one method. Many speakers have employed such a method, many today do. The drawbacks of such memorizing have already beenhinted at in an early chapter. If you want to grow in mental grasp, alertness, and power as a result of your speech training avoid thismethod. No matter how halting your first attempts may be, do not getinto the seemingly easy, yet retarding habit of committing to memory. Memorizing has a decided value, but for speech-making the memoryshould be trained for larger matters than verbal reproduction. Itshould be used for the retention of facts while the other brainfaculties are engaged in manipulating them for the best effect andfinding words to express them forcefully. Memory is a helpful faculty. It should be cultivated in connection with the powers of understandingand expression, but it is not economical to commit a speech verbatimfor delivery. The remarks will lack flexibility, spontaneity, andoften direct appeal. There is a detached, mechanical air about amemorized speech which helps to ruin it. 

With the outline before you, go over it carefully and slowly, mentallyputting into words and sentences the entries you have inserted. Youmay even speak it half aloud to yourself, if that fixes the treatmentmore firmly in your mind. Then place the brief where you can reach itwith your eye, and speak upon your feet. Some teachers recommend doingthis before a mirror, but this is not always any help, unless you areconscious of awkward poses or gestures or movements, or facialcontortions. Say the speech over thus, not only once but severaltimes, improving the phraseology each time, changing where convenientor necessary, the emphasis, the amount of time, for each portion. 

Self-criticism. Try to criticize yourself. This is not easy at first, but if you are consistent and persistent in your efforts you will beable to judge yourself in many respects. If you can induce some friendwhose opinion is worth receiving either to listen to your delivery orto talk the whole thing over with you, you will gain much. Inconference with the teacher before your delivery of the speech suchhelp will be given. As you work over your brief in this manner youwill be delighted to discover suddenly that you need refer to it lessand less frequently. Finally, the outline will be in your mind, andwhen you speak you can give your entire attention to the delivery andthe audience. 

Do not be discouraged if you cannot retain all the outline the firsttimes you try this method. Many a speaker has announced in hisintroduction, "I shall present four reasons, " and often has sat downafter discussing only three. Until you can dispense entirely with thebrief keep it near you. Speak from it if you need it. Portions whichyou want to quote exactly (such as quotations from authorities) may bememorized or read. In reading be sure you read remarkably well. Fewpeople can read interestingly before a large audience. Keep yourpapers where you can get at them easily. Be careful not to lose yourplace so that you will have to shuffle them to get the cue forcontinuing. Pauses are not dangerous when they are made deliberatelyfor effect, but they are ruinous when they betray to the audienceforgetfulness or embarrassment on the part of the speaker. Anticipateyour need. Get your help before you actually need it, so that you cancontinue gracefully. 

Results. This method, followed for a few months, will develop speakingability. It produces results suited to modern conditions of all kindsof life. It develops practically all the mental faculties and personalattributes. It puts the speaker directly in touch with his audience. It permits him to adapt his material to an occasion and audience. Itgives him the opportunity to sway his hearers and used legitimatelyfor worthy ends, this is the most worthy purpose of any speech. 

CHAPTER IX

EXPLAINING

The part which explanation plays in all phases of life is too apparentto need any emphasis here. It is to a great extent the basis of allour daily intercourse, from explaining to a teacher why a lesson hasnot been prepared, to painstakingly explaining to a merchant why abill has not been paid. An instructor patiently explains a problem toa class, and a merchant explains the merits of an article or theoperation of a device to his customers. The politician explains why heshould be elected. The financier explains the returns from stock andbond purchases. The President explains to the Senate the reason fortreaty clauses. The minister explains the teachings of his faith tohis congregation. You can make this list as long as the variedactivities of all life. 

Exposition. This kind of discourse, the purpose of which isexplanation, is also called exposition. Has it any relation to theunderlying idea of the term _exposition_ as applied to a greatexhibition or fair? Its purpose is plainly information, thetransmission of knowledge. While description and narration existprimarily to entertain, exposition exists to convey information. Description and narration may be classed as literature ofentertainment; exposition as literature of knowledge. It answers suchquestions as how? why? for what purpose? in what manner? by whatmethod? It can sometimes be used to convince a person with opposingviews, for frequently you hear a man to whom the explanation of abelief has been made, exclaim, "Oh, if that's what you mean, I agreewith you entirely. " All instruction, all directions of work, allscientific literature, are in foundation expository. In its simplest, most disconnected form, exposition gives its value to that mostessential volume, the dictionary. 

Make a list of other kinds of books which are mainly or entirelyexpository in character. 

Difficulties in Exposition. Such are the purpose and use ofexposition. The difficulty of producing good exposition is evidentfrom those two factors. As it, exists everywhere, as it purposes toinform, its first requisite is clearness. Without that quality it isas nothing. When you direct a stranger how to reach a certain buildingin your town, of what value are your remarks unless they are clear?When a scientist writes a treatise on the topic of the immortality ofman, of what value are his opinions unless his statements are clear?All the other qualities which prose may and should possess sink intosubordinate value in exposition when compared with clearness. Becauseof all three phases of exposition--its universal use, its informativepurpose, its essential clarity--exposition is an all-important topicfor the consideration and practice of the public speaker. In itsdemand for clearness lies also its difficulty. Is it easy to tell theexact truth, not as a moral exercise, but merely as a matter ofexactness? Why do the careless talkers speak so often of "a sort ofpink" or "a kind of revolving shaft" or tack on at the end of phrasesthe meaningless "something" or "everything" except that even in theirunthinking minds there is the hazy impression--they really never havea well-defined idea--that they have not said exactly what they want tosay?

Clear Understanding. Here then is the first requisite for the publicspeaker. He must have no hazy impressions, no unthinking mind, noill-defined ideas, no inexactness. He must have a clear understandingof all he tries to tell to others. Without this the words of a speakerare as sounding brass and tinkling cymbals. Or he may deliver a greatroar of words signifying nothing. This is the fault with mostrecitations of pupils in school--they do not get a clear understandingof the material assigned to them for mastery. As a test of the degreeof understanding, the recitation method serves admirably. The lecturemethod of instruction--clear though the presentation may be--offers nomanner of finding out, until the final examination, how much the pupilactually understands. So far, in public speaking, the only way oflearning that the student understands the principles and can applythem is to have him speak frequently to indicate his ability. Can younot name among your associates and friends those whose explanationsare lucid, concise, direct, unconfusing, and others whose attempts atexposition are jumbled, verbose, unenlightening?

Have you not criticized certain teachers by remarking "they may knowtheir own subjects all right, but they couldn't impart their knowledgeto the class"?

Command of Language. What was lacking in their case? Certainly, to becharitable, we cannot say they lacked a clear understanding of theirown topic. It must have been something else. That second element, which is at times almost entirely absent when the first is present, isthe command of language. Many a man knows a great deal but isincapable of transmitting his knowledge. He lacks the gift ofexpression. He has not cultivated it--for it can be cultivated. Theman whose desire or vocation forces him to make the effort to speakwill train himself in methods of communication, until he arrives atcomfort and fluency. 

The district manager of a large electric company related that as hewould sit at a meeting of the directors or committee of a largecorporation and realized that the moment was approaching when he wouldbe called upon to speak he would feel his senses grow confused, asinking feeling amounting almost to faintness would sweep over him. Strong in his determination to do the best he could for his company hewould steady his nerves by saying to himself, "You know more aboutthis matter than any of these men. That's why you are here. Tell themwhat you know so plainly that they will understand as well as you do. "There was, you see, the reassurance of complete understanding of thesubject coupled with the endeavor to express it clearly. These twoelements, then, are of supreme significance to the public speaker. Even to the person who desires to write well, they are all-important. To the speaker they are omnipresent. The effect of these two upon theintellectual development is marked. The desire for clearunderstanding will keep the mind stored with material to assimilateand communicate. It will induce the mind continually to manipulatethis material to secure clarity in presentation. This will result indeveloping a mental adroitness of inestimable value to the speaker, enabling him to seize the best method instantaneously and apply it tohis purposes. At the same time, keeping always in view the use of thismaterial as the basis of communicating information or convincing bymaking explanations, he will be solicitous about his language. Wordswill take on new values. He will be continually searching for new onesto express the exact differences of ideas he wants to convey. He willtry different expressions, various phrases, changed word orders, totest their efficacy and appropriateness in transferring his meaning tohis hearers. Suggestions offered in the chapter of this book on wordsand sentences will never cease to operate in his thinking andspeaking. There will be a direct result in his ability as a speakerand a reflex result upon his ability as a thinker. What is moreencouraging, he will realize and appreciate these results himself, andhis satisfaction in doing better work will be doubled by the delightin knowing exactly how he secured the ends for which he strove. 

Methods of Explaining. In order to make a matter clear, to conveyinformation, a speaker has at his disposal many helpful ways ofarranging his material. Not all topics can be treated in all or evenany certain one of the following manners, but if the student isfamiliar with certain processes he will the more easily and surelychoose just that one suited to the topic he intends to explain andthe circumstances of his exposition. 

Division. One of these methods is by division. A speaker may separatea topic or term into the parts which comprise it. For instance, ascientist may have to list all the kinds of electricity; a Red Crossinstructor may divide all bandages into their several kinds; anathletic coach may have to explain all the branches of sports in orderto induce more candidates to appear for certain events; a banker mayhave to divide financial operations to make clear an advertisingpamphlet soliciting new lines of business, such as drawing up ofwills. 

The ability to do this is a valuable mental accomplishment as well asan aid to speaking. In dividing, care must be taken to make theseparations according to one principle for any one class. It would notresult in clearness to divide all men according to height, and at thesame time according to color. This would result in confusion. Divideaccording to height first, then divide the classes so formed accordingto color if needed--as might be done in military formation. Eachgroup, then, must be distinctly marked off from all other groups. Inscientific and technical matters such division may be carried to theextreme limit of completeness. Complete division is calledclassification. 

Partition. In non-scientific compositions such completeness is seldomnecessary. It might even defeat the purpose by being too involved, byincluding too many entries, and by becoming difficult to remember. Speakers seldom have need of classification, but they often do haveto make divisions for purposes of explanation. This kind of groupingis called partition. It goes only so far as is necessary for thepurpose at the time. It may stop anywhere short of being complete andscientifically exact. All members of the large class not divided andlisted are frequently lumped together under a last heading such as_all others, miscellaneous, the rest, those not falling under ourpresent examination_. 

EXERCISES

1. Classify games. Which principle will you use for your first maindivision--indoor and outdoor games, or winter and summer games, orsome other?

2. Classify the races of men. What principle would you use?

3. How would you arrange the books in a private library?

4. Classify the forms of theatrical entertainments. Is your listcomplete?

5. Classify branches of mathematics. The entries may total over ahundred. 

6. Classify the pupils in your school. 

7. Classify the people in your school. Is there any difference?

8. Classify the following:

The political parties of the country. Methods of transportation. Religions. Magazines. The buildings in a city. Aircraft. Desserts. Canned goods. 

Skill in division is valuable not only as a method of exposition butit is linked closely with an effective method of proving to beexplained in the next chapter--the method of residues. Can you recallany extracts given in this book in which some form of division isused? Is this form of material likely to be more important inpreparation or in the finished speech? Explain your opinion--in otherwords, present a specimen of exposition. 

Definition. One of the simplest ways of explaining is to define aterm. Dictionary definitions are familiar to everyone. In a greatmany instances the dictionary definition is by means of synonyms. While this is a convenient, easy method it is seldom exact. Why?Recall what you learned concerning the meanings of synonyms. Do theyever exactly reproduce one another's meanings? There is always aslight degree of inaccuracy in definition by synonym, sometimes alarge margin of inexactness. Is the following a good definition?

 A visitor to a school began his address: "This morning, children, I propose to offer you an epitome of the life of St. Paul. It may be perhaps that there are among you some too young to grasp the meaning of the word _epitome_. _Epitome_, children, is in its signification synonymous with synopsis!"

 London Tid-Bits

Logical Definition. An exact definition is supplied by the logicaldefinition. In this there are three parts--the term to be defined, the class (or genus) to which it belongs, and the distinguishingcharacteristics (differentia) which mark it off from all the othermembers of that same class. You can represent this graphically byinclosing the word _term_ in a small circle. Around this draw a largercircle in which you write the word _class_. Now what divides the termfrom the class in which it belongs? Indicate the line around the_term_ as _distinguishing characteristics_, and you will clearly seehow accurate a logical definition is. The class should be just largerthan the term itself. The main difficulty is in finding exact andsatisfying distinguishing characteristics. There are some terms whichare so large that no classes can be found for them. Others cannot bemarked by acceptable distinguishing characteristics, so it is notpossible to make logical definitions for all terms. Consider suchwords as _infinity, electricity, gravity, man_. 

The words of the definition should be simple, more readily understoodthan the term to be defined. 

Term Class Distinguishing characteristics

A biplane is an airplane with two sets of supporting surfaces. 

A waitress is a woman who serves meals. 

Narration is that form of discourse which relates events. 

A word is a combination of suggesting an idea. LettersA dictionary is a book of definitions. 

A corporal is an army officer just higher than a private. 

EXERCISES

1. Make logical definitions for the following:

A dynamo A circle A hammerA curiosity Lightning A trip-hammerMoving picture camera Democracy A ladyCuriosity An anarchist A LadyA door A sky-scraper Man

2. Analyze and comment on the following definitions:

Man is a two-legged animal without feathers. Life is an epileptic fit between two nothings. Genius is an infinite capacity for taking pains. The picture writings of the ancient Egyptians are called hieroglyphics. A fly is an obnoxious insect that disturbs you in the morning when you want to sleep. Real bravery is defeated cowardice. A brigantine is a small, two-masted vessel, square rigged on both masts, but with a fore-and-aft mainsail and the mainmast considerably longer than the foremast. A mushroom is a cryptogamic plant of the class _Fungi_; particularly the agaricoid fungi and especially the edible forms. Language is the means of concealing thought. A rectangle of equal sides is a square. Hyperbole is a natural exaggeration for the purpose of emphasis. 

Amplified Definition. While such definitions are the first positionsfrom which all interpretations must proceed, in actual speech-makingexplanations of terms are considerably longer. Yet the form of thetrue logical definition is always imbedded--in germ at least--in theamplified statement. 

 Again, democracy will be, in a large sense, individualistic. That ideal of society which seeks a disciplined, obedient people, submissive to government and unquestioning in its acceptance of orders, is not a democratic ideal. You cannot have an atmosphere of "implicit obedience to authority" and at the same time and in the same place an atmosphere of democratic freedom. There is only one kind of discipline that is adequate to democracy and that is self-discipline. An observant foreigner has lately remarked, somewhat paradoxically, that the Americans seemed to him the best disciplined people in the world. In no other country does a line form itself at a ticket office or at the entrance to a place of amusement with so little disorder, so little delay, and so little help from a policeman. In no other country would an appeal of the government for self-control in the use of food or fuel, for a restriction of hours of business, for "gas-less Sundays, " have met with so ready, so generous and so sufficient a response. Our American lads, alert, adaptable, swiftly-trained, self-directed, have been quite the equal of the continental soldiers, with their longer technical training and more rigorous military discipline. In these respects the English, and especially the British colonial soldiers have been much like our own. Democracy, whether for peace or for war, in America or in England, favors individuality. Independence of thought and action on the part of the mass of the people are alike the result of democracy and the condition of its continuance and more complete development, and it is visibly growing in England as the trammels of old political and social class control are being thrown off. 

 EDWARD P. CHEYNEY: _Historical Tests of Democracy_

 What is a constitution? Certainly not a league, compact, or confederacy, but a fundamental law. That fundamental regulation which determines the manner in which the public authority is to be executed, is what forms the constitution of a state. Those primary rules which concern the body itself, and the very being of the political society, the form of government, and the manner in which power is to be exercised--all, in a word, which form together the constitution of a state--these are the fundamental laws. This, Sir, is the language of the public writers. But do we need to be informed, in this country, what a constitution is? Is it not an idea perfectly familiar, definite, and well settled? We are at no loss to understand what is meant by the constitution of one of the States; and the Constitution of the United States speaks of itself as being an instrument of the same nature. 

 DANIEL WEBSTER: _The Constitution Not a Compact between Sovereign States_, 1833

Particulars of a General Statement. A general statement made at thebeginning of a paragraph or section, serving as the topic sentence, may then be explained by breaking the general idea up into details andparticulars. This may partake of the nature of both definition andpartition, as the terms may be explained and their component partslisted. Note that in the following selection the first sentences statethe topic of the passage which the succeeding sentences explain bydiscussing the phrase _variety of evils_. 

 So likewise a passionate attachment of one nation for another produces a variety of evils. Sympathy for the favorite nation, facilitating the illusion of an imaginary common interest, in cases where no real common interest exists, and infusing into one the enmities of the other, betrays the former into a participation in the quarrels and wars of the latter, without adequate inducement or justification. It leads also to concessions to the favorite nation of privileges denied to others, which is apt doubly to injure the nation making the concessions; by unnecessarily parting with what ought to have been retained, and by exciting jealousy, ill-will, and a disposition to retaliate, in the parties from whom equal privileges are withheld, and it gives to ambitious, corrupted, or deluded citizens (who devote themselves to the favorite nation), facility to betray, or sacrifice the interests of their own country, without odium, sometimes even with popularity; gilding with the appearances of a virtuous sense of obligation, a commendable deference for public opinion, or a laudable zeal for public good, the base or foolish compliances of ambition, corruption or infatuation. 

 GEORGE WASHINGTON: _Farewell Address_, 1796

Examples. A statement may be explained by giving examples. The speakermust be sure that his example fits the case exactly; that it istypical--that is, it must serve as a true instance of all cases underthe statement, not be merely an exception; that it is perfectly clear;that it impresses the audience as unanswerable. The example may beeither actual or suppositious, but it must illustrate clearly andaccurately. The use of examples is a great aid in explanation. John C. Calhoun expressed the value very distinctly in one of his speeches. 

 I know how difficult it is to communicate distinct ideas on such a subject, through the medium of general propositions, without particular illustration; and in order that I may be distinctly understood, though at the hazard of being tedious, I will illustrate the important principle which I have ventured to advance, by examples. 

By the use of an example he does make himself distinctly understood. 

 Let us, then, suppose a small community of five persons, separated from the rest of the world; and, to make the example strong, let us suppose them all to be engaged in the same pursuit, and to be of equal wealth. Let us further suppose that they determine to govern the community by the will of a majority; and, to make the case as strong as possible, let us suppose that the majority, in order to meet the expenses of the government, lay an equal tax, say of one hundred dollars on each individual of this little community. Their treasury would contain five hundred dollars. Three are a majority; and they, by supposition, have contributed three hundred as their portion, and the other two (the minority), two hundred. The three have the right to make the appropriations as they may think proper. The question is, How would the principle of the absolute and unchecked majority operate, under these circumstances, in this little community?

 JOHN C. CALHOUN: _Speech on The Force Bill_, 1833

The example should be taken from the same phase of life as theproposition it explains. As Calhoun was discussing governmentalregulation he supposed an example from majority rule. In the next thetopic is copyright, so the illustration is not taken from patents. Inintroducing your own examples avoid the trite, amateurish expression"take, for instance. "

 Now, this is the sort of boon which my honorable and learned friend holds out to authors. Considered as a boon to them, it is a mere nullity; but, considered as an impost on the public, it is no nullity, but a very serious and pernicious reality. I will take an example. Dr. Johnson died fifty-six years ago. If the law were what my honorable and learned friend wishes to make it, somebody would now have the monopoly of Dr. Johnson's works. Who that somebody would be it is impossible to say; but we may venture to guess. I guess, then, that it would have been some bookseller, who was the assign of another bookseller, who was the grandson of a third bookseller, who had bought the copyright from Black Frank, the doctor's servant and residuary legatee, in 1785 or 1786. Now, would the knowledge that this copyright would exist in 1841 have been a source of gratification to Johnson? Would it have stimulated his exertions? Would it have once drawn him out of his bed before noon? Would it have once cheered him under a fit of the spleen? Would it have induced him to give us one more allegory, one more life of a poet, one more imitation of Juvenal? I firmly believe not. I firmly believe that a hundred years ago, when he was writing our debates for the _Gentleman's Magazine_, he would very much rather have had twopence to buy a plate of shin of beef at a cook's shop underground. 

 THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY: _Copyright_, 1841

Comparison. Unfamiliar matter may be made plain by showing how itresembles something already clearly understood by the audience. Thisis comparison. It shows how two things are alike. The old geographiesused to state that the earth is an oblate spheroid, then explain thatterm by comparison with an orange, pointing out the essentialflattening at the poles. In any use of comparison the resemblance mustbe real, not assumed. Many a speaker has been severely criticized forhis facts because he asserted in comparison similarities that did notexist. 

Contrast. When the _differences_ between two things are carefullyenumerated the process is termed contrast. This is often used incombination with comparison, for no two things are exactly alike. Theymay resemble each other in nearly all respects, so comparison ispossible and helpful up to a certain limit. To give an exact idea ofthe remainder the differences must be pointed out; that requirescontrast. 

In contrast the opposing balance of details does not have to dependnecessarily on a standard familiar to the audience. It may be anarrangement of opposite aspects of the same thing to bring out morevividly the understanding. In his _History of the English People_, Green explains the character of Queen Elizabeth by showing thecontrasted elements she inherited from her mother, Anne Boleyn, andher father, Henry VIII. Such a method results not only in addedclearness, but also in emphasis. The plan may call for half aparagraph on one side, the second half on the other; or it may covertwo paragraphs or sections; or it may alternate with every detail--anaffirmative balanced by a negative, followed at once by another pairof affirmative and negative, or statement and contrast, and so onuntil the end. The speaker must consider such possibilities ofcontrast, plan for his own, and indicate it in his brief. 

Nearly any speech will provide illustrations of the methods ofcomparison and contrast. Burke's _Conciliation with America_ hasseveral passages of each. 

Cause to Effect. Explanations based on progressions from cause toeffect and the reverse are admirably suited to operations, movements, changes, conditions, elections. An exposition of a manufacturingprocess might move from cause to effect. A legislator trying to securethe passage of a measure might explain its operation by beginning withthe law (the cause) and tracing its results (the effect). So, too, areformer might plead for a changed condition by following the samemethod. A speaker dealing with history or biography might use thissame plan. 

Effect to Cause. In actual events, the cause always precedes theeffect, but in discussion it is sometimes better not to follow naturalor usual orders. Many explanations gain in clearness and effect byworking backwards. A voter might begin by showing the condition of aset of workmen (an effect), then trace conditions backward until hewould end with a plea for the repeal of a law (the cause). A studentmight explain a low mark on his report by starting with the grading(the effect) and tracing backwards all his struggles to an earlyabsence by which he missed a necessary explanation by the teacher. Adoctor might begin a report by stating the illness of several personswith typhus; then trace preceding conditions step by step until hereached the cause--oysters eaten by them in a hotel were kept cool bya dealer's letting water run over them. This water in its course hadpicked up the disease germs--the cause. Many crimes are solved bymoving from effect to cause. A lawyer in his speeches, therefore, frequently follows this method. 

Both these methods are so commonly employed that the student can citeinstances from many speeches he has heard or books he has read. 

Time Order. Somewhat similar to the two preceding arrangements ofexposition are the next two based on time. The first of these is thenatural time order, or chronological order. In this the details followone another as events happened. It is to be noted, however, that notany group of succeeding details will make a good exposition of thissort. The parts must be closely related. They must be not merely_sequential_ but _consequential_. Dictionary definitions will explainthe difference in meaning of those two words. This method is somewhatlike the order from cause to effect, but it is adapted to other kindsof topics and other purposes of explanation. It is excellently suitedto historical material, or any related kind. It is the device usuallyemployed in explaining mechanical or manufacturing processes. In merefrequency of occurrence it is doubtlessly the most common. 

Time Order Reversed. The student who starts to cast his expositionsinto this scheme should judge its fitness for his particular purposeat the time. It will often become apparent upon thought that insteadof the natural chronological order the exact opposite will suitbetter. This--time order reversed--explains itself as the arrangementfrom the latest occurrence back through preceding events and detailsuntil the earliest time is reached. It is quite like the arrangementfrom effect back to cause. It might be used to explain the legalprocedure of a state or nation, to explain treaty relations, toexplain the giving up of old laws. The movements of a man accused ofcrime might be explained in this way. An alibi for a person might bebuilt up thus. The various versions of some popular story told overand over again through a long period of years might be explained aftersuch a manner. 

Although the time order reversed is not so common as the chronologicalorder it does occur many times. 

Place. Certain material of exposition demands the order of place. Thismeans that the details of the explanation are arranged according tothe position of objects. If you have written many descriptions youare familiar with the problems brought up by such an order. A fewillustrations will make it clear. A man on the street asks you how toreach a certain point in the city. On what plan do you arrange yourdirections? According to their place? You start to explain to a friendthe general lay-out of New York, or Chicago, or San Francisco. How doyou arrange the details of your exposition? You attempt to convey toanother person the plan of some large building. What arrangement isinevitable? How do books on sports explain the baseball field, thefootball gridiron, the tennis court, the golf links? Whenspecifications for a building are furnished to the contractor, whatprinciple of arrangement is followed? If an inventor givesinstructions to a pattern-maker for the construction of a model, whatplan does he follow? Would a man discussing drawings for a new housebe likely to formulate his explanations on this scheme?

You see, then, how well suited such an arrangement is to a variety ofuses. In such expository passages the transition and connecting wordsare mainly expressions of place and relative position such as _to theright, above, below, to the rear, extending upwards at an angle ofsixty degrees, dividing equally into three sections. _ Such indicationsmust never be slighted in spoken explanations. They keep the materialclear and exact in the hearer's comprehension. The speaker, remember, can never assume that his audience is bound to understand him. Histask is to be so clear that no single individual can fail tounderstand him. 

Importance. It has already been stated--in the chapter onplanning--that topics may be arranged in the order of theirimportance. This same scheme may be used in delivery of expositorymatter. A hearer will follow the explanation if he be led gradually upthe ascent; he will remember most clearly the latter part of thepassage. If this include the prime factor of the information he willretain it longest and most clearly. You should listen to speeches ofexplanations critically to judge whether the plans are good. Shouldyou make a list of the number of times any of the plans here set downappears you will be struck by the fact that while other orders arequite frequent, this last principle of leading up to the mostimportant outranks all the others. It may be simply a form of one ofthe others previously enumerated in which time order, or contrast, orcause to effect is followed simply because that does bring the mostimportant last in the discussion. Such an arrangement answers best tothe response made to ideas by people in audiences. It is a principleof all attempts to instruct them, to appeal to them, to stimulatethem, to move them, that the successive steps must increase insignificance and impressiveness until the most moving details be laidbefore them. Analyze for yourself or for the class a few longexplanations you have listened to, and report whether this principlewas followed. Does it bear any relation to concluding a speech with aperoration?

Combinations of Methods. While any one of the foregoing methods may beused for a single passage it is not usual in actual practice to findone scheme used throughout all the explanatory matter of the speech. In the first place, the attention of the audience would very likelybecome wearied by the monotony of such a device. Certain parts of thematerial under explanation seem to require one treatment, otherportions require different handling. Therefore good speakers usuallycombine two or more of these plans. 

Partition could hardly be used throughout an entire speech withoutruining its interest. It occurs usually early to map out the generalfield or scope. Definition also is likely to be necessary at thebeginning of an explanation to start the audience with clear ideas. Itmay be resorted to at various times later whenever a new term isintroduced with a meaning the audience may not entirely understand. Both partition and definition are short, so they are combined withother forms. Examples, likewise, may be introduced anywhere. 

The two most frequently closely combined are comparison and contrast. Each seems to require the other. Having shown how two things or ideasare alike, the speaker naturally passes on to secure more definitenessby showing that with all their likenesses they are not exactly thesame, and that the differences are as essential to a clearcomprehension of them as the similarities. So usual are they that manypeople accept the two words as meaning almost the same thing, thoughin essence they are opposites. 

The other orders cannot be used in such close combinations but theymay be found in varying degrees in many extended speeches ofexplanation as the nature of the material lends itself to onetreatment or another. A twelve-hundred word discussion of _The Futureof Food_ uses examples, contrasted examples, effect to cause, cause toeffect (the phrase beginning a paragraph is "there is already evidencethat this has resulted in a general lowering "), while the succeedingparts grow in significance until the last is the most important. Agreat English statesman in a speech lasting some three hours on apolicy of government employed the following different methods atvarious places where he introduced expository material--partition (heclaimed it was classification, but he listed for consideration onlythree of the essential five choices), contrast, comparison, time, example, place, cause to effect. Some of these methods of arrangingexplanatory matter were used several times. 

EXERCISES

1. Explain a topic by giving three examples. The class should commentupon their value. 

2. Explain to the class some mechanical operation or device. The classafter listening should decide which method the speaker used. 

3. Explain some principle of government or society following the timeorder. 

4. With a similar topic follow time reversed. 

5. With a similar topic use comparison only. 

6. Follow an arrangement based on contrast only. 

7. In explaining a topic combine comparison and contrast. 

8. Explain some proverb, text, or quotation. The class should discussthe arrangement. 

9. Choose some law or government regulation. Condemn or approve it inan explanation based on cause to effect. 

10. With the same or a similar topic use effect to cause. 

11. Explain to the class the plan of some large building or group ofbuildings. Is your explanation easily understood?

12. Explain why a certain study fits one for a particular vocation. Use the order of importance. 

13. Give an idea of two different magazines, using comparison andcontrast. 

14. Explain some game. Time order?

15. How is a jury trial conducted?

16. Explain the principles of some political party. 

17. Speak for four minutes upon exercise in a gymnasium. 

18. Tell how a school paper, or daily newspaper, or magazine isconducted. 

19. What is slang?

20. Explain one of your hobbies. 

21. Classify and explain the qualities of a good speaker. Order ofimportance?

22. Explain some natural phenomenon. 

23. Explain the best method for studying. 

24. Contrast business methods. 

25. From some business (as stock selling) or industry (as automobilemanufacturing) or new vocation (as airplaning) or art (as acting) oraccomplishment (as cooking) choose a group of special terms andexplain them in a connected series of remarks. 

26. Why is superstition so prevalent? The class should discuss theexplanations presented. 

27. "The point that always perplexes me is this: I always feel that ifall the wealth was shared out, it would be all the same again in a fewyears' time. No one has ever explained to me how you can get overthat. " Explain clearly one of the two views suggested here. 

28. Explain the failure of some political movement, or the defeat ofsome nation. 

29. Select a passage from some book, report, or article, couched inintricate technical or specialized phraseology. Explain it clearly tothe class. 

30. Ben Jonson, a friend of Shakespeare's, wrote of him, "He was notof an age, but for all time. " What did he mean?

CHAPTER X

PROVING AND PERSUADING

What Argumentation Is. It is an old saying that there are two sides toevery question. Any speaker who supports some opinion before anaudience, who advances some theory, who urges people to do a certainthing, to vote a certain way, to give money for charitable purposes, recognizes the opposite side. In trying to make people believe as hebelieves, to induce them to act as he advises, he must argue withthem. Argumentation, as used in this book, differs widely from theinformal exchange of opinions and views indulged in across the dinnertable or on the trolley car. It does not correspond with the usualmeaning of argue and argument which both so frequently suggestwrangling and bickering ending in ill-tempered personal attacks. Argumentation is the well-considered, deliberate means employed toconvince others of the truth or expediency of the views advocated bythe speaker. Its purpose is to carry conviction to the consciousnessof others. This is its purpose. Its method is proof. Proof is the bodyof facts, opinions, reasons, illustrations, conclusions, etc. , properly arranged and effectively presented which makes others acceptas true or right the proposition advanced by the speaker. Of course, argumentation may exist in writing but as this volume is concernedwith oral delivery, the word speaker is used in the definition. Somuch for the purpose and nature of argumentation. 

Use of Argumentation. Where is it used? Everywhere, in every form ofhuman activity. Argumentation is used by a youngster trying to inducea companion to go swimming and by a committee of world statesmendiscussing the allotment of territory. In business a man uses it fromthe time he successfully convinces a firm it should employ him as anoffice boy until he secures the acceptance of his plans for acombination of interests which will control the world market. Lawyers, politicians, statesmen, clergymen, live by argumentation. In the lifeof today, which emphasizes so markedly the two ideas of individualityand efficiency, argumentation is of paramount importance. 

Any person can argue, in the ordinary sense of stating opinions andviews, in so far as any one can converse. But to produce good, convincing argumentation is not so easy as that. The expression ofpersonal preferences, opinions, ideas, is not argumentation, althoughsome people who advance so far as to become speakers before audiencesseem never to realize that truth, and display themselves as pretendingto offer argumentation when they are in reality doing no more thanreciting personal beliefs and suggestions. 

Cite instances of speakers who have indulged in such personal opinionswhen they might or should have offered arguments. 

While argumentation is not so easily assembled as running conversationis, it may be made quite as fascinating as the latter, and just assurely as a person can have his conversational ability developed socan a person have his argumentative power strengthened. 

Conviction. What should be the first requisite of a speaker ofargumentation? Should it be conviction in the truth or right of theposition he takes and the proposition he supports? At first thoughtone would answer emphatically "yes. " A great deal of discredit hasbeen brought upon the study of argumentation by the practice ofspeakers to pretend to have opinions which in reality they do notsincerely believe. The practical instance is the willingness of paidlawyers to defend men of whose guilt they must be sure. Such criticismdoes not apply to cases in which there are reasonable chances foropposing interpretations, nor to those cases in which our law decreesthat every person accused of crime shall be provided with counsel, butto those practices to which Lincoln referred when he recommended thelawyer not to court litigation. Nor should this criticism deter astudent of public speaking from trying his skill in defense of theother side, when he feels that such practice will help him in weighinghis own arguments. In every instance of this highly commendable doublemethod of preparation which the author has seen in classrooms, thespeaker, after his speech has been commented upon, has always declaredhis real position and explained why he advocated the opposite. Evenschool and college debating has been criticized in the same way forbecoming not an attempt to discover or establish the truth or right ofa proposition, but a mere game with formal rules, a set of scoringregulations, and a victory or defeat with consequent good or badeffects upon the whole practice of undergraduate debating. If suchcontests are understood in their true significance, as practice intraining, and the assumption of conviction by a student is notcontinued after graduation so that he will in real life defend andsupport opinions he really does not believe, the danger is not sogreat. The man who has no fixed principles, who can argue equallyglibly on any side of a matter, whose talents are at any man's commandof service, is untrustworthy. Convictions are worthy elements in life. A man must change his stand when his convictions are argued away, butthe man whose opinions shift with every new scrap of information orinfluence is neither a safe leader nor a dependable subordinate. 

For the sake of the training, then, a student _may_ present argumentsfrom attitudes other than his own sincere conviction, but the practiceshould be nothing more than a recognized exercise. 

Because of its telling influence upon the opinion of others let us, without further reservation, set down that the first essential of agood argument is the ability to convince others. Aside from thelanguage and the manner of delivery--two elements which must never bedisregarded in any speech--this ability to convince others dependsupon the proof presented to them in support of a proposition. Thevarious kinds and methods of proof, with matters closely related tothem, make up the material of this chapter. 

The Proposition. In order to induce argument, there must be aproposition. A proposition in argument is a statement--a declarativesentence--concerning the truth or expediency of which there may betwo opinions. Notice that not every declarative statement is aproposition for argument. "The sun rises" is not a statement aboutwhich there can be any varying opinions. It is not a proposition forargument. But "Missionaries should not be sent to China, " and "JohnDoe killed Simon Lee, " are statements admitting of different opinionsand beliefs. They are propositions for argument. No sane person wouldargue about such a statement as "Missionaries are sent to China, " norwould any one waste time on such a statement as "Some day a man namedJohn Doe will kill a man named Simon Lee. "

Although in common language we speak of arguing a question the studentmust remember that such a thing is impossible. You cannot argue abouta question. Nor can you argue about a subject or a topic. The onlyexpression about which there can be any argument is a proposition. Thequestion must be answered. The resulting statement is then proved ordisproved. The topic must be given some definite expression in adeclarative sentence before any real argument is possible. Even whenthe matter of argument is incorrectly phrased as a topic or questionyou will find almost immediately in the remarks the proposition as asentence. "Should women vote?" may be on the posters announcing anaddress, but the speaker will soon declare, "Women should vote in allelections in the United States upon the same conditions that men do. "That is the proposition being argued; the question has been answered. 

Kinds of Propositions. Certain kinds of propositions should never bechosen for argumentation. Many are incapable of proof, so any speechupon them would result in the mere repetition of personal opinions. Such are: The pen is mightier than the sword; Business men should notread poetry; Every person should play golf; Ancient authors weregreater than modern authors. Others are of no interest to contemporaryaudiences and for that reason should not be presented. In the MiddleAges scholars discussed such matters as how many angels could stand onthe point of a needle, but today no one cares about such things. 

Propositions of Fact. Propositions fall into the two classes alreadyillustrated by the statements about missionaries in China and thekilling of Simon Lee. The second--John Doe killed Simon Lee--is aproposition of fact. All argument about it would tend to prove eitherthe affirmative or the negative. One argument would strive to provethe statement a fact. The other argument would try to prove itsopposite the actual fact. Facts are accomplished results or finishedevents. Therefore propositions of fact refer to the past. They are thematerial of argument in all cases at law, before investigationcommittees, and in similar proceedings. Lincoln argued a propositionof fact when he took Douglas's statement, "Our fathers, when theyframed the government under which we live, understood this questionjust as well, and even better, than we do now, " and then proved bytelling exactly how they voted upon every measure dealing with slaveryexactly what the thirty-nine signers of the Constitution did believeabout national control of the practice. Courts of law demand thatpleadings "shall set forth with certainty and with truth the mattersof fact or of law, the truth or falsity of which must be decided todecide the case. "

Propositions of Policy. Notice that the other proposition--Missionariesshould not be sent to China--is not concerned with a fact at all. Itdeals with something which should or should not be done. It deals withfuture conduct. It depends upon the value of the results to be secured. It looks to the future. It deals with some principle of action. It is aquestion of expediency or policy. It induces argument to show that onemethod is the best or not the best. Propositions of expediency or policyare those which confront all of us at every step in life. Which collegeshall a boy attend? What kind of work shall a woman enter? How largeshall taxes be next year? Which candidate shall we elect? How shall webetter the city government? How shall I invest my money? What kind ofautomobile shall I buy? What kind of will shall I make?

The answers to all such questions make propositions of expediency orpolicy upon which arguments are being composed and delivered everyday. 

In choosing propositions for argument avoid, 1, those which areobviously truth; 2, those in which some ambiguous word or term coversthe truth; 3, those in which the truth or error is practicallyimpossible of proof; 4, those involving more than one main issue; 5, those which do not interest the audience. 

Wording the Proposition. The proposition should be accurately worded. In law if the word _burglary_ is used in the indictment, the defense, in order to quash the charge, need show merely that a door wasunlocked. The phrasing should be as simple and concise as possible. The proposition should not cover too wide a field. Although thesedirections seem self-evident they should be kept in mind continually. 

When the proposition is satisfactory to the maker of the argument heis ready to begin to build his proof. In actual speech-making fewarguments can be made as convincing as a geometrical demonstration buta speaker can try to make his reasoning so sound, his development socogent, his delivery so convincing, that at the end of his speech, hecan exclaim triumphantly, "Quod erat demonstrandum. "

Burden of Proof. Every argument presupposes the opposite side. Evenwhen only one speaker appears his remarks always indicate thepossibility of opposite views in the minds of some of the hearers. Theaffirmative and negative are always present. It is frequently assertedthat the burden of proof is on the negative. This is no more correctthan the opposite statement would be. The place of the burden of proofdepends entirely upon the wording of the proposition and the statementit makes. In general the burden of proof is upon the side whichproposes any change of existing conditions, the side which supportsinnovations, which would introduce new methods. With the passage oftime the burden of proof may shift from one side to the other. Therewas a time when the burden of proof was upon the advocates of womansuffrage; today it is undoubtedly upon the opponents. At one periodthe opponents of the study of Latin and Greek had the burden of proof, now the supporters of such study have it. Other topics upon which theburden of proof has shifted are popular election of Senators, prohibition, League of Nations, self-determination of small nations, the study of vocations, civics, and current topics in schools, anall-year school term, higher salaries for teachers, the benefits oflabor unions, Americanization of the foreign born. 

Evidence. One of the best ways of proving a statement is by givingevidence of its truth. Evidence is made up of facts which support anyproposition. In court a witness when giving testimony (evidence) isnot allowed to give opinions or beliefs--he is continually warned tooffer only what he knows of the fact. It is upon the facts marshaledbefore it that the jury is charged to render its verdict. 

Direct Evidence. Evidence may be of two kinds--direct and indirect. This second, especially in legal matters, is termed circumstantialevidence. Direct evidence consists of facts that apply directly to theproposition under consideration. If a man sees a street car passengertake a wallet from another man's pocket and has him arrested at onceand the wallet is found in his pocket, that constitutes directevidence. Outside criminal cases the same kind of assured testimonycan be cited as direct evidence. 

Circumstantial Evidence. In most cases in court such direct evidenceis the exception rather than the rule, for a man attempting crimewould shun circumstances in which his crime would be witnessed. Indirect evidence--circumstantial evidence--is much more usual. Itlacks the certainty of direct evidence, yet from the known factspresented it is often possible to secure almost the same certainty asfrom direct evidence. In serious crimes, such as murder, juries areextremely cautious about convicting upon circumstantial evidence. There are many chances of error in making chains of evidence. Inindirect evidence a group of facts is presented from which aconclusion is attempted. Suppose a boy had trouble with a farmer andhad been heard to threaten to get even. One day the man struck himwith a whip as he passed on the road. That night the farmer's barn wasset on fire. Neighbors declared they saw some one running from thescene. Next day the boy told his companions he was glad of the loss. Circumstantial evidence points to the boy as the culprit. Yet whatmight the facts be?

In presenting arguments get as much direct evidence as possible toprove your statements. When direct evidence cannot be secured, linkyour indirect evidence so closely that it presents not a single weaklink. Let the conclusion you draw from it be the only possible one. Make certain no one else can interpret it in any other way. 

When you present evidence be sure it completely covers yourcontention. Be sure it is clear. Be sure it fits in with all the otherfacts and details presented. Do not let it conflict with usual humanexperience. Consider the sources of your evidence. If you do not, youcan be certain your audience will. Are your sources reliable? Is theinformation authoritative? Is it first-hand material, or merelyhearsay? Is it unprejudiced? Many of the other facts for evidence havealready been suggested in the chapter on getting material. 

Two General Methods of Reasoning. Frequently the evidence to be usedin argumentation must be interpreted before it can be of any value, especially when dealing with propositions of expediency or policy. There are two general methods of reasoning. One is the inductivemethod, the other the deductive. 

Inductive Reasoning. When we discover that a certain operationrepeated many times always produces the same result we feel justifiedin concluding that we can announce it as a universal law. Afterthousands of falling bodies have been measured and always give thesame figures, scientists feel that they may state the law that allfalling bodies acquire an acceleration of 32. 2 feet per second. Thisillustrates the inductive method of reasoning. In this system wereason from the specific instance to the general law, from theparticular experiment to the universal theory, from the concreteinstance to the wide principle. 

All modern science is based upon this method--the experimental one. All general theories of any kind today must--to be accepted--besupported by long and careful consideration of all possible andprobable circumstances. The theory of evolution as applied to theliving things upon the earth is the result of countless observationsand experiments. 

Hasty Generalization. The speaker cannot himself examine all thespecific instances, he cannot consider all the illustrations whichmight support his position, but he must be careful of a too hastygeneralization. Having talked with a dozen returned soldiers he maynot declare that all American army men are glad to be out of France, for had he investigated a little further he might have found an equalnumber who regret the return to this land. He must base his generalstatement on so many instances that his conclusion will convince notonly him, but people disposed to oppose his view. He must be betterprepared to show the truth of his declaration than merely to dismissan example which does not fit into his scheme by glibly asserting that"exceptions prove the rule. " He must show that what seems tocontradict him is in nature an exception and therefore has nothing atall to do with his rule. Beginning speakers are quite prone to thisfault of too hasty generalization. 

EXERCISES

1. Write down five general theories or statements which have beenestablished by inductive reasoning. 

2. Is there any certainty that they will stand unchanged forever?

3. Under what circumstances are such changes made?

4. Can you cite any accepted laws or theories of past periods whichhave been overturned?

Deductive Reasoning. After general laws have been established, eitherby human experience or accepted inductive reasoning, they may be citedas applying to any particular case under consideration. This passingfrom the general law to the particular instance is deductivereasoning. Deductive reasoning has a regular form called thesyllogism. 

Major premise. All men are mortal. Minor premise. Socrates is a man. Conclusion. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. 

If the three parts of a syllogism are correct it has absoluteconvincing power. Most attempts to disprove its statement attack thefirst two statements. Although it carries such an air of certainty itis likely to many errors in use. An error like this is common:

All horses are animals. All cows are animals. Therefore, all cows are horses. 

Explain the fallacy in this syllogism. 

Quite as frequently the incorrect syllogism is of this kind. 

The edge of a stream is a bank. A bank is a financial institution. Therefore, the edge of a stream is a financial institution. 

You will comment upon this that its evident silliness would preventany speaker from using such a form in serious argument. But recallthat in the discussion of any idea a term may get its meaning slightlychanged. In that slight change of meaning lurks the error illustratedhere, ready to lead to false reasoning and weakening of the argument. Certain words of common use are likely to such shiftingmeanings--_republic, equality, representative, monarchy, socialistic_. Any doubtful passage in which such an error is suspected should bereduced to its syllogistic form to be tested for accuracy. 

A representative of the people must vote always as they would vote. A Congressman is a representative of the people. Therefore, Congressmen must vote always as the people who elect them would vote. 

Is not the expression, _representative of the people_, here used intwo different senses?

When an argument is delivered, one of the premises--being a statementwhich the speaker assumes everyone will admit as true--is sometimesomitted. This shortened form is called an enthymeme. 

 Smith will be a successful civil engineer for he is a superior mathematician. 

Supply the missing premise. Which is it?

In the bald, simple forms here set down, the syllogism and enthymemeare hardly suited to delivery in speeches. They must be amplified, explained, emphasized, in order to serve a real purpose. The followingrepresent better the way a speaker uses deductive reasoning. 

 The appointing power is vested in the President and Senate; this is the general rule of the Constitution. The removing power is part of the appointing power; it cannot be separated from the rest. 

 DANIEL WEBSTER: _The Appointing and Removing Power_, 1835

Then Daniel Webster stated in rather extended form the conclusion thatthe Senate should share in the removing proceedings. 

 Sir, those who espouse the doctrines of nullification reject, as it seems to me, the first great principle of all republican liberty; that is, that the majority _must_ govern. In matters of common concern, the judgment of a majority _must_ stand as the judgment of the whole. 

 DANIEL WEBSTER: _Reply to Calhoun_, 1853

Then, he argues, as these revenue laws were passed by a majority, theymust be obeyed in South Carolina. 

Methods of Proof. In extended arguments, just as in detailedexposition, many different methods of proof may be employed. 

Explanation. Often a mere clear explanation will induce a listener toaccept your view of the truth of a proposition. You have heard mensay, "Oh, if that is what you mean, I agree with you entirely. Isimply didn't understand you. " When you are about to engage inargument consider this method of exposition to see if it will suffice. In all argument there is a great deal of formal or incidentalexplanation. 

Authority. When authority is cited to prove a statement it must besubjected to the same tests in argument as in explanation. Is theauthority reliable? Is he unprejudiced? Does his testimony fit in withthe circumstances under consideration? Will his statements convince aperson likely to be on the opposing side? Why has so much so-calledauthoritative information concerning conditions in Europe been sodiscounted? Is it not because the reporters are likely to beprejudiced and because while what they say may be true of certainplaces and conditions it does not apply to all the points underdiscussion? The speaker who wants the support of authority will testit as carefully as though its influence is to be used against him--asindeed, it frequently is. 

Examples. Where examples are used in argumentation they must serve asmore than mere illustrations. In exposition an illustration frequentlyexplains, but that same example would have no value in argumentbecause while it illustrates it does not prove. A suppositious examplemay serve in explanation; only a fact will serve as proof. The moreinevitable its application, the more clinching its effect, the betterits argumentative value. Notice how the two examples given below provethat the heirs of a literary man might be the very worst persons toown the copyrights of his writings since as owners they might suppressbooks which the world of readers should be able to secure easily. While these examples illustrate, do they not also prove?

 I remember Richardson's grandson well; he was a clergyman in the city of London; he was a most upright and excellent man; but he had conceived a strong prejudice against works of fiction. He thought all novel-reading not only frivolous but sinful. He said--this I state on the authority of one of his clerical brethren who is now a bishop--he said that he had never thought it right to read one of his grandfather's books. 

 I will give another instance. One of the most instructive, interesting, and delightful books in our language is Boswell's _Life of Johnson_. Now it is well known that Boswell's eldest son considered this book, considered the whole relation of Boswell to Johnson, as a blot in the escutcheon of the family. 

 THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY: _Copyright_, 1841

Analogy. In argument by analogy the speaker attempts to prove thatbecause certain things are known to be true in something that can beobserved they are likely to be true in something else which in so faras it can be observed is quite like the first. We continually argue byanalogy in daily life. Lincoln was really using analogy when hereplied to the urging to change his army leaders during the Civil War, that he didn't think it wise to "swap horses while crossing astream. " Scientists use this method to draw conclusions when it isimpossible to secure from actual observation or experiment a certainlast step in the reasoning. The planet Mars and the earth are similarin practically all observable matters; they are about the samedistance from the sun, they have the same surface conditions. Theearth has living creatures upon it. Hence--so goes the reasoning ofanalogy--Mars is probably inhabited. Reasoning by analogy is used toprove that universal suffrage is good for the United States because ithas been good for one particular state. A student may argue by analogythat the elective system should be introduced into all high schools, because it has been followed in colleges. It may be asserted that aleading bank president will make a good university president, becausehe has managed one complex institution. The essence of all goodreasoning by analogy is that the two things considered must be sonearly alike in all that is known that the presumption of belief isthat they must also be alike in the one point the arguer is trying toestablish. This is the test he must apply to his own analogyarguments. 

 Our community frowns with indignation upon the profaneness of the duel, having its rise in this irrational point of honor. Are you aware that you indulge the same sentiment on a gigantic scale, when you recognize this very point of honor as a proper apology for war? We have already seen that justice is in no respect promoted by war. Is true honor promoted where justice is not?

 CHARLES SUMNER: _The True Grandeur of Nations_, 1845

Residues. The method of residues is frequently employed when thespeaker is supporting a policy to be carried out, a measure to beadopted, a change to be instituted, or a law to be passed. Grantingthe assumption that something must be done he considers all thevarious methods which may be employed, disposes of them one by one asillegal, or unsuited, or clumsy, or inexpedient, leaving only one, theone he wants adopted, as the one which must be followed. 

This is a good practical method of proof, provided the speaker reallyconsiders _all_ the possible ways of proceeding and does show theundesirability of all except the one remaining. 

A speaker pleading for the installation of a commission form of citycontrol might list all the possible ways of city government, abusiness manager, a mayor, a commission. By disposing completely ofthe first two, he would have proven the need for the last. A goodspeaker will aways go farther than merely to reach this kind ofconclusion. He will, in addition to disproving the unworthy choices, strongly support his residue, the measure he wants adopted. Insupporting amounts of taxes, assessments, etc. , this method may beused. One amount can be proven so large as to cause unrest, another sosmall as to be insufficient, a third to produce a total just largeenough to meet all anticipated expenses with no surplus foremergencies; therefore the correct amount must be just larger thanthis but not reaching an amount likely to produce the result caused bythe first considered. Used in trials of criminal cases it eliminatesmotives until a single inevitable remainder cannot be argued away. This may be the clue to follow, or it may be the last one of allsuspected persons. Burke considered several possible ways of dealingwith the American colonies; one he dismissed as no more than a "sallyof anger, " a second could not be operated because of the distance, ascheme of Lord North's he proved would complicate rather than settlematters, to change the spirit of America was impossible, to prosecuteit as criminal was inexpedient, therefore but one way remained, toconciliate the spirit of discontent by letting the colonies vote theirown taxes. It is interesting that what Burke described as the sally ofanger was the way the matter was actually settled--Great Britain hadto give up the American colonies. 

This method is also called elimination. 

Cause to Effect. Just as the explainer may pass from cause to effectso may the arguer. Other names for this method are antecedentprobability and _a priori_ argument. In argument from a known cause aneffect is proven as having occurred or as likely to occur. In solvingcrime this is the method which uses the value of the motives for crimeas known to exist in the feelings or sentiments of a certain accusedperson. A person trying to secure the passage of a certain law willprove that it as the cause will produce certain effects which make itdesirable. Changed conditions in the United States will be broughtforward as the cause to prove that the Federal government must dothings never contemplated by the framers of the Constitution. Greatmilitary organization as the cause of the recent war is used now inargument to carry on the plea for the securing of peace bydisarmament. 

The main difficulty in reasoning from cause to effect is to make therelationship so clear and so close that one thing will be accepted byeverybody as the undisputed cause of the alleged effect. 

Effect to Cause. In reasoning from effect to cause the reverse methodis employed. This is also termed argument from sign or the _aposteriori_ method. In it, from some known effect the reasoning provesthat it is the result of a certain specified cause. Statisticsindicating business prosperity might be used as the effect from whichthe arguer proves that they are caused by a high protective tariff. Aspeaker shows the good effects upon people to prove that certainlaws--claimed as the causes--should be extended in application. Arguments from effect to cause may be extremely far reaching; as everyeffect leads to some cause, which is itself the effect of some othercause, and so on almost to infinity. The good speaker will use justthose basic causes which prove his proposition--no more. 

In actual practice the two forms of reasoning from cause to effect andfrom effect to cause are frequently combined to make the arguments allthe more convincing. Grouped together they are termed causalrelations. 

Persuasion. When a speaker has conclusively proven what he has statedin his proposition, is his speech ended? In some cases, yes; in manycases, no. Mere proof appeals to the intellect only; it settlesmatters perhaps, but leaves the hearer cold and humanly inactive. Hemay feel like saying, "Well, even if what you say is true, what areyou going to do about it?" Mathematical and scientific proofs existfor mere information, but most arguments delivered before audienceshave a purpose. They try to make people do something. A group ofpeople should be aroused to some determination of purposeful thoughtif not to a registered act at the time. In days of great stress theappeal to action brought the immediate response in militaryenlistments; in enrollment for war work; in pledges of service; insigning membership blanks and subscription blanks; in spontaneousgiving. 

Persuasion Produces a Response. The end of most argumentative speakingis to produce a response. It may be the casting of a vote, the joiningof a society, the repudiation of an unworthy candidate, thedemonstrating of the solidarity of labor, the affiliating with areligious sect, the changing of a mode of procedure, the purchasing ofa new church organ, the wearing of simpler fashions, or any of thethousand and one things a patient listener is urged to do in thecourse of his usual life. 

When the speaker passes on from mere convincing to appealing for someresponse he has passed from argumentation to persuasion. Nearly everyargumentative speech dealing with a proposition of policy shows firstwhat ought to be done, then tries to induce people to do it, byappealing as strongly as possible to their practical, esthetic, or moralinterests. All such interests depend upon what we call sentiments orfeelings to which worthy--note the word _worthy_--appeals maylegitimately be addressed. Attempts to arouse unworthy motives bystirring up ignorance and prejudice are always to be most harshlycondemned. Such practices have brought certain kinds of so-calledpersuasion into well-deserved contempt. The high sounding spell-binderwith his disgusting spread-eagleism cannot be muzzled by law, but he maybe rendered harmless by vacant chairs and empty halls. Real eloquence isnot a thing of noise and exaggeration. Beginning speakers should avoidthe tawdry imitation as they would a plague. 

Elements of Persuasion. What elements may aid the persuasive power ofa speech? First of all, the occasion may be just the right one. Thesurroundings may have prepared the audience for the effect the speakershould make if he knows how to seize upon the opportunity for his ownpurpose. The speaker must know how to adapt himself to thecircumstances present. In other cases, he must be able to do the muchmore difficult thing--adapt the circumstances to his purpose. 

Secondly, the subject matter itself may prepare for the persuasivetreatment in parts. Everyone realizes this. When emotional impulsesare present in the material the introduction of persuasion isinevitable and fitting, if not overdone. 

Thirdly, the essence of persuasion depends upon the speaker. All thegood characteristics of good speaking will contribute to the effect ofhis attempts at persuasion. A good speaker is sincere to the point ofwinning respect even when he does not carry conviction. He is inearnest. He is simple and unaffected. He has tact. He is fair to everyantagonistic attitude. He has perfect self-control. He does not losehis temper. He can show a proper sense of humor. He has genuinesympathy. And finally--perhaps it includes all the preceding--he haspersonal magnetism. 

With such qualities a speaker can make an effective appeal by means ofpersuasion. If upon self-criticism and self-examination, or fromoutside kindly comment, he concludes he is lacking in any one of thesequalities he should try to develop it. 

EXERCISES

Prepare and deliver speeches upon some of the following or uponpropositions suggested by them. If the speech is short, try to employonly one method of proof, but make it convincing. Where suitable, addpersuasive elements. 

1. Make a proposition from one of the following topics. Deliver anargumentative speech upon it. The next election. Entrance to college. Child labor. The study of the classics. The study of science. 

2. Recommend changes which will benefit your school, your club orsociety, your church, your town, your state. 

3. The Japanese should be admitted to the United States upon the sameconditions as other foreigners. 

4. Men and women should receive the same pay for the same work done. 

5. All church property should be taxed. 

6. All laws prohibiting secular employment on Sunday should berepealed. 

7. The purely protective tariff should be withdrawn from goods themanufacture of which has been firmly established in this country. 

8. Large incomes should be subject to a graduated income tax. 

9. Employers should not be forced to recognize labor unions. 

10. Immigration into the United States of persons who cannot read orwrite some language should be prohibited, except dependents upon suchqualified entrants. 

11. An amendment should be added to the Constitution providing foruniform marriage and divorce laws throughout the entire country. 

12. A city is the best place for a college. 

13. Military training should be obligatory in all public schools. 

14. Colleges and universities should reduce the attention paid toathletics. 

15. The negro in the South should be disfranchised. 

16. The number of Representatives in Congress should be reduced. 

17. Moving pictures should be used in schools. 

18. Street car systems should be owned and operated by municipalities. 

19. Education should be compulsory until the completion of highschool. 

20. Athletes whose grade is below 75% should be debarred from allparticipation until the marks are raised. 

21. The Federal government should own and operate the telegraph andtelephone systems. 

22. The state should provide pensions for indigent mothers of childrenbelow the working age. 

23. The study of algebra (or some other subject) in the high schoolshould be elective. 

24 The initiative should be adopted in all states. 

25. The referendum should be adopted in all states. 

26. All governmental officials should be subject to recall. 

27. The public should support in all ways the movement of labor tosecure the closed shop system. 

28. Railroad crossings should be abolished. 

29. The Federal government should pass laws controlling all prices offoodstuffs. 

30. A trial before a group of competent judges should be substitutedfor trial by jury. 

CHAPTER XI

REFUTING

Answering the Other Side. It has been said already that even in asingle argumentative speech some account must be taken of thepossibility among the audience of the belief in other views. A speakermust always assume that people will believe otherwise than he does. In such cases as debate or questioning after a speech is made, thisopposing side will very clearly be brought out, so that any persontraining for any kind of public speaking will give much attention tothe contentions of others in order to strengthen his own convictionsas displayed in his speeches. 

A sincere thinker may believe that trial before a group of competentjudges is a better procedure than trial by jury. Were he to speak uponsuch a proposition he would realize that he would meet at once thesolid opposition of the general opinion that jury trials, sanctionedby long practice, are in some mysterious way symbolic of the libertyand equality of mankind. Before he could expect to arouse sympatheticunderstanding he would have to answer all the possible objections andreasons against his new scheme. This he would do by refutation, bydisproving the soundness of the arguments against his scheme. He couldcite the evident and recorded injustices committed by juries. He couldbring before them the impossibility of securing an intelligentverdict from a group of farmers, anxious to get to their farms forharvest, sitting in a case through July, while the days passed inlengthy examinations of witnesses--one man was on the stand eightdays--and the lawyers bandied words and names like socialist, pagan, bolsheviki, anarchy, ideal republic, Aristotle, Plato, HerbertSpencer, Karl Marx, Tolstoi, Jane Addams, Lenin. Then when he feltassured he had removed all the reasons for supporting the present jurysystem he could proceed to advance his own substitute. 

Need and Value of Refutation. In all argumentation, therefore, refutation is valuable and necessary. By it opposing arguments arereasoned away, their real value is determined, or they are answeredand demolished if they are false or faulty. To acquire any readinessas a speaker or debater a person must pay a great deal of attention torefutation. It has also an additional value. It has been stated thatevery argumentative speaker must study the other side of everyquestion upon which he is to speak. One great debater declared that ifhe had time to study only one side of a proposition or law case hewould devote that time to the other side. Study your own position fromthe point of view of the other side. Consider carefully what argumentsthat side will naturally advance. In fact, try to refute your ownarguments exactly as some opponent would, or get some friend to try torefute your statements. Many a speaker has gained power in reasoningby having his views attacked by members of his family who wouldindividually and collectively try to drive him into a corner. Inactual amount, perhaps you will never deliver as much refutation ofan opponent as you will conjure up in your mind against your ownspeeches. Perhaps, also, this great amount advanced by you in testingyour own position will prevent your opponents from ever finding inyour delivered arguments much against which they can pit their ownpowers of refutation. 

In judging your own production you will have to imagine yourself onthe other side, so the methods will be the same for all purposes ofself-help or weakening of an opponent's views. 

Contradiction Is Not Refutation. In the first place contradiction isnot refutation. No unsupported fact or statement has any value inargumentation. Such expressions as "I don't believe, I don't think so, I don't agree" introduce not arguments, but personal opinions. Youmust, to make your refutation valuable, _prove_ your position. Neverallow your attempts at refutation to descend to mere denial orquibbling. Be prepared to support, to prove everything you say. 

Three Phases of Refutation. In general, refutation consists of threephases:

1. The analysis of the opposite side. 2. The classification of the arguments according to importance. 3. The answering of only the strongest points. 

Analysis of Opposing Side for Accuracy. In the first analysis, youwill probably examine the opposing statements to test their accuracy. Mere slips, so evident that they deceive no one, you may disregardentirely, but gross error of fact or conclusion you should note andcorrect in unmistakably plain terms. The kind of statement whichgives insufficient data should be classed in analysis with this samekind of erroneous statement. A shoe dealer in arguing for increasedprices might quote correctly the rising cost of materials, but if hestopped there, you in refutation should be able to show that profitshad already risen to 57%, and so turn his own figures against him. Another class of refutation similar to this is the questioning ofauthorities. Something concerning this has already been said. In arecent trial a lawyer cast doubt upon the value of a passage read froma book by declaring its author could never have written such a thing. In refutation the opposing lawyer said, "You will find that passage onpage 253 of his _Essays and Letters. "_ Public speakers, realizing thaterrors of statement are likely to be the first to be picked out forcorrection, and recognizing the damaging effect of such conviction inerror of fact and testimony, are extremely careful not to renderthemselves liable to attack upon such points. Yet they may. We aretold by Webster's biographers that in later periods of his life he wasdetected in errors of law in cases being argued before the court, andrefuted in statement. To catch such slips requires two things of thesuccessful speaker. He must be in possession of the facts himself. Hemust be mentally alert to see the falsity and know how to answer it. 

Begging the Question. The expression "begging the question" is oftenheard as a fallacy in argument. In its simplest form it is similar toinaccurate statement, for it includes assertions introduced withoutproof, and the statement of things as taken for granted withoutattempting to prove them, yet using them to prove other statements. Sometimes, also, a careless thinker, through an extended group ofparagraphs will end by taking as proven exactly the proposition hestarted out to prove, when close analysis will show that nowhereduring the discussion does he actually prove it. As this is frequentin amateur debates, students should be on their guard against it. 

Ignoring the Question. The same kind of flimsy mental process resultsin ignoring the question. Instead of sticking closely to theproposition to be proved the speaker argues beside the point, provingnot the entire proposition but merely a portion of it. Or in somemanner he may shift his ground and emerge, having proven the wrongpoint or something he did not start out to consider. An amateurtheatrical producer whose playhouse had been closed by the police forviolating the terms of his license started out to defend his action, but ended by proving that all men are equal. In fact he wound up byquoting the poem by Burns, "A Man's a Man for A' That. " Such ashifting of propositions is a frequent error of speakers. It occurs sooften that one might be disposed to term it a mere trick to deceive, or a clever though unscrupulous device to secure support for a weakclaim. One of the first ways for the speaker to avoid it is to be ableto recognize it when it occurs. One of the most quoted instances ofits effective unmasking is the following by Macaulay. 

 The advocates of Charles, like the advocates of other malefactors against whom overwhelming evidence is produced, generally decline all controversy about the facts, and content themselves with calling testimony to character. He had so many private virtues! And had James the Second no private virtues! Was Oliver Cromwell, his bitterest enemies themselves being judges, destitute of private virtues? And what, after all, are the virtues ascribed to Charles? A religious zeal, not more sincere than that of his son, and fully as weak and narrow-minded, and a few of the ordinary household decencies which half the tombstones in England claim for those who lie beneath them. A good father! A good husband! Ample apologies indeed for fifteen years of persecution, tyranny, and falsehood!

 We charge him with having broken his coronation oath; and we are told that he kept his marriage vow! We accuse him of having given up his people to merciless inflictions of the most hot-headed and hard-hearted of prelates; and the defence is, that he took his little son on his knee and kissed him! We censure him for having violated the articles of the Petition of Right, after having, for good and valuable consideration, promised to observe them; and we are informed that he was accustomed to hear prayers at six o'clock in the morning! It is to such considerations as these, together with his Vandyke dress, his handsome face, and his peaked beard, that he owes, we verily believe, most of his popularity with the present generation. 

Appealing to Prejudice or Passions. The question is also ignored whenthe speaker appeals to the prejudices or passions of his audience(_argumentum ad populum_). Persons of some intellect resent this asalmost an insult if they are in the audience, yet it is often resortedto by speakers who would rather produce the effect they desire by theuse of any methods, right or wrong. Its use in court by unscrupulouslawyers to win decisions is checked by attempts on the part of judgesto counteract it in their charges to the jury, but its influence maystill persist. Mark Antony in Shakespere's play, _Julius Caesar_, usedit in his oration over the dead body of Caesar to further his ownends. 

Taking Advantage of Ignorance. Just as a speaker may take advantage ofthe prejudices and passions of an audience, so he may take advantageof their ignorance. Against the blankness of their brains he may hurlunfamiliar names to dazzle them, cite facts of all kinds to impressthem, show a wide knowledge of all sorts of things, "play up to them"in every way, until they become so impressed that they are ready toaccept as truth anything he chooses to tell them. Any daily paper willprovide examples of the sad results of the power of this kind offallacious reasoning. The get-rich-quick schemes, the worthless stockdeals, the patent medicine quacks, the extravagantly worded claims ofnew religions and faddist movements, all testify to the power thisform of seemingly convincing argument has over the great mass of theignorant. 

The Fallacy of Tradition. In discussing the burden of proof it wassaid that such burden rests upon the advocate of change, or novelintroductions, etc. This tendency of the people at large to be ratherconservative in practice links with the fallacy of tradition, thebelief that whatever is, is right. In many cases such a faith is worsethan wrong, it is pernicious. Many of the questions concerningrelations of modern society--as capital and labor--are based upon thisfallacy. Henry Clay was guilty of it when he announced, "Two hundredyears of legislation have sanctioned and sanctified negro slaves asproperty. " The successful way to dispose of such a fallacy isillustrated by William Ellery Channing's treatment of this statement. 

 But this property, we are told, is not to be questioned on account of its long duration. "Two hundred years of legislation have sanctioned and sanctified negro slaves as property. " Nothing but respect for the speaker could repress criticism on this unhappy phraseology. We will trust it escaped him without thought. But to confine ourselves to the argument from duration; how obvious the reply! Is injustice changed into justice by the practice of the ages? Is my victim made a righteous prey because I have bowed him to the earth till he cannot rise? For more than two hundred years heretics were burned, and not by mobs, not by lynch law, but by the decrees of the councils, at the instigation of theologians, and with the sanction of the laws and religions of nations; and was this a reason for keeping up the fires, that they had burned two hundred years? In the Eastern world successive despots, not for two hundred years, but for twice two thousand have claimed the right of life and death over millions, and, with no law but their own will, have beheaded, bowstrung, starved, tortured unhappy men without number who have incurred their wrath; and does the lapse of so many centuries sanctify murder and ferocious power?

Attacking a Speaker's Character or Principles. Sometimes a speaker whofinds himself unable to attack the truth of a proposition, or thearguments cited to support it, changes his tactics from thesubject-matter to the opponent himself and delivers an attack upon hischaracter, principles, or former beliefs and statements. This iscalled the _argumentum ad hominem_. In no sense is it really argument;it is irrelevant attack, and should be answered in a clear accuratedemonstration of its unsuitability to the topic under consideration. It is unworthy, of course, but it is a tempting device for the speakerwho can combine with it an appeal to the prejudices or passions of hisaudience. 

The author has seen the entire population of Rome agitated because ina Senatorial debate one speaker attacked the family reputation of oneof his opponents--a matter which, even if true, certainly had nothingto do with the bill under discussion. Political campaigns used to bedisgraced by a prevalence of such appeals for votes. We may prideourselves upon an advance in such matters, but there is still too muchof it to let us congratulate ourselves upon our political goodmanners. You cannot ascribe bad faith to a man who argues now from adifferent attitude from the one he formerly supported. Changes ofconviction are frequent in all matters. A man must be judged by thereasons he gives for his position at any one time. Many a person, whoten years ago would have argued against it, now believes a League ofNations possible and necessary. Many a person who a few years backcould see no advantage in labor organizations is anxious now to joinan affiliated union. 

If you find the suggestion of such an attack in any of your ownspeeches, cast it out. If it is ever used against you, refute it bythe strength of arguments you deliver in support of your position. Remove all assertions which do not relate to the debated topic. Makeyour audience sympathize with your repudiation of the remarks of youropponent, even though he has succeeded in delivering them. 

Fallacies of Causal Relationship. The various fallacies that may becommitted under the relation of cause and effect are many. Justbecause something happened prior to something else (the effect), thefirst may be mistakenly quoted as the cause. Or the reverse may be theerror--the second may be assumed to be the effect of the first. Theway to avoid this fallacy was suggested in the discussion ofexplanation by means of cause and effect where the statement was madethat two events must not be merely _sequential_, they must be_consequential_. In argument the slightest gap in the apparentrelationship is likely to result in poor reasoning, and the consequentfallacy may be embodied in the speech. When people argue to prove thatsuperstitions have come true, do they present clear reasoning to showconclusively that the alleged cause--such as sitting thirteen attable--actually produced the effect of a death? Do they _establish_ aclose causal relationship, or do they merely _assert_ that after agroup of thirteen had sat at table some one did die? Mathematically, would the law of chance or probability not indicate that such a thingwould happen a little less surely if the number had been twelve, alittle more surely if fourteen?

Common sense, clear headedness, logical reasoning, and a wideknowledge of all kinds of things will enable a speaker to recognizethese fallacies, anticipate them, and successfully refute them. 

Methods of Refuting. Having found the fallacies in an argument youshould proceed to refute them. Just how you can best accomplish yourpurpose of weakening your opponent's position, of disposing of hisarguments, of answering his contentions, must depend always upon theparticular circumstances of the occasion, of the material presented, of the attitude of the judges or audience, of your opponent himself, and of the purpose you are striving to accomplish. Practice, knowledge, skill, will in such cases all serve your end. You should beable to choose, and effectively use the best. It is impossible toanticipate and provide for all the possibilities, but a few of themost common probabilities and the methods of dealing with them can behere set down. 

Courteous Correction. In case of apparent error or over-sight you willdo well to be courteous rather than over-bearing and dictatorial inyour correction. Never risk losing an advantage by driving youraudience into sympathy for your opponent by any manner of your own. Anewspaper discussing the objections made to the covenant of the Leagueof Nations points out an over-sight in this way: "How did Senator Knoxhappen to overlook the fact that his plan for compulsory arbitrationis embodied in Article XII of the proposed covenant?"

Refuting Incorrect Analogy. The caution was given that reasoning fromanalogy must show the complete correspondence in all points possibleof the known from which the reasoning proceeds to the conclusion aboutthe unknown, which then is to be accepted as true. Unless thatcomplete correspondence is established firmly the speaker is likely tohave his carefully worked out analogy demolished before his eyes. Notice how such refutation is clearly demonstrated in the following. 

 So it does; but the sophistry here is plain enough, although it is not always detected. Great genius and force of character undoubtedly make their own career. But because Walter Scott was dull at school, is a parent to see with joy that his son is a dunce? Because Lord Chatham was of a towering conceit, must we infer that pompous vanity portends a comprehensive statesmanship that will fill the world with the splendor of its triumphs? Because Sir Robert Walpole gambled and swore and boozed at Houghton, are we to suppose that gross sensuality and coarse contempt of human nature are the essential secrets of a power that defended liberty against tory intrigue and priestly politics? Was it because Benjamin Franklin was not college-bred that he drew the lightning from heaven and tore the scepter from the tyrant? Was it because Abraham Lincoln had little schooling that his great heart beat true to God and man, lifting him to free a race and die for his country? Because men naturally great have done great service in the world without advantages, does it follow that lack of advantage is the secret of success?

 GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS: _The Public Duty of Educated Men_, 1877

Reducing Proof to Absurdity. A very good way of showing theunreliability of an opposing argument is to pretend to accept it asvalid, then carrying it on to a logical conclusion, to show that itsend proves entirely too much, or that it reduces the entire chain ofreasoning to absurdity. This is, in fact, called _reductio adabsurdum_. At times the conclusion is so plainly going to be absurdthat the refuter need not carry its successive steps into actualdelivery. In speaking to large groups of people nothing is better thanthis for use as an effective weapon. It gives the hearers the feelingthat they have assisted in the damaging demonstration. It almostseems as though the speaker who uses it were merely using--as hereally is--material kindly presented to him by his opponent. So thetwo actually contribute in refuting the first speaker's position. 

 Congress only can declare war; therefore, when one State is at war with a foreign nation, all must be at war. The President and the Senate only can make peace; when peace is made for one State, therefore, it must be made for all. 

 Can anything be conceived more preposterous, than that any State should have power to nullify the proceedings of the general government respecting peace and war? When war is declared by a law of Congress, can a single State nullify that law, and remain at peace? And yet she may nullify that law as well as any other. If the President and Senate make peace, may one State, nevertheless, continue the war? And yet, if she can nullify a law, she may quite as well nullify a treaty. 

 DANIEL WEBSTER: _The Constitution Not a Compact between Sovereign States_, 1833

Lincoln could always use this method of _reductio ad absurdum_ mosteffectively because he seldom failed to accentuate the absurdity bysome instance which made clear to the least learned the force of hisargument. Many of his best remembered quaint and picturesque phraseswere embodied in his serious demolition of some high-handedpresumption of a political leader. 

 Under all these circumstances, do you really feel yourselves justified to break up this government unless such a court decision as yours is shall be at once submitted to as a conclusive and final rule of political action? But you will not abide the election of a Republican President! In that supposed event, you say, you will destroy the Union; and then, you say, the great crime of having destroyed it will be upon us! That is cool. A highwayman holds a pistol to my ear, and mutters through his teeth, "Stand and deliver, or I shall kill you, and then you will be a murderer!"

 ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Cooper Union Speech_, 1860

Amplifying and Diminishing. Finally a good method of refuting theclaim of importance made for an opposing proposition is by amplifyingand diminishing. In plain terms this depends upon contrast in whichyou reduce the value of the opposing idea and emphasize the value ofyour own. An excellent use for this is as a rapid summary at the endof your speech, where it will leave in the hearer's mind an impressionof the comparative value of the two views he has heard discussed, withan inevitable sense of the unquestioned worth of one above the other. Burke sums up his extended refutations of Lord North's plan fordealing with America in these telling contrasts. 

 Compare the two. This I offer to give you is plain and simple; the other full of perplexed and intricate mazes. This is mild; that harsh. This found by experience effectual for its purposes; the other is a new project. This is universal; the other calculated for certain colonies only. This is immediate in its conciliatory operation; the other remote, contingent, full of hazard. Mine is what becomes the dignity of a ruling people--gratuitous, unconditional--and not held out as a matter of bargain and sale. 

 EDMUND BURKE: _Conciliation with America_, 1775

Position of Refutation in the Speech. The position of refutation inthe finished speech will depend always upon the nature of theproposition, the exact method of the refutation, and the audience. Ifyou are making the only speech upon the proposition and you feel thatthe audience may have a slight prejudice against what you are about tourge, you may gain adherents at once by refuting at the beginning thepossible arguments in their minds. By this procedure you will clearthe field for your own operations. To change the figure of speech, youerase from the slate what is already written there, so that you mayplace upon it your own speech and its convictions. 

If you are debating and the speaker just before you has evidently madethe judges accept his arguments, again you might remove thatconviction by refutation before you proceed to build up your own side. If your regular arguments meet his squarely, proceed as you hadplanned, but be sure when any reasoning you offer nullifies any he hasdelivered, that you call the attention of the audience to the factthat you have wiped out his score. In this way your constructiveargument and refutation will proceed together. You will save valuabletime. 

Constructive Argument Is More Valuable than Refutation. Often therebuttal speeches of debate, coming at the close of the regular debatespeeches, seem reserved for all the refutation. This is certainly theplace for much refutation, certainly not all. The last speakers of therebuttal speeches should never rest content with leaving onlyrefutation in the hearers' minds. If they do, the debate may leave thecondition entirely where it was at the beginning, for theoreticallyevery argument advanced by either side has been demolished by theother. After the rebuttal the last points left with the judges shouldbe constructive arguments. 

In a single speech the refutation may be delivered in sections as thedemands of coherence and the opportunities for emphasis may suggest. Here again, always make the last section a constructive one witharguments in support of your proposition. 

CHAPTER XII

DEBATING

The Ideal of Debating. A long time ago so admirable a man as WilliamPenn stated the high ideal of all real debating whether practised inthe limited range of school interests or in the extended field oflife's activities. 

 In all debates let truth be thy aim, not victory, or an unjust interest; and endeavor to gain, rather than to expose thy antagonist. 

The quotation states exactly the true aim of all debating--theconclusion of the right, the truth rather than the securing of adecision over an opponent. The same rules which animate the true loverof sports, the clear distinction which is instilled into allparticipants of amateur athletics of the meanings and significance ofthe two terms _sportsman_ and _sport_, can be carried over to apply toschool activities in debating. Honest differences of opinion amongpeople upon countless questions will always furnish enough materialfor regular debating so that no one need ever do violence to hisconvictions. 

Value of Debate. One of the greatest educational values of practice indebate is that the ability it develops can be applied instantly in thelife beyond the schoolroom, that it operates in every person's dailylife. There are differences in the manner in which debating iscarried on in the two places, but practice in the earlier will resultin skill and self-confidence in the second. 

Debate in Actual Life. The most marked difference between debates inthe two phases of life is the difference of form. In academic circlesdebate is a well-regulated game between matched sides. In actual lifeonly in certain professions are the rules well defined. In most casesthe debating is disguised under different forms, though the essentialpurposes and methods are the same. 

Debate between lawyers in courts--technically termed pleading--is themost formal of all professional debating. Its regulations are found inthe stabilized court procedure which every lawyer must master andobey. 

Much looser than the formal debate of the court room is thespeech-making of the legislative organization from the lowest townshipboard meeting up to the Senate of the United States. Of course themembers of such bodies are regulated by certain restrictions, but thespeeches are not likely to be curbed in time as are academicperformances, nor are the speakers likely to follow a prearrangedorder, nor are they always equally balanced in number, nor do theyagree so carefully upon "team work. " Sometimes in a legislative bodythe first speaker may be on the negative side, which is quite contraryto all the rules of regularly conducted debates. All the speakers mayalso be on one side of a measure, the opposing side not deigning toreply, resting secure in the knowledge of how many votes they cancontrol when the real test of power comes. 

Most informal of all are the general discussions in which businessmatters are decided. In these the speeches are never so set as in thetwo preceding kinds. The men are less formal in their relations andaddresses to one another. The steps are less marked in their changes. Yet underneath the seeming lack of regulation there is the frameworkof debate, for there is always present the sense of two sides uponevery proposition, whether it be the purchase of new office equipmentfor a distant agent, an increase of salary for employees, or theincrease of capitalization. Certain speakers support some proposition. Others oppose it until they are convinced and won over to theaffirmative side, or until they are out-voted. 

Two men seated in an office may themselves be debaters, audience, andjudges of their own argumentative opinions. They may in themselvesfill all the requirements of a real debate. They deliver the speecheson the affirmative and negative sides. Each listens to the argumentsof his opponent. And finally, the pair together give a decision uponthe merits of the arguments presented. 

On all such occasions the speakers need and use just those qualitieswhich classroom training has developed in them--knowledge of material, plan of presentation, skill in expression, conviction and persuasionof manner, graceful acceptance of defeat. 

Debating Demands a Decision. Debating goes one step farther thanmerely argumentative speaking. Debating demands a decision upon thecase, it requires a judgment, a registered action. Again in thisrespect it is like a game. 

EXERCISES

1. Make a list of propositions which have been debated or might bedebated in a courtroom. 

2. Make another list of propositions which have been debated or mightbe debated in legislative bodies. 

3. Make a list of propositions which might be debated in business. 

4. As far as is possible, indicate the decisions upon them. 

5. Choose some proposition on which there is considerable differenceof opinion in the class. Make a list of those who favor and those whooppose. Speak upon the proposition, alternating affirmative andnegative. 

6. Discuss the speeches delivered in the fifth exercise. 

Persons Involved in a Debate. Who are the persons involved in aregular debate? They are the presiding officer, the speakersthemselves, the audience, the judges. 

The Presiding Officer. Every debate has a presiding officer. TheVice-President of the United States is the presiding officer of theSenate. The Speaker is the presiding officer of the House ofRepresentatives. If you will refer to Chapter IV on _Beginning theSpeech_ you will see several other titles of presiding officers. Inschool debates the head of the institution may act in that capacity, or some person of note may be invited to preside. In regular classroomwork the instructor may serve as presiding officer, or some member ofthe class may be chosen or appointed. The latter method is thebest--after the instructor has shown by example just what the dutiesof such a position are. 

The presiding officer should announce the topic of debate in a shortintroductory speech. He should read the names of the speakers on theaffirmative and those on the negative side. He should stipulate theterms of the debate--length of each speech, time for rebuttal, orderof rebuttal, method of keeping speakers within time limits, conditionsof judgment (material, presentation, etc. ), announce the judges, andfinally introduce the first speaker; then the subsequent speakers. Atthe close he might refer to the fact of the debate's being ended, hemight rehearse the conditions of judgment, and request the judges toretire to consider their decision. Practice varies as to who shalldeliver the decision of the judges to the audience. Sometimes thechairman elected by the judges announces the decision. Sometimes thejudges hand the decision to the presiding officer who announces it. 

The Debaters. Beyond saying that the speakers must do their best, there is nothing to be added here about their duty in the debateexcept to issue one warning to them in connection with the nextpersonal element to be considered--the audience. 

The Audience. Debaters must remember that in practically nocircumstances outside legislative bodies are the audience and thejudges ever the same. Debaters argue to convince the judges--not theentire audience, who are really as disconnected from the decision ofthe debate as are the straggling spectators and listeners in acourtroom detached from the jury who render the verdict of guilty ornot guilty. The debater must therefore speak for the judges, not forhis audience. Many a debating team has in the course of its speecheswon all the applause only to be bitterly disappointed in the end byhearing the decision awarded to the other side. Recall the warningsgiven in the previous chapters against the tempting fallacies ofappealing to crowd feelings and prejudices. 

In classroom debates it is a good distribution of responsibility tomake all the members not participating in the speaking act as judgesand cast votes in rendering a decision. This makes the judges and theaudience one. Moreover it changes the mere listener into adiscriminating judge. If the instructor cares to carry this matter ofresponsibility one step farther, he can ask the members of the classto explain and justify their votes. 

The audience, when it is also the judge, has the responsibility ofcareful attention, analysis, and comparison. It is too much to expectusual general audiences to refuse to be moved by unworthy pleas andmisrepresentations, to accord approval only to the best speakers andthe soundest arguments. But surely in a class of public speakers anysuch tricks and schemes should be received with stolid frigidity. Nothing is so damaging to appeals to prejudice, spread-eagleism, andfustian bombast as an impassive reception. 

The Judges. In any debate the judges are of supreme importance. Theydecide the merits of the speakers themselves. The judges are ofinfinitely more importance than the audience. In interscholasticdebates men of some prominence are invited to act as judges. In theinstructions to them it should be made clear that they are not todecide which side of a proposition they themselves approve. They areto decide which group of speakers does the best work. They should tryto be merely the impersonal registers of comparative merit. Theyshould sink their own feelings as every teacher must when he hears agood speech from one of his own students supporting something to whichthe instructor is opposed. Good judges of debates realize this andfrequently award decisions to speakers who support opposite positionsto their personal opinions. They must not be like the judges in aninterscholastic debate who announced their decision thus, "The judgeshave decided that China must not be dismembered. " That was aninteresting fact perhaps, but it had nothing to do with their duty asjudges of that debate. 

In business, the buyer, the head of the department, the board ofdirectors, constitute the judges who render the decision. Inlegislative assemblies the audience and judges are practicallyidentical, for after the debate upon a measure is concluded, those whohave listened to it render individual verdicts by casting their votes. In such cases we frequently see decisions rendered not upon the meritsof the debate, but according to class prejudice, personal opinion, orparty lines. This is why so many great argumentative speeches wereaccounted failures at the time of their delivery. Delivered to securemajority votes they failed to carry conviction to the point ofchanging immediate action, and so in the small temporary sense theywere failures. In legal trials the jury is the real judge, although byour peculiar misapplication of the term a different person entirely iscalled judge. In court the judge is in reality more often merely thepresiding officer. He oversees the observance of all the rules ofcourt practice, keeps lawyers within the regulations, instructs thejury, receives the decision from them, and then applies the law. Every lawyer speaks--not to convince the judge--but to convince thejury to render a decision in his favor. 

Scholastic Debating. Choosing the Proposition. In school debating theproposition may be assigned by the instructor or it may be chosen byhim from a number submitted by the class. The class itself may chooseby vote a proposition for debate. In interscholastic debating thepractice now usually followed is for one school to submit theproposition and for the second school to decide which side it prefersto support. In any method the aim should be to give neither side anyadvantage over the other. The speakers upon the team may be selectedbefore the question of debate is known. It seems better, whenpossible, to make the subject known first and then secure as speakersupon both sides, students who have actual beliefs upon the topic. Suchpersonal conviction always results in keener rivalry. 

Time Limits. Since no debate of this kind must last too long, timerestrictions must be agreed upon. In every class, conditions willdetermine these terms. Three or four speakers upon each side make agood team. If each is allowed six minutes the debate should come wellwithin an hour and still allow some time for voting upon thepresentations. It should be distinctly understood that a time limitupon a speaker must be observed by him or be enforced by the presidingofficer. 

The speakers upon one side will arrange among themselves the order inwhich they will speak but there should be a clear understandingbeforehand as to whether rebuttal speeches are to be allowed. 

Rebuttal Speeches. Rebuttal speeches are additional speeches allowedto some or all the speakers of a debating team after the regularargumentative speeches have been delivered. In an extended formaldebate all the speakers may thus appear a second time. In less lengthydiscussions only some of them may be permitted to appear a secondtime. As the last speaker has the advantage of making the finalimpression upon the judges it is usual to offset this by reversing theorder of rebuttal. In the first speeches the negative always deliversthe last speech. Sometimes the first affirmative speaker is allowed tofollow with the single speech in rebuttal. If the team consist ofthree speakers and all are allowed to appear in rebuttal the entireorder is as follows. 

_First Part Rebuttal_

First affirmative First negativeFirst negative First affirmativeSecond affirmative Second negativeSecond negative Second affirmativeThird affirmative Third negativeThird negative Third affirmative

If not all the speakers are to speak in rebuttal the team itselfdecides which of its members shall speak for all. 

Preparation. The proposition should be decided on and the teamsselected long enough in advance to allow for adequate preparation. Every means should be employed to secure sufficient material ineffective arrangement. Once constituted, the team should consideritself a unit. Work should be planned in conference and distributedamong the speakers. At frequent meetings they should present to theside all they are able to find. They should lay out a comprehensiveplan of support of their own side. They should anticipate thearguments likely to be advanced by the other, and should provide fordisposing of them if they are important enough to require refuting. Itis a good rule for every member of a debating team to know all thematerial on his side, even though part of it is definitely assigned toanother speaker. 

This preliminary planning should be upon a definite method. A goodoutline to use, although some parts may be discarded in the debateitself, is the following simple one. 

 I. State the proposition clearly. 1. Define the terms. 2. Explain it as a whole. II. Give a history of the case. 1. Show its present bearing or aspect. III. State the issues. IV. Prove. V. Refute. VI. Conclude. 

Finding the Issues. In debating, since time is so valuable, a speakermust not wander afield. He must use all his ability, all his materialto prove his contention. It will help him to reject material notrelevant if he knows exactly what is at issue between the two sides. It was avoiding the issue to answer the charge that Charles I was atyrant by replying that he was a good husband. Unless debaters realizeexactly what must be proven to make their position secure, there willbe really no debate, for the two sides will never meet in a clash ofopinion. They will pass each other without meeting, and instead of adebate they will present a series of argumentative speeches. Thisfailure to state issues clearly and to support or refute themconvincingly is one of the most common faults of all debating. Inordinary conversation a frequently heard criticism of a discussion orspeech or article is "But that was not the point at issue at all. "These issues must appear in the preliminary plans, in the finishedbrief, and in the debate itself. 

 The only point in issue between us is, how long after an author's death the State shall recognize a copyright in his representatives and assigns; and it can, I think, hardly be disputed by any rational man that this is a point which the legislature is free to determine in the way which may appear to be most conducive to the general good. 

 THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY: _Copyright_, 1841

 Mr. President, the very first question that challenges our attention in the matter of a league of nations is the question of whether a war in Europe is a matter of concern to the United States. The ultraopponents of any league of nations assert that European quarrels and European battles are no concern of ours. If that be true, we may well pause before obligating ourselves to make them our concern. Is it true?

 SENATOR P. J. MCCUMBER: _The League of Nations_, 1919

The best method of finding the issues is to put down in two columnsthe main contentions of both sides. By eliminating those entries whichare least important and those which have least bearing upon thepresent case the issues may be reduced to those which the debateshould cover. Any possible attempt to cloud the issues on the part ofthe opposing side can thus be forestalled. All the speakers on oneside should participate in this analysis of the proposition to findand state the issues. 

The New York _Tribune_, by parallel columns, brought out these chiefpoints of difference between the Paris plan and Senator Knox's for theLeague of Nations. 

THE KNOX PLAN THE PARIS PLAN

League formed of all, not Under Article VII it is provideda portion, of the nations of that no state shall bethe world. Admitted unless it is able to give guaranties of its intention to observe its international obligations and conform to the principles prescribed by the League in regard to it's naval and military forces and armaments. 

War to be declared an Article XVI provides thatinternational crime, and any should any of the highnation engaging in war, except contracting parties breakin self-defense when covenants under Article XIIactually attacked, to be punished (relating to arbitration) itby the world as an shall be deemed to have committedinternational criminal. An act of war against the League, which undertakes to exercise economic pressure; and it is to be the duty of the executive council to recommend what military or naval force the members of the League shall contribute to be used to protect the covenants of the League. 

The Monroe Doctrine to None of these matters isbe safeguarded; also our mentioned specifically, butimmigration policy and our President Wilson has saidright to expel aliens. That the League will "extend the Monroe Doctrine to the whole world" and that domestic and internal questions are not a concern of the League. 

Our right to maintain military Article VIII says: "Theand naval establishments executive council shall alsoand coaling stations, determine for the considerationand our right to fortify the and action of the severalPanama Canal and our governments what militaryfrontiers to be safeguarded. Equipment and armament is fair and reasonable and in proportion to the scale of forces laid down in the program of disarmament, and these limits when adopted shall not be exceeded without the permission of the executive council. "

An international court to Article XIV provides forbe empowered by the League the establishment of a "permanentto call upon the signatory court of internationalPowers to enforce its decrees justice, " but its powers areagainst unwilling states by limited to hearing and determiningforce, economic pressure, or "any matterotherwise. The constitution which the parties recognizeof the League to provide, as suitable for submission tohowever, that decrees against it for arbitration" underan American Power shall be Article XIII. Enforced by the nations ofthis hemisphere, and decreesagainst a country of theeastern hemisphere by thePowers of that hemisphere. 

Team Work. With the plan agreed upon by the speakers, the brief madeout, and the material distributed, each speaker can go to work inearnest to prepare his single speech. The best method has beenoutlined in this book. His notes should be accurate, clear, easilymanipulated. His quotations should be exact, authoritative. By nomeans should he memorize his speech. Such stilted delivery wouldresult in a series of formal declamations. With his mind stocked withexactly what his particular speech is to cover, yet familiar enoughwith the material of his colleagues to use it should he need it, thedebater is ready for the contest. 

Manipulating Material. The speakers on a side should keep all theirmaterial according to some system. If cards are used, arguments to beused in the main debate might be arranged in one place, material forrebuttal in another, quotations and statistics in still another. Thenif the other side introduces a point not anticipated it should be easyto find the refuting or explaining material at once to counteract itsinfluence in the next speech, if it should be disposed of at once. Ifslips of paper are used, different colors might indicate differentkinds of material. Books, papers, reports, to be used should always bewithin available distance. While a speaker for the other side isadvancing arguments the speaker who will follow him should be able tochange, if necessary, his entire plan of defense or attack to meet themanoeuver. He should select from the various divisions upon thetable the material he needs, and launch at once into a speech whichmeets squarely all the contentions advanced by his predecessor. Thisinstantaneous commandeering of material is likely to be most usual inrebuttal, but a good debater must be able to resort to it at asecond's notice. 

The First Affirmative Speaker. The first affirmative speaker mustdeliver some kind of introduction to the contentions which his sideintends to advance. It is his duty to be concise and clear in this. Hemust not use too much time. If the proposition needs defining andapplying he must not fail to do it. He must not give the negative theopportunity to explain and apply to its own purposes the meaning ofthe proposition. He should state in language which the hearers willremember exactly what the issues are. He can help his own side byoutlining exactly what the affirmative intends to prove. He mayindicate just what portions will be treated by his colleagues. Heshould never stop with merely introducing and outlining. Every speakermust advance proof, the first as well as the others. If thepreliminary statements by the first affirmative speaker are clearlyand convincingly delivered, and if he places a few strong, supportingreasons before the judges, he will have started his side very wellupon its course of debating. The last sentences of his speech shoulddrive home the points he has proved. 

The First Negative Speaker. The first negative speaker either agreeswith the definitions and application of the proposition as announcedby the first affirmative speaker or he disagrees with them. If thelatter, the mere statement of his disagreement is not sufficient. Contradiction is not proof. He must refute the definition andapplication of the proposition by strong reasoning and ample proof. Ifhis side does not admit the issues as already presented he mustexplain or prove them away and establish in their place the issues hisside sees in the discussion. When the two sides disagree concerningthe issues there is a second proposition erected for discussion atonce and the argument upon this second matter may crowd out theattempted argument upon the main proposition. To obviate such shiftingmany schools have the sides exchange briefs or statements of issuesbefore the debate so that some agreement will be reached uponessentials. 

In addition to the matters just enumerated the first negative speakershould outline the plan his side will follow, promising exactly whatthings will be established by his colleagues. If he feels that thefirst affirmative speaker has advanced proofs strong enough to requireinstant refutation he should be able to meet those points at once anddispose of them. If they do not require immediate answering, or ifthey may safely be left for later refutation in the regular rebuttal, he may content himself with simply announcing that they will beanswered. He should not allow the audience to believe that his sidecannot meet them. 

He must not give the impression that he is evading them. If he has toadmit their truth, let him frankly say so, showing, if possible, howthey do not apply or do not prove all that is claimed for them, orthat though they seem strong in support of the affirmative thenegative side has still stronger arguments which by comparison refuteat least their effect. 

The first negative speaker should not stop with mere refutation. Ifthe first affirmative has advanced proofs, and the first negativedisposes of them, the debate is exactly where it was at the beginning. The negative speaker must add convincing arguments of his own. It is agood thing to start with one of the strongest negative arguments inthe material. 

The Second Affirmative and Second Negative Speakers. The secondaffirmative and the second negative speakers have very much the samekind of speech to make. Taking the immediate cues from the precedingspeaker each may at first pay some attention to the remarks of hisopponent. Here again there must be quickly decided the questionalready brought up by the first negative speech--shall arguments berefuted at once or reserved for such treatment in rebuttal? When thisdecision is made the next duty of each of these second speakers is toadvance his side according to the plan laid down by his firstcolleague. He must make good the advance notice given of his team. 

Each position of a debater has its peculiar tasks. The middle speakermust not allow the interest aroused by the first to lag. If anything, his material and manner must indicate a rise over the opening speech. 

He must start at the place where the first speaker stopped and carryon the contention to the place at which it has been agreed he willdeliver it to the concluding speaker for his side. If this connectionamong all the speeches of one side is quite plain to the audience animpression of unity and coherence will be made upon them. This willcontribute to the effect of cogent reasoning. They will realize thatinstead of listening to a group of detached utterances they have beenfollowing a chain of reasoning every link of which is closelyconnected with all that precedes and follows. 

The Concluding Affirmative Speaker. The concluding affirmative speakermust not devote his entire speech to a conclusion by giving anextensive summary or recapitulation. He must present arguments. Realizing that this is the last chance for original argument from hisside he may be assigned the very strongest argument of all to deliver, for the effect of what he says must last beyond the concluding speechof the negative. It would likewise be a mistake for him to do nothingmore than argue in his concluding speech. Several persons haveintervened since his first colleague outlined their side and announcedwhat they would prove. It is his duty to show that the affirmative hasactually done what it set out to do. By amplifying and diminishing hemay also show how the negative had not carried out its avowedintention of disproving the affirmative's position and provingconclusively its own. The concluding speech for the affirmative is anexcellent test of a debater's ability to adapt himself to conditionswhich may have been entirely unforeseen when the debate began, of hiskeenness in analyzing the strength of the affirmative and exposingthe weakness of the negative, of his power in impressing the argumentsof his colleagues as well as his own upon the audience, and of hisskill in bringing to a well-rounded, impressive conclusion his side'spart in the debate. 

The Concluding Negative Speaker. The concluding negative speaker mustjudge whether his immediate predecessor, the concluding affirmativespeaker, has been able to gain the verdict of the judges. If he fearsthat he has, he must strive to argue that conviction away. He too mustadvance proof finally to strengthen the negative side. He must makehis speech answer to his first colleague's announced scheme, or ifsome change in the line of development has been necessitated, he mustmake clear why the first was replaced by the one the debaters havefollowed. If the arguments of the negative have proved what it wasdeclared they would, the last speaker should emphasize that factbeyond any question in any one's mind. Finally he should save time fora fitting conclusion. This brings the debate proper to a close. 

Restrictions in Rebuttal. In rebuttal--if it be provided--the mainrestrictions are two. The speeches are shorter than the earlier ones. No new lines of argument may be introduced. Only lines of proofalready brought forward may be considered. Since the speeches areshorter and the material is restricted there is always the dispositionto use rebuttal speeches for refutation only. This is a mistake. Refute, but remember always that constructive argument is more likelyto win decisions than destructive. Dispose of as many points of theopponents as possible, but reiterate the supporting reasons of yourown. Many speakers waste their rebuttals by trying to cover too manypoints. They therefore have insufficient time to prove anything, sothey fall back upon bare contradiction and assertion. Suchpresentations are mere jumbles of statements. Choose a few importantphases of the opposing side's contention. Refute them. Choose thetelling aspects of your own case. Emphasize them. 

Manner in Debating. Be as earnest and convincing in your speeches asyou can. Never yield to the temptation to indulge in personalities. Recall that other speakers should never be mentioned by name. They areidentified by their order and their side, as "The first speaker on theaffirmative" or "The speaker who preceded me, " or "My colleague, " or"My opponent. " Avoid using these with tones and phrases of sarcasm andbitterness. Be fair and courteous in every way. Never indulge in suchbelittling expressions as "No one understands what he is trying toprove. He reels off a string of figures which mean nothing. " Neverindulge in cheap wit or attempts at satiric humor. 

Prepare so adequately, analyze so keenly, argue so logically, speak soconvincingly, that even when your side loses, your opponents will haveto admit that you forced them to do better than they had any idea theycould. 

CHAPTER XIII

SPEAKING UPON SPECIAL OCCASIONS

Speech-making in the Professions. If a student enter a profession inwhich speech-making is the regular means of gaining his livelihood--asin law, religion, or lecturing--he will find it necessary to securetraining in the technical methods applying to the particular kind ofspeech-making in which he will indulge. This book does not attempt toprepare any one for mastery of such special forms. The student will, however, be helping himself if he examines critically every deliveryof a legal argument, sermon, or lecture he hears, for many of therules illustrated by them and the impressions made by their speakers, can be transferred as models to be imitated or specimens to be avoidedin his own more restricted and less important world. 

Speaking upon Special Occasions. Every American may be called upon tospeak upon some special occasion. If he does well at his firstappearance he may be invited or required by circumstances to speakupon many occasions. The person who can interest audiences byeffective delivery of suitable material fittingly adapted to theparticular occasion is always in demand. Within the narrower confinesof educational institutions the opportunities for the student toappear before his schoolmates are as numerous as in real life. Somepreliminary knowledge coupled with much practice will produce deepsatisfaction upon successful achievement and result in rapid steps ofself-development. 

Without pretending to provide for all possible circumstances in whichstudents and others may be called upon to speak, this chapter willlist some of the special occasions for which speeches should beprepared. 

Speeches of Presiding Officers. On practically all occasions there isa presiding officer whose chief duty is to introduce to the audiencethe various speakers. The one great fault of speeches of introductionis that they are too long. The introducer sincerely means not toconsume too much time, but in the endeavor to do justice to theoccasion or the speaker he becomes involved in his remarks until theywander far from his definite purpose. He wearies the audience beforethe important speaker begins. An introducer should not become sounconscious of his real task as to fall into this error. In othercases the fault is not so innocent. Many a person called upon tointroduce a speaker takes advantage of the chance to express his ownopinions. He drops into the discourtesy of using for his own ends acondition of passive attention which was not created for him. Onelarge audience which had assembled to hear a lecturer was kept fromlistening to him while for twenty minutes the introducer aired his ownpet theories. Of course members of the audience discussed amongthemselves the inappropriateness of such remarks, but it is doubtfulwhether any criticism reached the offender. 

A newspaper recently had the courage to voice the feelings ofaudiences. 

 It seems that a good deal of the time of the audience at the Coliseum the other night was taken by those who introduced the speakers of the evening. We are told in one account of the meeting that the audience was at times impatient of these preliminaries and even howled once or twice for those it had come to hear. . . . We are informed that all those introducing the speakers said something about not having risen to speak at length, and that one of them protested his inability to speak with any facility. Both these professions are characteristic of those introducing speakers of the evening. Yet, strangely enough, the same always happens. That is, the preliminaries wear the audience out before the people it came to hear can get at it. 

In introducing a speaker never be too long-winded. Tactfully, gracefully, courteously, put before the audience such facts as theoccasion, the reason for the topic of the speech, the fitness andappropriateness of the choice of the speaker, then present the man orwoman. Be extremely careful of facts and names. A nominating speakerat a great political convention ruined the effect of a speech byconfusedly giving several first names to a distinguished man. It isembarrassing to a speaker to have to correct at the very beginning ofhis remarks a misstatement made by the presiding officer. But a manfrom one university cannot allow the audience to identify him withanother. The author of a book wants its title correctly given. Apublic official desires to be associated in people's minds with thedepartment he actually controls. 

The main purpose of a speech of introduction is to do for thesucceeding speaker what the chapter on beginning the speechsuggested--to render the audience attentive and well-disposed, tointroduce the topic, and in addition to present the speaker. 

Choosing a Theme. The speaker at a special occasion must choose thetheme with due regard to the subject and the occasion. Frequently histheme will be suggested to him, so that it will already bear a closerelation to the occasion when he begins its preparation. The nextmatter he must consider with extreme care is the treatment. Shall it beserious, informative, argumentative, humorous, scoffing, ironic? Todecide this he must weigh carefully the significance of the occasion. Selecting the inappropriate manner of treatment means risking thesuccess of the speech. Recall how many men and speeches you have heardcriticized as being "out of harmony with the meeting, " or "not inspirit with the proceedings, " and you will realize how necessary tothe successful presentation is this delicate adjustment of the speechto the mood of the circumstances. 

The After-dinner Speech. When men and women have met to partake ofgood food under charming surroundings and have enjoyed legitimategastronomic delights it is regrettable that a disagreeable elementshould be added by a series of dull, long-winded, un-appropriateafter-dinner speeches. The preceding adjectives suggest the chieffaults of those persons who are repeatedly asked to speak upon suchoccasions. They so often miss the mark. Because after-dinner speakingis so informal it is proportionally difficult. When called upon, aperson feels that he must acknowledge the compliment by sayingsomething. This, however, is not really enough. He must choose histheme and style of treatment from the occasion. If the toastmasterassign the topic he is safe so far as that is concerned, but he muststill be careful of his treatment. 

A speaker at a dinner of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, in whichmembership is awarded for rank in cultural as contrasted withpractical, technical studies, seized upon the chance to deliver arather long, quite detailed legal explanation of the parole system forconvicted offenders against laws. At a dinner given by thePennsylvania Society in a state far from their original homes themembers were praised to the skies for preserving the love of theirnative state and marking their identity in a district so distant anddifferent. This was quite appropriate for an introduction but thespeaker then turned abruptly to one of his political speeches andberated the foreigner in America for not becoming at once an entirelymade-over citizen. The speech contradicted its own sentiments. A wrongemphasis was placed upon its material. A disquieting impression wasmade upon the Pennsylvanians. At the conclusion they felt that theywere guilty for having kept the love of their native soil; accordingto the tone of the speaker they should have accepted their newresidence and wiped out all traces of any early ties. 

An after-dinner speaker should remember that dinners are usually marksof sociability, goodfellowship, congratulation, celebration, commemoration. Speeches should answer to such motives. The aptillustration, the clever twist, the really good story or anecdote, thesurprise ending, all have their places here, if they are used withgrace, good humor, and tact. This does not preclude elements ofinformation and seriousness, but such matters should be introducedskilfully, discussed sparingly, enforced pointedly. 

The Commemorative Speech. Besides dinners, other gatherings mayrequire commemorative addresses. These speeches are longer, moreformal. The success of a debating team, the successful season of anathletic organization, the termination of a civic project, theelection of a candidate, the celebration of an historic event, thetribute to a great man, suggest the kinds of occasions in whichcommemorative addresses should be made. 

Chosen with more care than the after-dinner speaker, the person onsuch an occasion has larger themes with which to deal, a longer timefor their development, and an audience more surely attuned tosympathetic reception. He has more time for preparation also. In minorcircumstances, such as the first three or four enumerated in thepreceding paragraph, the note is usually congratulation for victory. Except in tone and length these speeches are not very different fromafter-dinner remarks. But when the occasion is more dignified, thecircumstances more significant, addresses take on a different aspect. They become more soberly judicial, more temperately laudatory, morefeelingly impressive. At such times public speaking approaches mostclosely to the old-fashioned idea of oratory, now so rapidly passingaway, in its attempt to impress upon the audience the greatness of theoccasion in which it is participating. The laying of a corner-stone, the completion of a monument or building, a national holiday, thebirthday of a great man, the date of an epoch-marking event, bringforth eulogistic tributes like Webster's speech at Bunker Hill, Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Secretary Lane's Flag Day speech. 

False Eloquence. The beginner will not have many opportunities ofdelivering such remarkable addresses, but in his small sphere he willhave chances to do similar things. He must beware of several faults ofwhich the unwary are usually guilty. Recognizing the wonderfuleloquence of the masterpieces of such kinds of address he may want toreproduce its effects by imitating its apparent methods. Nothing couldbe worse. The style of the great eulogy, born of the occasion and thespeaker, becomes only exaggerated bombast and nonsense from the lipsof a student. Exaggeration, high sounding terms, flowery language, involved constructions, do not produce eloquence in the speaker. Theyproduce discomfort, often smiles of ridicule, in the audience. Many astudent intending to cover himself with glory by eulogizing themartyred McKinley or the dead Roosevelt has succeeded only in coveringhimself with derision. Simplicity, straightforwardness, fairstatement, should be the aims of beginning speakers upon suchoccasions. 

Speeches of Presentation and Acceptance. Standing between the twoclasses of speeches just discussed are speeches of presentation andacceptance. In practically all circumstances where such remarks aresuitable there are present mingled feelings of celebration andcommemoration. There is joy over something accomplished, andremembrance of merit or success. So the person making a speech ofpresentation must mingle the two feelings as he and the audienceexperience them. Taking his cue from the tone of the occasion he mustfit his remarks to that mood. He may be as bright and sparkling and asamusing as a refined court jester. He may be as impressive and seriousas a judge. The treatment must be determined by the circumstances. 

The speaker who replies must take his cue from the presenter. Whilethe first has the advantage of carrying out his plan as prepared, thesecond can only dimly anticipate the theme he will express. At anyrate he cannot so surely provide his beginning. That must comespontaneously from the turn given the material by his predecessor, although the recipient may pass by a transition to the remarks heprepared in advance. 

The observations which obtain in the presentation and acceptance of amaterial object--as a book, a silver tea set, a medal, an artgallery--apply just as well to the bestowal and acceptance of anhonor, such as a degree from a university, an office, an appointmentas head of a committee or as foreign representative, or membership ina society. Speeches upon such occasions are likely to be more formalthan those delivered upon the transfer of a gift. The bestower maycite the reasons for the honor, the fitness of the recipient, themutual honors and obligations, and conclude with hopes of furtherattainments or services. The recipient may reply from a personalangle, explaining not only his appreciation, but his sense ofobligation to a trust or duty, his methods of fulfilling hisresponsibilities, his modestly phrased hope or belief in his ultimatesuccess. 

The Inaugural Speech. In this last-named respect the speech of therecipient of an honor is closely related to the speech of a personinaugurated to office. This applies to all official positions to whichpersons are elected or appointed. The examples which will spring intostudents' minds are the inaugural speeches of Presidents of the UnitedStates. A study of these will furnish hints for the newly installedincumbent of more humble positions. In material they are likely to beretrospective and anticipatory. They trace past causes up to presenteffects, then pass on to discuss future plans and methods. Everyofficer in his official capacity has something to do. Newspaperarticles will give you ideas of what officials should be doing. Theoffice holder at the beginning of his term should make clear to hisconstituency, his organization, his class, his society, his school, just what he intends to try to do. He must be careful not toantagonize possible supporters by antagonistic remarks or opinions. Heshould try to show reason and expediency in all he urges. He shouldtemper satisfaction and triumph with seriousness and resolve. Factsand arguments will be of more consequence than opinions and promises. The speech should be carefully planned in advance, clearly expressed, plainly delivered. Its statements should be weighed, as everyone ofthem may be used later as reasons for support or attack. To avoid suchconsequences the careful politician often indulges in glitteringgeneralities which mean nothing. A student in such conditions shouldface issues squarely, and without stirring up unnecessary antagonism, announce his principles clearly and firmly. If he has changed hisopinion upon any subject he may just as well state his position sothat no misunderstanding may arise later. 

In the exercise of his regular activities a person will have manyopportunities to deliver this kind of speech. 

The Nominating Speech. Recommendation of himself by a candidate foroffice does not fall within the plan of this book. Students, however, may indulge in canvassing votes for their favorite candidates, andthis in some instances, leads to public speaking in class and massmeetings, assemblies, and the like. Of similar import is thenominating speech in which a member of a society, committee, meeting, offers the name of his candidate for the votes of as many as willindorse him. In nominating, it is a usual trick of arrangement to givefirst all the qualifications of the person whose election is to beurged, advancing all reasons possible for the choice, and uttering hisname only in the very last words of the nominating speech. This planworks up to a cumulative effect which should deeply impress thehearers at the mention of the candidate's name. 

In nominating speeches and in arguments supporting a candidate thedeliverer should remember two things. Constructive proof is betterthan destructive attack; assertion of opinion and personal preferenceis not proof. If it seems necessary at times to show the fitness ofone candidate by contrast with another, never descend topersonalities, never inject a tone of personal attack, of cheap wit, of ill-natured abuse. If such practices are resorted to by others, answer or disregard them with the courteous attention they deserve, nomore. Do not allow yourself to be drawn into any discussion remotefrom the main issue--the qualifications of your own candidate. If youspeak frequently upon such a theme--as you may during an extendedcampaign--notice which of your arguments make the strongestimpressions upon the hearers. Discard the weaker ones to place moreand more emphasis upon the convincing reasons. Never fail to studyother speakers engaged in similar attempts. American life every dayprovides you with illustrations to study. 

The Speech in Support of a Measure. When, instead of a candidate, youare supporting some measure to be adopted, some reform to beinstituted, some change to be inaugurated, your task is easier in onerespect. There will be less temptation to indulge in personal matters. You will find it easier to adhere to your theme. In such attempts tomold public opinion--whether it be the collective opinion of a smallschool class, or a million voters--you will find opportunities for theinclusion of everything you know of the particular subject and of allhuman nature. Convinced yourself of the worthiness of your cause, bendevery mental and intellectual effort to making others understand asyou do, see as you do. If your reasoning is clear and converting, ifyour manner is direct and sincere, you should be able to induce othersto believe as you do. 

The Persuasive Speech. In public speaking upon occasions when votesare to be cast, where reforms are to be instituted, where changes areto be inaugurated, you have not finished when you have turned themental attitude, and done no more. You must arouse the will to act. Votes must be cast for the measure you approve. The reform you urgemust be financed at once. The change must be registered. To accomplishsuch a purpose you must do more than merely prove; you must persuade. 

In the use of his power over people to induce them to noble, high-minded action lies the supreme importance of the public speaker. 

EXERCISES

1. Choose some recent event which you and your friends might celebrateby a dinner. As toastmaster, deliver the first after-dinner remarksdrawing attention to the occasion and introducing some one to speak. 

2. Deliver the after-dinner speech just introduced. 

3. Introduce some other member of the class, who is not closelyconnected with the event being celebrated, and who therefore is aguest. 

4. Deliver this speech, being careful to make your remarks correspondto the preceding. 

5. A debating team has won a victory. Deliver the speech such avictory deserves. 

6. An athletic team has won a victory. As a non-participant, presentthe trophy. 

7. An athletic team has finished a season without winning thechampionship. Speak upon such a result. 

8. The city or state has finished some great project. Speak upon itssignificance. 

9. Address an audience of girls or women upon their right to vote. 

10. Speak in approval of some recently elected official in yourcommunity. 

11. Choose some single event in the history of your immediatelocality. Speak upon it. 

12. Deliver a commemorative address suitable for the next holiday. 

13. Bring into prominence some man or woman connected with the past ofyour community. 

14. An unheralded hero. 

15. "They also serve who only stand and wait. "

16. "Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war. "

17. Deliver the speech to accompany the presentation of a set ofbooks. 

18. Present to your community some needed memorial park, building, orother monument. 

19. Accept the gift for the community. 

20. Challenge another class to debate. 

21. Urge upon some organization support of some civic measure. 

22. As a representative of the students present some request to theauthorities. 

23. A meeting has been called to hear you because of your associationwith some organization or movement. Deliver the speech. 

24. Some measure or movement is not being supported as it should be. Ameeting of people likely to be interested has been called. Address themeeting. 

25. Appeal to your immediate associates to support some charitablework. 

26. Some organization has recently started a new project. Speak to itupon its task. 

27. An organization has successfully accomplished a new project. Congratulate it. 

28. Some early associate of yours has won recognition or success orfame away from home. He is about to return. Speak to your companionsshowing why they should honor him. 

29. Choose some person or event worthy of commemoration. Arrange aseries of detailed topics and distribute them among members of theclass. Set a day for their presentation. 

30. Choose a chairman. On the appointed day have him introduce thetopic and the speakers. 

CHAPTER XIV

DRAMATICS

Difference between Public Speaking and Acting. In practically all theaspects of public speaking you deliver your own thoughts in your ownwords. In dramatic presentation you deliver the words already writtenby some one else; and in addition, while you are delivering theseremarks you speak as though you were no longer yourself, but a totallydifferent person. This is the chief distinction between speaking inpublic and acting. While you must memorize the lines you deliver whenyou try to act like a character other than yourself, speeches indramatic production are not like usual memorized selections. Usually amemorized selection does not express the feelings or opinions of acertain character, but is likely to be descriptive or narrative. Bothprose and verse passages contain more than the uttered words of asingle person. 

As preparation for exercise in dramatics, whether simple or elaborate, training in memorizing and practice in speaking are extremelyvaluable. Memorizing may make the material grow so familiar that itloses its interest for the speaker. Pupils frequently recite committedmaterial so listlessly that they merely bore hearers. Such adisposition to monotony should be neutralized by the ability to speakwell in public. 

Naturalness and Sincerity. When you speak lines from a play inject asmuch naturalness and sincerity into your delivery as you can command. Speak the words as though they really express your own ideas andfeelings. If you feel that you must exaggerate slightly because of theimpression the remark is intended to make, rely more upon emphasisthan upon any other device to secure an effect. Never slip into anaffected manner of delivering any speech. No matter what kind ofacting you have seen upon amateur or professional stage, you mustremember that moderation is the first essential of the best acting. Recall what Shakespeare had Hamlet say to the players. 

Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus: but use allgently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, whirlwindof your passion, you must acquire and beget a temperance that may giveit smoothness. Oh, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious, periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to splitthe ears of the groundlings, who for the most part are capable ofnothing but inexplicable dumb-shows and noise. 

Character Delineation. In taking part in a play you must do more thansimply recite words spoken by some one other than yourself. You mustreally act like that person. This adds to the simple delivery ofspeeches all those other traits by which persons in real life aredifferent from one another. Such complete identification of yourpersonality with that of the person you are trying to represent in aplay is termed character delineation, or characterization. 

You may believe that you cannot represent an Indian chief or a Britishqueen, or an Egyptian slave, or a secret service agent, but if youwill recall your childish pastime of day-dreaming you will see at oncethat you have quite frequently identified yourself with some one else, and in that other character you have made yourself experience thestrangest and most thrilling adventures. When you study a rôle in ascene or play, use your imagination in that same manner. In a shorttime it will be easy for you to think as that other character would. Then you have become identified with him. The first step in yourdelineation has been taken. 

Visualize in your mind's eye--your imagination--the circumstances inwhich that character is placed in the play. See yourself looking, moving, acting as he would. Then talk as that character would in thosecircumstances. Make him react as he would naturally in the situationsin which the dramatist has placed him. 

Let us try to make this more definite. Suppose a boy is chosen to actthe part of an old man. An old man does not speak as rapidly as a boydoes. He will have to change the speed of his speech. But suppose theold man is moved to wrath, would his words come slowly? Would he speakdistinctly or would he almost choke?

The girl who is delineating a foreign woman must picture her accentand hesitation in speaking English. She would give to her face therather vacant questioning look such a woman would have as the Englishspeech flits about her, too quickly for her to comprehend all of it. 

The girl who tries to present a British queen in a Shakespeare playmust not act as a pupil does in the school corridor. Yet if that queenis stricken in her feelings as a mother, might not all the royaldignity melt away, and her Majesty act like any sorrowing woman?

EXERCISES

You are sitting at a table or desk. The telephone rings. You pick upthe receiver. A person at the other end invites you to dinner. Deliveryour part of the conversation. 

1. Speak in your own character. 

2. Speak as a busy, quick-tempered old man in his disordered office. 

3. Speak as a tired wife who hasn't had a relief for weeks from thedrudgery of house-work. 

4. Speak as a young debutante who has been entertained every day forweeks. 

5. Speak as the office boy. 

6. Speak as an over-polite foreigner. 

7. Delineate some other kind of person. 

Improvisations are here given first because such exercises depend uponthe pupil's original interpretation of a character. The pupil isrequired to do so much clear thinking about the character herepresents that he really creates it. 

Dialogues. As it is easier to get two people to speak naturally thanwhere more are involved we shall begin conversation with dialogues. Each character will find the lines springing spontaneously from thesituation. In dramatic composition any speech delivered by a characteris called a line, no matter how short or long it is. 

As you deliver the dialogues suggested by the exercises try to makeyour speeches sound natural. Talk as real people talk. Make theremarks conversational, or colloquial, as this style is also termed. What things will make conversation realistic? In actual talk, peopleanticipate. Speakers do not wait for others to finish. They interrupt. They indicate opinions and impressions by facial expression and slightbodily movements. Tone changes as feelings change. 

Try to make your remarks convey to the audience the circumstancessurrounding the dialogue. Let the conversation make some point clear. Before you begin, determine in your own mind the characterization youintend to present. 

Situation. A girl buys some fruit from the keeper of a stand at astreet corner. 

What kind of girl? Age? Manner of speaking? Courteous? Flippant?Well-bred? Slangy? Working girl? Visitor to town?

What kind of man? Age? American? Foreigner? From what country?Dialect? Disposition? Suspicious? Sympathetic?

Weather? Season of year? Do they talk about that? About themselves?Does the heat make her long for her home in the country? Does the coldmake him think of his native Italy or Greece? Will her remarks changehis short, gruff answers to interested questions about her home? Willhis enthusiasm for his native land change her flippancy to interest infar-off romantic countries? How would the last detail impress thechange, if you decide to have one? Might he call her back and forceher to take a gift? Might she deliver an impressive phrase, then dashaway as though startled by her exhibition of sympathetic feeling?

These are mere suggestions. Two pupils might present the scene asindicated by these questions. Two others might show it as broadlycomic, and end by having the girl--at a safe distance--triumphantlyshow that she had stolen a second fruit. That might give him the cueto end in a tirade of almost inarticulate abuse, or he might stand insilence, expressing by his face the emotions surging over him. And hisfeeling need not be entirely anger, either. It might border onadmiration for her amazing audacity, or pathetic helplessness, orcomic despair, or determination to "get even" next time. 

Before you attempt to present any of the following suggestiveexercises you should consider every possibility carefully and decidedefinitely and consistently all the questions that may ariseconcerning every detail. 

EXERCISES

1. Let a boy come into the room and try to induce a girl (the mistressof a house) to have a telephone installed. Make the dialogue realisticand interesting. 

2. Let a girl demonstrate a vacuum cleaner (or some other appliance)to another girl (mistress of a house). 

3. Let a boy apply for a position to a man in an office. 

4. Let a boy dictate a letter to a gum-chewing, fidgety, harum-scarumstenographer. 

5. Let this stenographer tell the telephone girl about this. 

6. Show how a younger sister might talk at a baseball or football gameto her slightly older brother who was coerced into bringing her withhim. 

7. Show a fastidious woman at a dress goods counter, and the tired, but courteous clerk. Do not caricature, but try to give an air ofreality to this. 

8. Show how two young friends who have not seen each other for weeksmight talk when they meet again. 

9. Deliver the thoughts of a pupil at eleven o'clock at night tryingto choose the topic for an English composition due the next morning. Have him talk to his mother, or father, or older brother, or sister. 

10. A foreign woman speaking and understanding little English, with aticket to Springfield, has by mistake boarded a through train whichdoes not stop there. The conductor, a man, and woman try to explain toher what she must do. 

11. Let three different pairs of pupils represent the girl and thefruit seller cited in the paragraphs preceding these exercises. 

12. A young man takes a girl riding in a new automobile. Reproduceparts of the ride. 

13. Two graduates of your school meet after many years in a distantplace. Reproduce their reminiscenses. 

14. A woman in a car or coach has lost or misplaced her transfer orticket. Give the conversation between her and the conductor. 

15. Let various pairs of pupils reproduce the conversations of patronsof moving pictures. 

16. Suggest other characters in appropriate situations. Present thembefore the class. 

Characters Conceived by Others. In all the preceding exercises youhave been quite unrestricted in your interpretation. You have beenable to make up entirely the character you presented. Except for a fewstated details of sex, age, occupation, nature, no suggestions weregiven of the person indicated. Delineation is fairly easy toconstruct when you are given such a free choice of all possibilities. The next kind of exercise will involve a restriction to make theacting a little more like the acting of a rôle in a regular play. Evenhere, however, a great deal is left to the pupil's thought anddecision. 

How much chance there may be for such individual thought and decisionin a finished play written by a careful dramatist may be illustratedby _Fame and the Poet_ by Lord Dunsany. One of the characters is aLieutenant-Major who calls upon a poet in London. Nothing is saidabout his costume. In one city an actor asked the British consul. Hesaid officers of the army do not wear their uniforms except when inactive service, but on the British stage one great actor had by hisexample created the convention of wearing the uniform. In another cityat exactly the same time the author himself was asked the samequestion. He said that by no means should the actor wear a uniform. 

In the next exercises you are to represent characters with whom youhave become acquainted in books. You will therefore know somethingabout their dispositions, their appearance, and their actions. Yourtask will be to give life-like portraits which others will recognizeas true to their opinions of these same people. For all who have readthe books the general outlines will be identical. The added detailsmust not contradict any of the traits depicted by the authors. Otherwise they may be as original as you can imagine. 

In the _Odyssey_, the great old Greek poem by Homer, the wanderinghero, Odysseus (also called Ulysses), is cast up by the sea upon astrange shore. Here he meets Nausicaa (pronounced Nau-si'-ca-a) whooffers to show him the way to the palace of her father, the Bang. Butas she is betrothed she fears that if she is seen in the company of anunknown man some scandalous gossip may be carried to her sweetheart. So she directs that when they near the town Odysseus shall tarrybehind, allowing her to enter alone. In this naive incident this muchis told in detail by the poet. We are not told whether any gossip doesreach the lover's ears. He does not appear in the story. We are nottold even his name. Nor are we told how either she or he behaved whenthey first met, after she had conducted the stranger to the palace. 

If you enact this scene of their meeting you will first have to find aname for him. You are free to create all the details of their behaviorand conversation. Was he angry? Was he cool towards her? Had he hearda false account?

Before attempting any of the following exercises decide all thematters of interpretation as already indicated in this chapter. 

EXERCISES

1. Molly Farren tries to get news of Godfrey Cass from a Stable-boy. _Silas Marner_. 

2. The two Miss Gunns talk about Priscilla Lammeter. _Silas Marner_. 

3. The Wedding Guest meets one of his companions. _The AncientMariner_. 

4. Nausicaa tells her betrothed about Odysseus. _Odyssey_. 

5. Reynaldo in Paris tries to get information about Laertes. _Hamlet_. 

6. Fred tells his wife about Scrooge and Crachit. _A Christmas Carol_. 

7. Jupiter tells a friend of the finding of the treasure. _The GoldBug_. 

8. Two women who know David Copperfield talk about his secondmarriage. _David Copperfield_. 

Memorized Conversations. You can approach still more closely to thematerial of a play if you offer in speech before your class certainsuitable portions from books you are reading or have read. Theseselections may be made from the regular class texts or fromsupplementary reading assignments. In studying these passages with theintention of offering them before the class you will have to thinkabout two things. First of all, the author has in all probability, somewhere in the book, given a fairly detailed, exact description ofthe looks and actions of these characters. If such a description doesnot occur in an extended passage, there is likely to be a series ofstatements scattered about, from which a reader builds up an idea ofwhat the character is like. The pupil who intends to represent aperson from a book or poem must study the author's picture to be ableto reproduce a convincing portrait. 

The audience will pass over mere physical differences. A young girldescribed in a story as having blue eyes may be acted by a girl withbrown, and be accepted. But if the author states that under every kindremark she made there lurked a slight hint of envy, that difficultsuggestion to put into a tone must be striven for, or the audiencewill not receive an adequate impression of the girl's disposition. 

So, too, in male characters. A boy who plays old Scrooge in _AChristmas Carol_ may not be able to look like him physically, but inthe early scenes he must let no touch of sympathy or kindness creepinto his voice or manner. 

It is just this inability or carelessness in plays attempting toreproduce literary works upon the stage that annoys so manyintelligent, well-read people who attend theatrical productions ofmaterial which they already know. When _Vanity Fair_ was dramatisedand acted as _Becky Sharp_, the general comment was that thecharacters did not seem like Thackeray's creations. This was even moreapparent when _Pendennis_ was staged. 

If you analyze and study characters in a book from this point of viewyou will find them becoming quite alive to your imagination. You willget to know them personally. As you vizualize them in your imaginationthey will move about as real people do. Thus your reading will take ona new aspect of reality which will fix forever in your mind all youglance over upon the printed page. 

Climax. The second thing to regard in choosing passages from books topresent before the class is that the lines shall have some point. Conversation in a story is introduced for three different purposes. Itillustrates character. It exposes some event of the plot. It merelyentertains. Such conversation as this last is not good material fordramatic delivery. It is hardly more than space filling. The other twokinds are generally excellent in providing the necessary point towhich dramatic structure always rises. You have heard it called aclimax. So then you should select from books passages which provideclimaxes. 

One dictionary defines climax: "the highest point of intensity, development, etc. ; the culmination; acme; as, he was then at theclimax of his fortunes. " In a play it is that turning-point towardswhich all events have been leading, and from which all followingevents spring. Many people believe that all climaxes are points ofgreat excitement and noise. This is not so. Countless turning-pointsin stirring and terrible times have been in moments of silence andcalm. Around them may have been intense suspense, grave fear, tremendous issues, but the turning-point itself may have been passedin deliberation and quiet. 

EXERCISES

1. Choose from class reading--present or recent--some passage inconversation. Discuss the traits exhibited by the speakers. Formulatein a single statement the point made by the remarks. Does the interestrise enough to make the passage dramatic?

2. Several members of the class should read certain passages frombooks, poems, etc. The class should consider and discuss thecharacterization, interest, point, climax. 

3. Read Chapters VI and VII of _Silas Marner_ by George Eliot. Are thecharacters well marked? Is the conversation interesting in itself?Does the interest rise? Where does the rise begin? Is there anysuspense? Does the scene conclude properly? If this were acted upon astage would any additional lines be necessary or desirable?

4. Read the last part of Chapter XI of _Silas Marner_. What is thepoint?

5. Memorize this dialogue and deliver it before the class. Did thepoint impress the class?

6. Consider, discuss, and test passages from any book which themembers of the class know. 

7. Present before the class passages from any of the following:

Dickens _A Christmas Carol_ _A Tale of Two Cities_ _David Copperfield_George Eliot _Silas Marner_ _The Mill on the Floss_Scott _Ivanhoe_ _Kenilworth_ _The Lady of the Lake_Mark Twain _Huckleberry Finn_ _The Prince and the Pauper_O. Henry _Short Stories_Thackeray _Vanity Fair_ _Henry Esmond_ _Pendennis_Kipling _Captains Courageous_ _Stalkey and Co_. Hugo _Les Misérables_Tennyson _Idylls of the King_ _The Princess_Arnold _Sohrab and Rustum_Stevenson _Treasure Island_Gaskell _Cranford_Carroll _Alice in Wonderland_Kingsley _Westward Ho!_Barrie _Sentimental Tommy_

Characters in Plays. In acting regular plays you may find it necessaryto follow either of the preceding methods of characterization. Theconception of a character may have to be supplied almost entirely bysome one outside the play. Or the dramatist may be very careful toset down clearly and accurately the traits, disposition, actions ofthe people in his plays. In this second case the performer must try tocarry out every direction, every hint of the dramatist. In the firstcase, he must search the lines of the play to glean every slightestsuggestion which will help him to carry out the dramatist's intention. Famous actors of characters in Shakespeare's plays can give a reasonfor everything they show--at least, they should be able to do so--andthis foundation should be a compilation of all the details supplied bythe play itself, and stage tradition of its productions. 

In early plays there are practically no descriptions of thecharacters. Questions about certain Shakespeare characters will neverbe solved to the satisfaction of all performers. For instance, how oldis Hamlet in the tragedy? How close to madness did the dramatistexpect actors to portray his actions? During Hamlet's fencing matchwith Laertes in the last scene the Queen says, "He's fat, and scant ofbreath. " Was she describing his size, or meaning that he was out offencing trim?

Shakespeare puts into the mouth of Julius Caesar a detaileddescription of the appearance and manner of acting of one of the chiefcharacters of the tragedy. 

 Let me have men about me that are fat; Sleek-headed men and such as sleep o' nights: Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look; He thinks too much: such men are dangerous. * * * * * Would he were fatter! But I fear him not: Yet if my name were liable to fear, I do not know the man I should avoid So soon as that spare Cassius. He reads much; He is a great observer, and he looks Quite through the deeds of men; he loves no plays, As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music; Seldom he smiles, and smiles in such a sort As if he mock'd himself and scorn'd his spirit That could be mov'd to smile at any thing. 

In _As You Like It_ when the two girls are planning to flee to theforest of Arden, Rosalind tells how she will disguise herself and actas a man. This indicates to the actress both costume and behavior forthe remainder of the comedy. 

 Were it not better, Because that I am more than common tall, That I did suit me all points like a man? A gallant curtle-axe upon my thigh, A boar-spear in my hand; and--in my heart Lie there what hidden woman's fear there will-- We'll have a swashing and a martial outside, As many other mannish cowards have That do outface it with their semblances. 

In many cases Shakespeare clearly shows the performer exactly how tocarry out his ideas of the nature of a man during part of the action. One of the plainest instances of this kind of instruction is in_Macbeth_. The ambitious thane's wife is urging him on to murder hisking. Her advice gives the directions for the following scenes. 

 O never Shall sun that morrow see! Your face, my thane, is as a book where men May read strange matters. To beguile the time, Look like the time; bear welcome in your eye, Your hand, your tongue: look like the innocent flower, But be the serpent under't. He that's coming Must be provided for: and you shall put This night's great business into my dispatch; Which shall to all our nights and days to come Give solely sovereign sway and masterdom. 

Modern dramatists are likely to be much more careful in giving adviceabout characterization. They insert a large number of stage directionscovering this matter. Speed of delivery, tone and inflection, as wellas underlying feeling and emotion are minutely indicated. 

 DUCHESS OF BERWICK

 Mr. Hopper, I am very angry with you. You have taken Agatha out on the terrace, and she is so delicate. 

 HOPPER

 [_At left of center_] Awfully sorry, Duchess. We went out for a moment and then got chatting together. 

 DUCHESS

 [_At center_] Ah, about dear Australia, I suppose?

 HOPPER

 Yes. 

 DUCHESS

 Agatha, darling! [_Beckons her over. _]

 AGATHA

 Yes, mamma!

 DUCHESS

 [_Aside_] _Did Mr. Hopper definitely--_

 AGATHA

 Yes, mamma. 

 DUCHESS

 And what answer did you give him, dear child?

 AGATHA

 Yes, mamma. 

 DUCHESS

 [_Affectionately_] My dear one! You always say the right thing. Mr. Hopper! James! Agatha has told me everything. How cleverly you have both kept your secret. 

 HOPPER

 You don't mind my taking Agatha off to Australia, then, Duchess?

 DUCHESS

 [_Indignantly_] To Australia? Oh, don't mention that dreadful vulgar place. 

 HOPPER

 But she said she'd like to come with me. 

 DUCHESS

 [_Severely_] Did you say that, Agatha?

 AGATHA

 Yes, mamma. 

 DUCHESS

 Agatha, you say the most silly things possible. 

Descriptions of Characters. In addition to definite directions atspecial times during the course of the dialogue, modern writers ofplays describe each character quite fully at his first entrance intothe action. This gives the delineator of each rôle a working basis forhis guidance. Such directions carefully followed out assure the tonefor the whole cast. They keep a subordinate part always in the properrelation to all others. They make certain the impression of the wholestory as a consistent artistic development. They preventmisunderstandings about the author's aim. They provide that everycharacter shall appear to be swayed by natural motives. They removefrom the performance all suggestions of unregulated caprice. 

Dramatists vary in the exactness and minuteness of such descriptivecharacter sketches, but even the shortest and most general isnecessary to the proper appreciation of every play, even if it isbeing merely read. When a student is assimilating a rôle forrehearsing or acting, these additions of the author are as importantas the lines themselves. 

EXERCISES

Analyze the following. Discuss the suitability of various members ofthe class for each part. Which details do you think least essential?

1. He is a tall, thin, gaunt, withered, domineering man of sixty. Whenexcited or angry he drops into dialect, but otherwise his speech, though flat, is fairly accurate. He sits in an arm-chair by the emptyhearth working calculations in a small shiny black notebook, which hecarries about with him everywhere, in a side pocket. 

2. When the curtain rises a man is seen climbing over the balcony. Hishair is close cut; his shirt dirty and blood-stained. He is followed byanother man dressed like a sailor with a blue cape, the hood drawnover his head. Moonlight. 

3. Enter Dinah Kippen quickly, a dingy and defiant young womancarrying a tablecloth. She is a nervous creature, driven half-mad bythe burden of her cares. Conceiving life, necessarily, as a path to betraversed at high speed, whenever she sees an obstacle in her way, whether in the physical or in the moral sphere, she rushes at itfuriously to remove it or destroy it. 

4. Mrs. Rhead, a woman of nearly sixty, is sitting on the sofa, crocheting some lace, which is evidently destined to trim petticoats. Her hair is dressed in the style of 1840, though her dress is of the1860 period. 

5. The song draws nearer and Patricia Carleon enters. She is dark andslight, and has a dreamy expression. Though she is artisticallydressed, her hair is a little wild. She has a broken branch of someflowering tree in her hand. 

6. Enter a Neat-herd, followed by King Alfred, who is miserably cladand shivering from cold; he carries a bow and a few broken arrows. Alog fire is burning smokily in a corner of the hut. 

7. Enter from the right Ito, the cynic philosopher, book in hand. 

8. The rising of the curtain discovers the two Miss Wetherills--twosweet old ladies who have grown so much alike it would be difficultfor a stranger to tell the one from the other. The hair of both iswhite, they are dressed much alike, both in some soft lavender coloredmaterial, mixed with soft lace. 

9. Newte is a cheerful person, attractively dressed in clothessuggestive of a successful follower of horse races. He carries a whitepot hat and tasselled cane. His gloves are large and bright. He issmoking an enormous cigar. 

10. She is young, slender, graceful; her yellow hair is in disorder, her face the color of ruddy gold, her teeth white as the bones of thecuttle-fish, her eyes humid and sea-green, her neck long and thin, with a necklace of shells about it; in her whole person somethinginexpressibly fresh and glancing, which makes one think of a creatureimpregnated with sea-salt dipped in the moving waters, coming out ofthe hiding-places of the rocks. Her petticoat of striped white andblue, torn and discolored, falls only just below the knees, leavingher legs bare; her bluish apron drips and smells of the brine like afilter; and her bare feet in contrast with the brown color that thesun has given her flesh, are singularly pallid, like the roots ofaquatic plants. And her voice is limpid and childish; and some of thewords that she speaks seem to light up her ingenuous face with amysterious happiness. 

Studying Plays. In nearly every grade of school and college, plays areeither read or studied. The usual method of study is to read the linesof the play in rotation about the class, stopping at times forexplanations, definitions, impressions, general discussions. Suchminute analysis may extend to the preparation of outlines anddiagrams. The methods used to get pupils to know plays are almost asvaried as teachers. After such analytical study has been pursued it isalways a stimulating exercise to get another impression of theplay--not as mere poetry or literature, but as acted drama. 

This may be accomplished in a short time by very simple means. Pupilsshould memorize certain portions and then recite them before theclass. Neither costumes nor scenery will be required. All the membersof the class have in their minds the appearances of the surroundingsand the persons. What they need is to _hear_ the speeches thedramatist put into the hearts and mouths of his characters. 

The best presentation would be the delivery of the entire play runningthrough some four or five class periods. If so much time cannot beallotted to this, only certain scenes need be delivered. The teachermight assign the most significant ones to groups of pupils, allowingeach group to arrange for rehearsals before appearing before theclass. In some classes the pupils may be trusted to arrange the entiredistribution of scenes and rôles. When their preliminary planning hasbeen finished, they should hand to the teacher a schedule of scenesand participants. 

Whenever a play is read or studied, pupils will be attracted more bysome passages than by others. A teacher may dispense with allassignments. The pupils could be directed merely to arrange their owngroups, choose the scenes they want to offer, and to prepare as theydecide. In such a voluntary association some members of the classmight be uninvited to speak with any group. These then might findtheir material in prologue, epilogue, chorus, soliloquy, or insertedsongs. Nearly every play contains long passages requiring for theireffect no second speaker. Shakespeare's plays contain much suchmaterial. All the songs from a play would constitute a delightfuloffering. Nothing in all the acted portion of _Henry V_ is any betterthan the stirring speeches of the Chorus. _Hamlet_ has three greatsoliloquies for boys. _Macbeth_ contains the sleepwalking scene forgirls. Milton's _Comus_ is made up of beautiful poetic passages. Everydrama studied or read for school contains enough for every member of aclass. 

Some pupils may object that unless an exact preliminary assignment ismade, two or more groups may choose the same scene. Such a probablehappening, far from being a disadvantage to be avoided, is a decidedadvantage worthy of being purposely attempted. Could anything be morestimulating than to see and hear two different casts interpret adramatic situation? Each would try to do better than the other. Eachwould be different in places. From a comparison the audience andperformers would have all the more light thrown upon what theyconsidered quite familiar. 

It would be a mistake to have five quartettes repeat the same sceneover and over again. Yet if twenty pupils had unconsciously so chosen, three presentations might be offered for discriminating observation. Then some other portion could be inserted and later the first scenecould be gone through twice. 

Assigning Rôles. Teacher and pupils should endeavor to secure varietyof interest in rôles. At first, assignments are likely to bedetermined by apparent fitness. The quiet boy is not required to playthe part of the braggart. The retiring girl is not expected toimpersonate the shrew. In one or two appearances it may be a goodthing to keep in mind natural aptitude. 

Then there should be a departure from this system. Educationaldevelopment comes not only from doing what you are best able to do, but from developing the less-marked phases of your disposition andcharacter. The opposite practice should be followed, at least once. Let the prominent class member assume a rôle of subdued personality. Let the timid take the lead. Induce the silent to deliver the majorityof the speeches. You will be amazed frequently to behold the bestdelineations springing from such assignments. 

Such rehearsing of a play already studied should terminate the minuteanalysis in order to show the material for what it is--actable drama. It will vivify the play again, and make the characters live in yourmemory as mere reading never will. You will see the moving people, thegrouped situations, the developed story, the impressive climax, andthe satisfying conclusion. 

In dealing with scenes from a long play--whether linked ordisconnected--pupils will always have a feeling of incompleteness. Ina full-length play no situation is complete in itself. It is part of alonger series of events. It may finish one part of the action, but itusually merely carries forward the plot, passing on the complicationto subsequent situations. 

Short Plays. To deal with finished products should be the nextendeavor. There are thousands of short plays suitable for classpresentation in an informal manner. Most of them do not requireintensive study, as does a great Greek or English drama, so theirpreparation may go on entirely outside the classroom. It should befrankly admitted that the exercises of delivering lines "in character"as here described is not acting or producing the play. That will comelater. These preliminary exercises--many or few, painstaking orsketchy--are processes of training pupils to speak clearly, interestingly, forcefully, in the imagined character of some otherperson. The pupil must not wrongly believe that he is acting. 

Though the delivery of a complete short play may seem like aperformance, both participants and audience must not think of it so. It is class exercise, subject to criticism, comment, improvement, exactly as all other class recitations are. 

Since the entire class has not had the chance to become familiar withall the short plays to be presented, some one should give anintroductory account of the time and place of action. There might beadded any necessary comments upon the characters. The cast ofcharacters should be written upon the board. 

This exercise should be exactly like the preceding, except that itadds the elements of developing the plot of the play, creatingsuspense, impressing the climax, and satisfactorily rounding off theplay. In order to accomplish these important effects the participantswill soon discover that they must agree upon certain details to bemade most significant. This will lead to discussions about how to makethese points stand out. In the concerted attempt to give properemphasis to some line late in the play it will be found necessary tosuppress a possible emphasis of some line early in the action. Toreinforce a trait of some person, another character may have to bemade more self-assertive. 

To secure this unified effect which every play should make the personsinvolved will have to consider carefully every detail in lines andstage directions, fully agree upon what impression they must strivefor, then heartily coöperate in attaining it. They must forgetthemselves to remember always that "the play's the thing. "

The following list will suggest short plays suitable for informalclassroom training in dramatics. Most of these are also general enoughin their appeal to serve for regular production upon a stage before amiscellaneous audience. 

Aldrich, T. B. _Pauline Pavlovna_Baring, M. _Diminutive Dramas_Butler, E. P. _The Revolt_Cannan, G. _Everybody's Husband_Dunsany, Lord _Tents of the Arabs_ The Lost Silk Hat Fame and the Poet_Fenn and Pryce. _'Op-o-Me-Thumb_Gale, Z. _Neighbors_Gerstenberg, A. _Overtones_Gibson, W. W. Plays in Collected WorksGregory, Lady. _Spreading the News The Workhouse Ward Coats, _ etc. Houghton, S. _The Dear Departed_Jones, H. A. _Her Tongue_Kreymborg, A. _Mannikin and Minnikin_Moeller, P. _Pokey_Quintero, J. And S. A. _A Sunny Morning_Rice, C. _The Immortal Lure_Stevens, T. W. _Ryland_Sudermann, H. _The Far-Away Princess_Tchekoff, A. _A Marriage Proposal_Torrence, R. _The Rider of Dreams_Walker, S. _Never-the-Less_Yeats, W. B. _Cathleen Ni Houlihan_

Producing Plays. Any class or organization which has followed thevarious forms of dramatics outlined thus far in this chapter will findit an easy matter to succeed in the production of a play before anaudience. 

The Play. The first thing to decide upon is the play itself. Thischoice should be made as far in advance of performance as is possible. Most of the work of producing a play is in adequate preparation. Up tothis time audiences have been members of the class, or small groupswith kindly dispositions and forbearing sympathies. A general audienceis more critical. It will be led to like or dislike according to thedegree its interest is aroused and held. It will be friendly, but moreexacting. The suitability of the play for the audience must beregarded. A comedy by Shakespeare which delights and impresses bothperformers and audience is much more stimulating and educating than aGreek tragedy which bores them. 

The Stage. The second determining factor is the stage. What is itssize? What is its equipment? Some plays require large stages; othersfit smaller ones better. A large stage may be made small, but it isimpossible to stretch a small one. 

Equipment for a school stage need not be elaborate. Artistic ingenuitywill do more than reckless expenditure. The simplest devices can bemade to produce the best effects. The lighting system should admit ofeasy modification. For example, it should be possible to place lightsin various positions for different effects. It should be possible toget much illumination or little. 

Scenery. No scenery should be built when the stage is first erected. If a regular scene painter furnishes the conventional exterior, interior, and woodland scenery, the stage equipment is almost ruinedfor all time. It is ridiculous that a lecturer, a musician, a schoolprincipal, and a student speaker, should appear before audiences inthe same scenery representing a park or an elaborate drawing-room. Thefirst furnishings for a stage should be a set of beautiful drapedcurtains. These can be used, not only for such undramatic purposes asthose just listed, but for a great many plays as well. 

No scenery should be provided until the first play is to be presented. Certain plays can be adequately acted before screens arrangeddifferently and colored differently for changes. When scenery must bebuilt it should be strongly built as professional scenery is. Itshould also be planned for future possible manipulation. Everydirector of school dramatics knows the delight of utilizing the samematerial over and over again. Here is one instance. An interior set, neutral in tones and with no marked characteristics of style andperiod, was built to serve in Acts I and V of _A Midsummer Night'sDream_. Hangings, furniture, costumes gave it the proper appearance. Later it was used in _Ulysses_. It has also housed Molière's _Doctorin Spite of Himself_ (_Le Medecin Malgré Lui_) and _The WealthyUpstart_ (_Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme_), Carrion and Aza's _Zaragüeta_, Sudermann's _The Far-Away Princess_, Houghton's _The Dear Departed_. The wooden frames on the rear side were painted black, the canvaspanels tan, to serve in _Twelfth Night_ for the drinking scene, ActII, scene 3. With Greek shields upon the walls it later pictured thefirst scene of _The Comedy of Errors_. With colorful border designsattached and oriental furniture it set a Chinese play. 

A definite series of dimensions should be decided upon, and allscenery should be built in relation to units of these sizes. As aresult of this, combinations otherwise impossible can be made. Beginners should avoid putting anything permanent upon a stage. Thebest stage is merely space upon which beautiful pictures may beproduced. Beware of adopting much lauded "new features" such ascycloramas, horizonts, until you are assured you need them and canactually use them. In most cases it is wise to consult some one withexperience. 

In considering plays for presentation you will have to think ofwhether your performers and your stage will permit of convincingproduction. Remembering that suggestion is often better than realism, and knowing that beautiful curtains and colored screens are moredelightful to gaze upon than cheap-looking canvas and paint, andknowing that action and costume produce telling effects, decide whatthe stage would have to do for the following scenes. 

EXERCISES

1. Read scene 2 of _Comus_ by Milton. Should the entire masque beacted out-of-doors? If presented on an indoors stage what should thesetting be? Inside the palace of Comus? How then do the Brothers getin? How do Sabrina and her Nymphs arise? From a pool, a fountain?Might the stage show an exterior? Would the palace be on one side? Theedge of the woods on the other? Would the banks of the river be at therear? Would such an arrangement make entrances, exits, acting, effective? Explain all your opinions. 

Read one of the following. Devise a stage setting for it. Describe itfully. If you can, make a sketch in black and white or in color, showing it as it would appear to the audience. Or make a working plan, showing every detail. Or construct a small model of the set, makingthe parts so that they will stand. Or place them in a box to reproducethe stage. Use one-half inch to the foot. 

2. _A Midsummer Night's Dream_, scene 1. Interior? Exterior? Color?Lighting?

3. _Hamlet_, Act I, scene 5. Castle battlements? A graveyard? Openspace in country some distance from castle?

4. _Comus_, scene 3. 

5. _The Tempest_, Act I, scene 1. 

6. _Twelfth Night_, Act II, scene 3. 

7. _Romeo and Juliet_, Act I, scene I. 

8. _Julius Caesar_, Act III, scene 2. 

9. In a long, high-vaulted room, looking out upon a Roman garden wherethe cypresses rise in narrowing shafts from thickets of oleander andmyrtle, is seated a company of men and women, feasting. 

WILLIAM SHARP: _The Lute-Player_

10. A room, half drawing-room, half study, in Lewis Davenant's housein Rockminister. Furniture eighteenth century, pictures, china inglass cases. An April afternoon in 1860. 

GEORGE MOORE: _Elizabeth Cooper_

11. An Island off the West of Ireland. Cottage kitchen, with nets, oil-skins, spinning wheel, some new boards standing by the wall, etc. 

J. M. SYNGE: _Riders to the Sea_

12. Loud music. After which the Scene is discovered, being aLaboratory or Alchemist's work-house. Vulcan looking at the registers, while a Cyclope, tending the fire, to the cornets began to sing. 

BEN JONSON: _Mercury Vindicated_

13. Rather an awesome picture it is with the cold blue river and thegreat black cliffs and the blacker cypresses that grow along itsbanks. There are signs of a trodden slope and a ferry, and there's arough old wooden shelter where passengers can wait; a bell hung on thetop with which they call the ferryman. 

CALTHROP AND BARKER: _The Harlequinade_

Long before any play is produced there should be made a sketch or planshowing the stage settings. If it is in color it will suggest theappearance of the actual stage. One important point is to be noted. Your sketch or model is merely a miniature of the real thing. If youhave a splotch of glaring color only an inch long it will appear inthe full-size setting about two feet long. A seemingly flat surfacethree by five inches in the design will come out six by ten feetbehind the footlights. 

Casting the Play. When the play is selected, the rôles must be cast. To select the performers, one of many different methods may befollowed. The instructor of the class or the director of theproduction may assign parts to individuals. When this person knows therequirements of the rôles and the abilities of the members, thismethod always saves time and effort. By placing all the responsibilityupon one person it emphasizes care in choosing to secure best results. At times a committee may do the casting. Such a method preventspersonal prejudice and immature judgments from operating. It splitsresponsibility and requires more time than the first method. It is anexcellent method for seconding the opinions of a director who does notknow very well the applicants for parts. The third method is by"try-outs. " In this the applicants show their ability. This may bedone by speaking or reciting before an audience, a committee, or thedirector. It may consist of acting some rôle. It may be the deliveryof lines from the play to be acted. It may be in a "cast reading" inwhich persons stand about the stage or room and read the lines ofcharacters in the play. If there are three or four applicants for onepart, each is given a chance to act some scene. In this manner all therôles are filled. 

There are two drawbacks to this scheme which is the fairest which canbe devised. It consumes a great deal of time. Some member of the classor organization best fitted to play a rôle may not feel disposed totry for it. Manifestly he should be the one selected. But it appearsunfair to disregard the three boys who have made the effort while hehas done nothing. Yet every rôle should be acted in the very bestmanner. For the play's sake, the best actor should be assigned thepart. A pupil may try for a part for which he is not at all suited, while he could fill another rôle better than any one who strives toget it. 

In a class which has been trained in public speaking or dramatics asthis book suggests, it should be no difficult task to cast any play, whether full-length or one act. Performers must always be chosenbecause of the possible development of their latent abilities ratherthan for assured attainments. 

These qualities must be sought for in performers of roles--obedience, dependableness, mobility, patience, endurance. 

Rehearsing. A worthy play which is well cast is an assured successbefore its first rehearsal. 

The entire group should first study the whole play under thedirector's comment. It is best to have each actor read his own part. The behavior of a minor character in the second act may depend upon aspeech in the first. The person playing that rôle must seize upon thathint for his own interpretation. 

It might be a good thing to have every person "letter perfect, " thatis, know all his speeches, at the first rehearsal. Practically, thisnever occurs. Reading from the book or the manuscript, a performer"walks through" his part, getting at the same time an idea of where heis to stand, how to move, how to speak, what to do, where to enter, when to cross the stage. All such directions he should jot down uponhis part. Then memorizing the lines will fix these stage directions inhis mind. He will be assimilating at the same time lines and"business. " "Business" on the stage is everything done by a characterexcept speaking lines. 

At all rehearsals the director is in absolute charge. His word isfinal law. This does not mean that members of the cast may not discussthings with him, and suggest details and additions. They must becareful to choose a proper time to do such things. They should neverargue, but follow directions. Time outside rehearsals may be devotedto clearing up points. Of course an actor should never lose histemper. Neither should the director. Both of these bits of advice arefrequently almost beyond observation of living human beings. Yet theyare the rules. 

Rehearsals should be frequent rather than long. Acts should berehearsed separately. Frequently only separate portions should berepeated. Combinations should be made so as not to keep during longwaits characters with only a few words. Early portions will have to berepeated more frequently than later ones to allow the actors to getinto their characterizations. Tense, romantic, sentimental, comicscenes may have to be rehearsed privately until they are quite goodenough to interest other members of the cast. 

The time for preparation will depend upon general ability of the cast, previous training, the kind of play, the amount of leisure for studyand rehearsing. In most schools a full-length play may be crowded intofour weeks. Six or seven weeks are a better allowance. 

During first rehearsals changes and corrections should be made whenneeded. Interruptions should be frequent. Later there should be nointerruptions. Comments should be made at the end of a scene andembodied in an immediate repetition to fix the change in the actors'minds. Other modifications should be announced before rehearsal, andembodied in the acting that day. 

The acting should be ready for an audience a week before the date setfor the performance. During the last rehearsals, early acts should berecalled and repeated in connection with later ones, so that time andendurance may be counted and estimated. During these days rehearsalsmust go forward without any attention from the director. He must begiving all his attention to setting, lighting, costumes, properties, furniture, and the thousand and one other details which make playproducing the discouraging yet fascinating occupation it is. Suchrepetition without constant direction will develop a sense ofindependence and coöperation in the actors and assistants which willshow in the enthusiasm and ease of the performance. Stage hands andall other assistants must be trained to the same degree of reliabilityas the hero and heroine. Nothing can be left to chance. Nothing can beunprovided until the last minute. The dress rehearsal must be exactlylike a performance, except that the audience is not present, or ifpresent, is a different one. In schools, an audience at the dressrehearsal is usually a help to the amateur performers. 

Results. A performance based on such principles and training as heresuggested should be successful from every point of view. 

The benefits to the participants are many. They include strengtheningof the power to memorize, widening of the imagination throughinterpretation of character, familiarity with a work of art, trainingin poise, utilization of speaking ability, awakening ofself-confidence, and participation in a worthy coöperative effort. 

In a broader sense such interest in good, acted plays is anintellectual stimulus. As better plays are more and more effectivelypresented the quality of play production in schools will be improved, and both pupils and communities will know more and more of the world'sgreat dramatic literature. 

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

_Additional Exercises in Exposition_

1. The value of public speaking. 

2. How Lincoln became a great speaker. 

3. Studies in a good school course. 

4. Purposes of studying geometry. 

5. Explain the reasons for studying some subject. 

6. An ideal school. 

7. Foreign language study. 

8. Forming habits. 

9. Sailing against the wind. 

10. How to play some game. Give merely the rules or imagine the gamebeing played. 

11. Difference between football in America and in England. 

12. Exercise or athletics?

13. Results of military training. 

14. The gambling instinct. 

15. Parliamentary practice. 

16. How to increase one's vocabulary. 

17. Is the story of _The Vicar of Wakefield_ too good to be true?

18. The defects of some book. 

19. Reading fiction. 

20. Magazines in America. 

21. Explain fully what a novel is, or a farce, or an allegory, or asatire. 

22. Why slang is sometimes justifiable. 

23. A modern newspaper. 

24. Select two foreign magazines. Compare and contrast them. 

25. Essential features of a good short story. 

26. Why evening papers offer so many editions. 

27. How to find a book in a public library. 

28. The difference between public speaking and oratory. 

29. Public speaking for the lawyer, the clergyman, the business man. 

30. Qualities of a book worth reading. 

31. Some queer uses of English. 

32. History in the plays of Shakespeare. 

33. How to read a play. 

34. Mistakes in books or plays. 

35. Defects of translations. 

36. "One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. "

37. "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. "

38. "You never miss the water till the well runs dry. "

39. "Penny wise, pound foolish. "

40. Select any proverb. Explain it. 

41. Choose a short quotation from some poem. Explain it. 

42. Explain some technical operation. 

43. Explain some mechanical process. 

44. A range factory. 

45. Making electric bulbs. 

46. How moving pictures are made and reproduced. 

47. Explain some simple machine. 

48. A new application of electricity. 

49. Weather forecasting. 

50. Scientific or practical value of polar expeditions. 

51. Changes of the tide. 

52. An eclipse. 

53. The principle of some such appliance as the thermometer, thebarometer, the microscope, the air-brake, the block signal. 

54. Developing a negative. 

55. How the player piano is operated. 

56. How the cash register prevents dishonesty. 

57. How a new fruit is produced--as seedless orange. 

58. Mimeographing. 

59. The value of Latin for scientific terms. 

60. The value of certain birds, worms, insects. 

61. The life history of some queer animal, or insect, or plant. 

62. How accuracy is secured. 

63. The human eye and the camera. 

64. The fireless cooker. 

65. Choose some half dozen terms from any trade or business andexplain them. To sell short, margin, bull, bear, lamb. Proscenium, apron, flies, baby spot, strike. Fold in eggs, bring to a boil, simmer, percolate, to French. File, post, carry forward, remit, credit, receivership. Baste, hem, rip, overcast, box pleat, batik, Valenciennes. 

66. Building a musical program. 

67. Commercial art. 

68. Catch phrases in advertising. 

69. Principles of successful advertising. 

70. The Linotype machine. 

71. How I made my first appearance as a public speaker. 

72. Real conversation. 

73. Mere talk. 

74. The business woman. 

75. A slump in a certain business or industry. 

76. The Red Cross in war. 

77. The Red Cross in peace. 

78. Compare the principles of two political parties. 

79. A fire alarm. 

80. Why automobiles are licensed. 

81. The powers and duties of some city or county official. 

82. The advantages that this locality offers for certain industries orkinds of agriculture. 

83. Society fads. 

84. The ideal office holder. 

85. New systems of government. 

86. Various forms of socialism. 

87. Collecting a debt by law. 

88. Explain some legal procedure as suggested by some term, asmandamus, injunction, demurrer, habeas corpus, nolle prosequi. 

89. Explain the composition and work of the Grand Jury. 

90. The efficiency expert. 

91. A new profession. 

92. The advantages of a trolley car with both entrance and exit at thefront end. 

93. Labor-saving devices. 

94. A supercargo. 

95. Scientific shop management. 

96. Hiring and discharging employees. 

97. Applying for a business position. 

98. Causes of some recent labor strike. 

99. A labor union operates as a trust. 

100. Efficiency in the kitchen. 

101. Speeding up the work. 

102. Planning a factory. 

103. Making cheap automobiles. 

104. Uses of paper. 

105. New methods of furnishing houses. 

106. Making the home beautiful. 

107. New building materials. 

108. Designing and building a boat. 

109. The lay-out of a shipyard. 

110. Rules for planting. 

111. City government. 

112. Better methods of city government. 

113. How a trial is conducted. 

114. The juvenile court. 

115. Post office savings banks. 

116. Geographic advantages of this locality. 

117. Results of irrigation. 

118. How the farmer controls world prices. 

119. Relation between some distant event and the price of some articlein the corner store. 

120. New businesses in America with their reasons for existence. 

121. The latest improvement in this locality. 

122. Why certain cities are destined to increase in population. 

123. Model homes. 

124. Housing the inhabitants of large cities. 

125. The operation of a subway. 

126. Automobile trucks instead of freight trains. 

127. How Lincoln became President. 

128. Why Webster did not become President. 

129. The dead-letter office. 

130. The Constitution of the United States and the Constitution ofGreat Britain. 

131. How the United States secured Porto Rico. 

132. A free trade policy. 

133. Commercial reciprocity. 

134. The protective tariff. 

135. Explain the application of some tax, as income, single, inheritance. 

136. How the constitutionality of a law is determined. 

137. How laws are made by Congress. 

138. The Congressional Record. 

139. The Monroe Doctrine. 

140. The attitude of foreign nations toward the Monroe Doctrine. 

141. Differences between the Chinese and the Japanese. 

142. The failure of the Hague Tribunal. 

143. The part of the United States in a league of nations. 

144. Reasons for the conditions in Mexico. 

145. Our country's duty toward Mexico. 

146. The so-called Yellow Peril. 

147. Trans-oceanic air travel. 

148. Evolution of the airship. 

149. The geodetic survey. 

150. The census bureau. 

APPENDIX B

_Additional Exercises in Argumentation_

1. Find in a magazine or newspaper some article in which conviction isthe prime factor. 

2. Find in a magazine or newspaper some article in which persuasion ismost used. 

3. Give examples from recent observation of discussions which were notargument as the term is used in this book. 

4. Explain how arguments upon a topic of current interest would differin material and treatment for three kinds of audiences. 

5. The education of the American negro should be industrial notcultural. 

6. To the Cabinet of the United States there should be added aSecretary of Education with powers to control all public education. 

7. Separate high schools for boys and girls should be maintained. 

8. It is better to attend a small college than a large one. 

9. Women should be eligible to serve as members of the school board. 

10. Pupils should be marked by a numerical average rather than by agroup letter. 

11. At least two years of Latin should be required for entrance tocollege. 

12. The honor system should be introduced in all examinations in highschools and colleges. 

13. The study of algebra should be compulsory in high school. 

14. Courses in current topics, based upon material in newspapers, should be offered in all high schools. 

15. Every high school should require the study of local civics orlocal industries. 

16. Regular gymnastic work is more beneficial than participation inorganized athletics. 

17. Girls should study domestic science. 

18. The kindergarten should be removed from our educational system. 

19. Coeducation in schools and colleges is better than segregation. 

20. Secret societies should be prohibited in high schools. 

21. A magazine or newspaper which copies material from one in which itfirst appears should be required by law to compensate the author. 

22. Moving picture exhibitions should be more strictly regulated. 

23. An exposition produces decided advantages for the city in which itis held. 

24. A county fair is a decided benefit to a rural community. 

25. All young men in this country should receive military training fora period of one year. 

26. This city should provide employment for the unemployed. 

27. Motor delivery trucks should be substituted for horse-drawnwagons. 

28. Labor unions are justified in insisting upon the re-employment ofmembers discharged for a cause which they deem unjust. 

29. Farmers should study scientific agriculture. 

30. Capital and labor should be required by law to settle theirdisputes by appeals to a legally constituted court of arbitrationwhose decisions should be enforced. 

31. In time of peace no member of a labor union should be a member ofa regularly organized military force. 

32. Overtime work should be paid for at the same rate as regular work. 

33. All work should be paid for according to the amount done ratherthan by time. 

34. Employers are justified in insisting upon the "open shop. "

35. Trade unions are justified in limiting the number of personsallowed to enter a trade. 

36. This state should establish a minimum working wage for women. 

37. The street railway company should pave and keep in repair allstreets in which its cars are operated. 

38. More definite laws concerning the sale of milk should be passed. 

39. This city should institute government by a commission. 

40. This city should institute and maintain an adequate system ofpublic playgrounds. 

41. This city should provide more free recreations for its citizens. 

42. City government should be conducted by a highly paid municipalexpert hired for the purpose of controlling city affairs exactly as hewould a large business organization. 

43. A public building for community interests is a better memorial fora city to erect than the usual monument or statue. 

44. Voting machines should be used in all cities. 

45. All public utilities should be owned and operated by the city. 

46. Judges should not be elected by popular vote. 

47. A representative should vote according to the opinions of hisconstituency. 

48. This state should provide old-age pensions. 

49. Laws should be passed making it impossible to dispose of more thanone million dollars by will. 

50. The pure food law should be strictly enforced. 

51. Every state should have a state university in which tuition forits inhabitants should be absolutely free. 

52. The Governor of a state should not have the pardoning power. 

53. No children below the age of sixteen should be allowed to work infactories. 

54. Laws concerning the sale of substitutes for butter should be mademore stringent. 

55. Sunday closing laws should be repealed. 

56. The railroads of the United States should be allowed to pool theirinterests. 

57. The present method of amending the Constitution of the UnitedStates should be changed. 

58. This government should insist upon a strict adherence to theMonroe Doctrine. 

59. The American Indian has been unjustly treated. 

60. Railroads should be under private ownership but subject togovernment control. 

61. An educational test should be required of all persons desiring toenter this country. 

62. The United States should own and control the coal mines of thecountry. 

63. Members of the House of Representatives should be chosen torepresent industries, workers, and professions, rather thangeographical divisions. 

64. Woman suffrage carries with it the right to hold office exceptwhere expressly forbidden in existing laws and constitutions. 

65. Instead of an extension of suffrage to all women there should be arestriction from the previous inclusion of all men. 

66. All raw materials should be admitted to this country free of duty. 

67. All departments of the government should be under the CivilService Act. 

68. The Civil War pension policy was a wise one. 

69. The United States should build and maintain a large navy. 

70. A high protective tariff keeps wages high. 

71. Letter postage should be reduced to one cent. 

72. Laws governing marriage and divorce should be made uniform byCongress. 

73. The present restriction upon Chinese immigration should bemodified to admit certain classes. 

74. The standing army of the United States should be increased. 

75. This government should establish a system of shipping subsidies. 

76. Repeated failure to vote should result in the loss of the right ofsuffrage. 

77. The United States should not enter into any league of nations. 

78. The defeated central powers of Europe should be admitted to fullmembership in the League of Nations. 

79. Japan should be prevented from owning or controlling any territoryupon the continent which belonged to China. 

80. Great Britain should establish Egypt as an independent country. 

81. Ireland should be organized as a Dominion similar to Canada andAustralia. 

82. The United States should establish a protectorate over Mexico. 

83. This country should demand from Germany an indemnity equal to ourexpenses in the war. 

84. The former Kaiser of Germany and his state officials responsiblefor the World War of 1914 should be tried by an international court. 

85. All European nations should agree to disarmament. 

86. Foreign missions should be discontinued. 

87. The Jews of the world should colonize Palestine. 

88. Commercial reciprocity should be established between the UnitedStates and South America. 

89. This country has no need to fear any aggression from any Asiaticrace. 

90. The government system of Great Britain is more trulyrepresentative than that of the United States. 

91. A railroad should pay ten thousand dollars to the family of anyemployee who meets death by accident while on duty. 

92. There is no such thing possible as "Christian warfare. "

93. Vivisection should be prohibited. 

94. The dead should be cremated. 

95. Cigarettes should not be sold to boys under eighteen. 

96. Children under fourteen should not be allowed to appear upon thestage. 

97. Socialism is the best possible solution of all labor problems. 

98. The Soviet system of government has details applicable to certainconditions in America. 

99. No person should be forced to undergo vaccination. 

100. Labor interests can be served best by the formation of a separatepolitical party. 

INDEX

ABBOTT, Lyman, 118

Abolition Movement, The, 185

acceptance, speech of, 284

acquired ability, 6

acting, 291

after-dinner speech, 281

Allen, John, 116

amplified definition, 203

amplifying and diminishing, 255

analogy, 233

analogy, incorrect, 252

analysis, 244

Anglo-Saxon, 51

anticipatory conclusion, 102, 105

Antony, Mark, 81

antonyms, 48

_a posteriori_ argument, 237

appealing to prejudice or passions, 247

appropriate diction, 54

_a priori_ argument, 236

argumentation, 218

_argumentum ad hominem_, 249

_argumentum ad populum_, 247

Aristotle, 97

arrangement, 151, 164

assigning rôles, 312

attacking speaker's character, 249

attributes of speaker, 29

audience in debate, 262

authorities, 180, 232

BACON, 5

Beecher, Henry Ward, 82, 83, 162

begging the question, 245

Birrell, Augustine, 114

brief, 28, 170

brief, making a, 187

brief, speaking from the, 191

briefing, selections for, 180

Bright, John, 29

burden of proof, 225

Burke, Edmund, 23, 65, 66, 80, 116, 162, 167, 172, 255

business, 322

CALHOUN, John C. , 66, 108, 206

capital punishment, brief, 173

cards, 134-5

casting a play, 320

causal relation, 237

cause to effect, 209, 236

Channing, William Ellery, 249

character delineation, 292

characters, description of, 307

characters in plays, 303

Chatham, Lord, 111

Cheyney, Edward P. , 204

Choate, Rufus, 63

choosing a theme, 281

Cicero, 77

circumstantial evidence, 226

classification, 199

Clay, Henry, 249

climax, 301

coherence, 154

commemorative speech, 283

comparison, 208

complex sentence, 59

composition of the English language, 50

compound sentence, 60

conclusion, length, 99

consonants, 17

constructive argument, 256

contradiction, 244

contrast, 208

conversations, memorized, 300

conviction, 220

Crabbe, _English Synonyms_, 48

cross references, 137

Curtis, George William, 52, 54, 67, 120, 253

DANIEL, John W. , 119

debaters, 262

debating, 258

decision in debate, 260

deductive reasoning, 229

definition, 201

delineation of character, 292

delivery, 26

delivery of introductions, 89

Demosthenes, 8

description of characters, 307

Dewey, M. , 139

dialogue, 294

_differentia_, 201

diminishing, amplifying and, 255

direct evidence, 226

discarding material, 146

division, 199

dramatics, 291

drawbacks, 8

dress rehearsal, 323

Dunsany, Lord, 298

EFFECT to cause, 210, 237

elimination, 236

eloquence, false, 284

Elson, H. W. , 131

emphasis, 22, 155

enthymeme, 231

enunciation, 23

Evarts, William M. , 118

Everett, Edward, 67

evidence, 226

examples, 206, 232

exclamatory sentence, 60

explaining, 194

explanation, 232

exposition, 194

experience, 122

FALLACIES, 251

false eloquence, 284

Fernald, _English Synonyms, Antonyms, and Prepositions_, 48

finding the issues, 267

Ford, Simeon, 114

Fox, Charles James, 9

Fox, John, 23

Franklin, Benjamin, 77

GENERAL terms, 52

genus, 201

gestures, 26

getting material, 122

Gettysburg Address, 183

Gratiano, 6

HALE, Edward Everett, 118

Hamlet's advice to players, 31

hasty generalization, 228

Hayne, 162

Henry, Patrick, 64, 84, 85, 112

Homer, 298

Howell, Clark, 119

Huxley, Thomas H. , 150

IDEAS and words, 38

ignoring the question, 246

importance, 212

importance of speech, 1

improvisation, 294

inaugural speech, 285

Incidents of Government Trading, 181

incorrect analogy, 252

increasing the vocabulary, 39

index, 130

inductive reasoning, 228

interrogative sentence, 61

interview, 125

introduction, length, 72

introduction, purpose, 73

introduction and audience, 76

invention and speech, 3

issues, 267

JEFFERSON, Joseph, 120

Jefferson, Thomas, 117

judges, 268

_Julius Caesar_, 81

KINDS of propositions, 822

Knox, Philander, 269

LANGUAGE, 12, 197

League of Nations, 269

legal brief, 170

length of speech, 143

library, 136

library classification, 138

Lincoln, Abraham, 9, 30, 57, 65, 100, 103, 117, 148, 172, 183, 255

list of short plays, 314

long sentences, 61

Lodge, Henry Cabot, 76, 135

logical definition, 201

Lowell, Abbott Lawrence, 136

MACAULAY, Thomas Babington, 52, 68, 160, 208, 233, 246, 268

making a brief, 187

manner in debate, 277

margins, 175

material of speeches, 121

McCumber, P. J. , 268

memorized conversations, 300

memorizing, 28, 191

methods of explaining, 198

military leadership, 5

NATURALNESS, 292

nominating speech, 287

notes, 133

OBSERVATION, 122

organs of speech, 14

organ pipe, 14

Otis, James, 88

outline, 28, 164

PANAMA Canal, 110

particulars of general statement, 205

partition, 199

Penn, William, 258

periodicals, 139

peroration, 109

persuading, 218

persuasion, 237

persuasive speech, 288

Phillips, Wendell, 185

phrasing, 22

pitch, 21

place, 211

plan, 156

plays, characters in, 303

plays, producing, 315

plays, short, 313

plays, studying, 310

poise, 25

pose, 25

_Power Plant Engineering_, 187

prefixes, 41

preparation for debate, 266

preparing introductions, 89

preparing the conclusion, 95

presentation and acceptance, speeches of, 284

presiding officer, 261

presiding officers, 279

producing plays, 315

pronunciation, 24

proof, 232

proposition, 221, 265

propositions of fact, 223

propositions of policy, 223

proving, 218

READING, 128

reading the speech, 27

rebuttal, restrictions, 276

rebuttal speeches, 266

recapitulation, 106

reducing to absurdity, 258

_reductio ad absurdum_, 253

refuting, 242, 251

rehearsing, 321

residues, 234

results of training, 10

retrospective conclusion, 101, 105

Roget's _Thesaurus_, 43

rôles, assigning, 312

Romance, 51

Roosevelt, Theodore, 69, 100, 101, 104, 109, 114

SANITATION, 70

scenery, 816

scholastic debating, 265

selecting material, 130

selections for briefing, 180

self-criticism, 192

sentences, 58

Shakespeare, 304

short plays, 313

short sentences, 61

Sidney, Sir Phillip, 90

simple sentence, 58

sincerity, 292

singing, 18

speakers in debate, 272

speaking from the brief, 191

speaking from the floor, 70

special occasions, speaking upon, 278

specific terms, 52

specimen brief, capital punishment, 173

speech in modern life, 2

speed, 20

stage, 316

statistics, 187

studying plays, 310

suffixes, 43

summary, 107

Sumner, Charles, 148, 160, 234

support of a measure, 288

syllogism, 229

symbols, 176

synonyms, 46

TABLE of contents, 130

tabulations, 178

talk, 5

taking notes, 133

team work, 271

theme, choosing a, 281

Thesaurus, 43

thinking, 161

thought, 12

time limit in debates, 265

time order, 210

time order reversed, 211

tone, 15, 19

tradition, 248

transitions, 157

trite expressions, 55

Twain, Mark, 145

UNDERSTANDING, 129, 196

unity, 152

VAN DYKE, Henry, 115

vocabularies, 37

voice, 14

vowels, 16

WASHINGTON, Booker T. , 161

Washington, George, 103, 159, 206

Webster, Daniel, 10, 83, 84, 102, 106, 107, 111, 149, 205, 231, 254

Wilson, Woodrow, 69, 75, 105, 114, 117

wording the proposition, 224