Transcriber's Note: Phonetic characters are represented by the following symbols: [^1] = raised "1", etc. [e] = inverted "e" or schwa [oe] = oe ligature character ['x] = any letter "x" with acute accent [=x] = any letter "x" with macron [)x] = any letter "x" with breve [=xy] = any pair of letters "xy" with joining macron, except [=OE], [=ae] = OE, ae ligature characters with macron ['oe], ['ae] = oe, ae ligature characters with acute accent and [)xy] = any pair of letters "xy" with joining breve, except [)AE], [)ae], [)OE], [)oe] = AE, ae, OE, oe ligature characters with breve

_S. P. E. TRACT NO. IV_

THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM THE LATIN

BY JOHN SARGEAUNT

WITH PREFACE AND NOTES BY H. BRADLEY

CORRESPONDENCE & MISCELLANEOUS NOTES BY H. B. , R. B. , W. H. F. , ANDEDITORIAL

_AT THE CLARENDON PRESS_ MDCCCCXX

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM LATIN

[This paper may perhaps need a few words of introduction concerningthe history of the pronunciation of Latin in England. 

The Latin taught by Pope Gregory's missionaries to their Englishconverts at the beginning of the seventh century was a livinglanguage. Its pronunciation, in the mouths of educated people whenthey spoke carefully, was still practically what it had been inthe first century, with the following important exceptions. 1. Theconsonantal _u_ was sounded like the _v_ of modern English, 2. The _c_before front vowels (_e_, _i_, _o_, _æ_, _oe_), and the combinations_t[)i]_, _c[)i]_ before vowels, were pronounced _ts_. 3. The _g_before front vowels had a sound closely resembling that of the Latinconsonantal _i_. 4. The _s_ between vowels was pronounced like our_s_. 5. The combinations _æ_, _oe_ were no longer pronounced asdiphthongs, but like the simple _e_. 6. The ancient vowel-quantitieswere preserved only in the penultima of polysyllables (where theydetermined the stress); in all other positions the original system ofquantities had given place to a new system based mainly on rhythm. Ofthis system in detail we have little certain knowledge; but one ofits features was that the vowel which ended the first syllable ofa disyllabic was always long: _p[=a]ter_, _p[=a]trem_, _D[=e]us_, _p[=i]us_, _[=i]ter_, _[=o]vis_, _h[=u]mus_. 

Even so early as the beginning of the fifth century, St. Augustinetells us that the vowel-quantities, which it was necessary to learnin order to write verse correctly, were not observed in speech. TheLatin-speaking schoolboy had to learn them in much the same fashion asdid the English schoolboy of the nineteenth century. 

It is interesting to observe that, while the English scholars ofthe tenth century pronounced their Latin in the manner which theirancestors had learned from the continental missionaries, the traditionof the ancient vowel-quantities still survived (to some extent atleast) among their British neighbours, whose knowledge of Latin was aninheritance from the days of Roman rule. On this point the followingpassage from the preface to Ælfric's Latin Grammar (written forEnglish schoolboys about A. D. 1000) is instructive:--

 Miror ualde quare multi corripiunt sillabas in prosa quae in metro breues sunt, cum prosa absoluta sit a lege metri; sicut pronuntiant _pater_ brittonice et _malus_ et similia, quae in metro habentur breues. Mihi tamen uidetur melius inuocare Deum Patrem honorifice producta sillaba quam brittonice corripere, quia nec Deus arti grammaticae subiciendus est. 

The British contagion of which Ælfric here complains had no permanenteffect. For after the Norman Conquest English boys learned their Latinfrom teachers whose ordinary language was French. For a time, theywere not usually taught to write or read English, but only Frenchand Latin; so that the Englishmen who attempted to write their nativelanguage did so in a phonetic orthography on a French basis. Thehigher classes in England, all through the thirteenth century, had twonative languages, English and French. 

In the grammar schools, the Latin lessons were given in French; it wasnot till the middle of the fourteenth century that a bold educationalreformer, John Cornwall, could venture to make English the vehicleof instruction. In reading Latin, the rhythmically-determinedvowel-quantities of post-classical times were used; and the Romanletters were pronounced, first as they were in French, and afterwardsas in English, but in the fourteenth century this made littledifference. 

In Chaucer's time, the other nations of Europe, no less than England, pronounced Latin after the fashion of their own vernaculars. When, subsequently, the phonetic values of the letters in the vernaculargradually changed, the Latin pronunciation altered likewise. Hence, inthe end, the pronunciation of Latin has become different in differentcountries. A scholar born in Italy has great difficulty in followinga Frenchman speaking Latin. He has greater difficulty in understandingan Englishman's Latin, because in English the changes in the soundsof the letters have been greater than in any other language. Everyvowel-letter has several sounds, and the normal long sound of everyvowel-letter has no resemblance whatever to its normal short sound. Asin England the pronunciation of Latin developed insensibly along withthat of the native tongue, it eventually became so peculiar that bycomparison the 'continental pronunciation' may be regarded as uniform. 

It is sometimes imagined that the modern English way of pronouncingLatin was a deliberate invention of the Protestant reformers. For thisview there is no foundation in fact. It may be conceded that Englishecclesiastics and scholars who had frequent occasion to converse inLatin with Italians would learn to pronounce it in the Italian way;and no doubt the Reformation must have operated to arrest the growingtendency to the Italianization of English Latin. But there is noevidence that before the Reformation the un-English pronunciation wastaught in the schools. The grammar-school pronunciation of the earlynineteenth century was the lineal descendant of the grammar-schoolpronunciation of the fourteenth century. 

This traditional system of pronunciation is now rapidly becomingobsolete, and for very good reasons. But it is the basis of thepronunciation of the many classical derivatives in English; andtherefore it is highly important that we should understand preciselywhat it was before it began to be sophisticated (as in our own earlydays) by sporadic and inconsistent attempts to restore the classicalquantities. In the following paper Mr. Sargeaunt describes, with aminuteness not before attempted, the genuine English tradition ofLatin pronunciation, and points out its significance as a factor inthe development of modern English. 

H. B. ]

 * * * * *

It seems not to be generally known that there is a real principlein the English pronunciation of words borrowed from Latin and Greek, whether directly or through French. In this matter the very knowledgeof classical Latin, of its stresses and its quantities, still moreperhaps an acquaintance with Greek, is apt to mislead. Some speakersseem to think that their scholarship will be doubted unless they say'doctrínal' and 'scriptúral' and 'cinéma'. The object of this paper isto show by setting forth the principles consciously or unconsciouslyfollowed by our ancestors that such pronunciations are as erroneousas in the case of the ordinary man they are unnatural and pedantic. An exception for which there is a reason must of course be accepted, but an exception for which reason is unsound is on every ground tobe deprecated. Among other motives for preserving the traditionalpronunciation must be reckoned the claim of poetry. Mark Pattisonnotes how a passage of Pope which deals with the Barrier Treaty losesmuch of its effect because we no longer stress the second syllable of'barrier'. Pope's word is gone beyond recovery, but others which arethreatened by false theories may yet be preserved. 

The _New English Dictionary_, whose business it is to record facts, shows that in not a few common words there is at present muchconfusion and uncertainty concerning the right pronunciation. Thisapplies mostly to the position of the stress or, as some prefer tocall it, the accent, but in many cases it is true also of the quantityof the vowels. It is desirable to show that there is a principle inthis matter, rules which have been naturally and unconsciously obeyed, because they harmonize with the genius of the English tongue. 

For nearly three centuries from the Reformation to the Victorian erathere was in this country a uniform pronunciation of Latin. It had itsown definite principles, involving in some cases a disregard of theclassical quantities though not of the classical stress or accent. Itsurvives in borrowed words such as _[=a]li[)a]s_ and _st[)a]mina_, in naturalized legal phrases, such as _N[=i]s[=i] Prius_ and _[=o]nusprobandi_, and with some few changes in the Westminster Play. Thispronunciation is now out of fashion, but, since its supersession doesnot justify a change in the pronunciation of words which have becomepart of our language, it will be well to begin with a formulation ofits rules. 

The rule of Latin stress was observed as it obtained in the timeof Quintilian. In the earliest Latin the usage had been other, thestress coming as early in the word as was possible. Down to the daysof Terence and probably somewhat later the old rule still held goodof quadrisyllables with the scansion of _m[)u]l[)i][)e]r[)i]s_ or_m[)u]l[)i][)e]r[=e]s_, but in other words had given way to the laterQuintilian rule, that all words with a long unit as penultimatehad the stress on the vowel in that unit, while words of morethan two syllables with a short penultimate had the stress on theantepenultimate. I say 'unit' because here, as in scansion, whatcounts is not the syllable, but the vowel plus all the consonantsthat come between it and the next vowel. Thus _inférnus_, where thepenultimate vowel is short, no less than _suprémus_, where it is long, has the stress on the penultima. In _volucris_, where the penultimateunit was short, as it was in prose and could be in verse, the stresswas on the _o_, but when _ucr_ made a long unit the stress comes onthe _u_, though of course the vowel remains short. In polysyllablesthere was a secondary stress on the alternate vowels. Ignorance ofthis usage has made a present-day critic falsely accuse Shakespeareof a false quantity in the line

 Coríolánus in Coríoli. 

It may be safely said that from the Reformation to the nineteenthcentury no Englishman pronounced the last word otherwise than I havewritten it. The author of the Pronouncing Dictionary attached tothe 'Dictionary of Gardening' unfortunately instructs us to say_gládiolus_ on the ground that the _i_ is short. The ground alleged, though true, is irrelevant, and, although Terence would havepronounced it _gládiolus_, Quintilian, like Cicero, would have said_gladíolus_. Mr. Myles quotes Pliny for the word, but Pliny would nomore have thought of saying _gládiolus_ than we should now think ofsaying 'laboúr' except when we are reading Chaucer. 

We need not here discuss the dubious exceptions to this rule, suchas words with an enclitic attached, e. G. _prim[)a]que_ in which someauthorities put the stress on the vowel which precedes the enclitic, or such clipt words as 'illuc', where the stress may at one time havefallen on the last vowel. In any case no English word is concerned. 

In very long words the due alternation of stressed and unstressedvowels was not easy to maintain. There was no difficulty in sucha combination as _hónoríficábilí_ or as _tudínitátibús_, butwith the halves put together there would be a tendency to say_hónoríficabilitúdinitátibus_. Thus there ought not to be muchdifficulty in saying _Cónstantínopólitáni_, whether you keep the longantepenultima or shorten it after the English way; but he who forcedthe reluctant word to end an hexameter must have had 'Constantinóple'in his mind, and therefore said _Constántinópolitáni_ with two falsestresses. The result was an illicit lengthening of the second _o_. His other false quantity, the shortening of the second _i_, wasdue to the English pronunciation, the influence of such words as'metropol[)i]tan', and, as old schoolmasters used to put it, a neglectof the Gradus. Even when the stress falls on this antepenultimate_i_, it is short in English speech. Doubtless Milton shortened it in'Areopagitica', just as English usage made him lengthen the initialvowel of the word. 

Probably very few of the Englishmen who used the traditionalpronunciation of Latin knew that they gave many different sounds toeach of the symbols or letters. Words which have been transportedbodily into English will provide examples under each head. It will beunderstood that in the traditional pronunciation of Latin these wordswere spoken exactly as they are spoken in the English of the presentday. For the sake of simplicity it may be allowed us to ignore somedistinctions rightly made by phoneticians. Thus the long initial vowelof _alias_ is not really the same as the long initial vowel of _area_, but the two will be treated as identical. It will thus be possible towrite of only three kinds of vowels, long, short, and obscure. 

The letter or symbol _a_ stood for two long sounds, heard in the firstsyllables of _alias_ and of _larva_, for the short sound heard in thefirst syllable of _stamina_, and for the obscure sound heard in thelast syllable of each of these last two words in English. 

The letter _e_ stood for the long sounds heard in _genus_ and in_verbum_, for the short sound heard in _item_, and for the obscuresound heard in _cancer_. When it ended a word it had, if short, thesound of a short _i_, as in _pro lege_, _rege_, _grege_, as also inunstressed syllables in such words as _precentor_ and _regalia_. 

The letter _i_ stood for the two long sounds heard in _minor_ and in_circus_ and for the short sound heard in _premium_ and _incubus_. 

The letter _o_ stood for the two long sounds heard in _odium_ and in_corpus_, for the short sound in _scrofula_, and for the obscure in_extempore_. 

The two long sounds of _u_ are heard in _rumor_, if that spellingmay be allowed, and in the middle syllable of _laburnum_, the twoshort sounds in the first _u_ of _incubus_ and in the first _u_ of_lustrum_, the obscure sound in the final syllables of these twowords. Further the long sound was preceded except after _l_ and _r_ bya parasitic _y_ as in _albumen_ and _incubus_. This parasitic _y_ isperhaps not of very long standing. In some old families the traditionstill compels such pronunciations as _moosic_. 

The diphthongs _æ_ and _oe_ were merely _e_, while _au_ and _eu_ weresounded as in our _August_ and _Euxine_. The two latter diphthongsstood alone in never being shortened even when they were unstressedand followed by two consonants. Thus men said _[=Eu]stolia_ and_[=Au]gustus_, while they said _[)Æ]schylus_ and _[)OE]dipus. _ Drydenand many others usually wrote the _Æ_ as _E_. Thus Garrick in a lettercommends an adaptation of 'Eschylus', and although Boswell reports himas asking Harris 'Pray, Sir, have you read Potter's _Æschylus_?' boththe speaker and the reporter called the name _Eschylus_. 

The letter _y_ was treated as _i_. 

The consonants were pronounced as in English words derived from Latin. Thus _c_ before _e_, _i_, _y_, _æ_, and _oe_ was _s_, as in _census_, _circus_, _Cyrus_, _Cæsar_, and _coelestial_, a spelling not classicaland now out of use. Elsewhere _c_ was _k_. Before the same vowels _g_was _j_ (d[ezh]), as in _genus_, _gibbus_, _gyrus_. The sibilant wasvoiced or voiceless as in English words, the one in _rosaceus_, theother in _saliva_. 

It will be seen that the Latin sounds were throughout franklyAnglicized. According to Burney a like principle was followed byBurke when he read French poetry aloud. He read it as though it wereEnglish. Thus on his lips the French word _comment_ was pronounced asthe English word _comment_. 

The rule that overrode all others, though it has the exceptions givenbelow, was that vowels and any other diphthongs than _au_ and _eu_, ifthey were followed by two consonants, were pronounced short. Thus _a_in _magnus_, though long in classical Latin, was pronounced as in our'magnitude', and _e_ in _census_, in Greek transcription representedby [Greek: eta], was pronounced short, as it is when borrowed intoEnglish. So were the penultimate vowels in _villa_, _nullus_, _cæspes_. 

This rule of shortening the vowel before two consonants held good evenwhen in fact only one was pronounced, as in _nullus_ and other wordswhere a double consonant was written and in Italian pronounced. 

Moreover, the parasitic _y_ was treated as a consonant, hence our'v[)a]cuum'. 

In the penultima _qu_ was treated as a single consonant, so that thevowel was pronounced long in _[=a]quam_, _[=e]quam_, _in[=i]quam_, _l[=o]quor_. So it was after _o_, hence our 'coll[=o]quial'; but inearlier syllables than the penultima _qu_ was treated as a doubleconsonant, hence our 'sub[)a]queous', 'equity', 'iniquity'. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. When the former of the two consonants was _r_ and the latteranother consonant than _r_, as in the series represented by _larva_, _verbum_, _circus_, _corpus_, _laburnum_, the vowels are a separateclass of long vowels, though not really recognized as such. Of courseour ancestors and the Gradus marked them long because in verse thevowel with the two consonants makes a long unit. 

2. A fully stressed vowel before a mute and _r_, or before _d_or _pl_, was pronounced long in the penultima. Latin examples are_labrum_, _Hebrum_, _librum_, _probrum_, _rubrum_, _acrem_, _cedrum_, _vafrum_, _agrum_, _pigrum_, _aprum_, _veprem_, _patrem_, _citrum_, _utrum_, _triplus_, _duplex_, _Cyclops_. Moreover, in other syllablesthan the penultima the vowel in the same combinations was pronouncedlong if the two following vowels had no consonant between them, as_patria_, _Hadria_, _acrius_. (Our 'triple' comes from _triplum_ andis a duplicate of '_treble_'. Perhaps the short vowel is due to itspassage through French. Our 'citron' comes from _citronem_, in which_i_ was short. )

3. The preposition and adverb _post_ was pronounced with a long vowelboth by itself and in composition with verbs, but its adjectivesdid not follow suit. Hence we say in English 'p[=o]stpone', but'p[)o]sterior' and 'p[)o]sthumous'. 

Monosyllables ending in a vowel were pronounced long, those ending ina consonant short. Enclitics like _que_ were no real exception asthey formed part of the preceding word. There were, however, some realexceptions. 

1. Pronouns ending in _-os_, as _hos_, _quos_. These followed _eos_and _illos_. 

2. Words ending in _-es_, as _pes_, _res_. 

3. Words ending in _r_, as _par_, _fer_, _vir_, _cor_, _fur_. Thesehad that form of long vowel which we use in 'part', 'fertile', 'virtue', 'cordate', 'furtive'. 

In, disyllables the former vowel or diphthong, if followed by a singleconsonant, or by a mute and _r_, or by _cl_ or _pl_, was pronouncedlong, a usage which according to Mr. Henry Bradley dates in spokenLatin from the fourth century. Examples are _apex_, _tenet_, _item_, _focus_, _pupa_, _Psyche_, _Cæsar_, _foetus_. I believe that at firstthe only exceptions were _tibi_, _sibi_, _ibi_, _quibus_, _tribus_. Inlater days the imperfect and future of _sum_ became exceptions. Hereperhaps the short vowel arose from the hideous and wholly erroneoushabit, happily never universal though still in some vogue, of reciting_erám_, _erás_, _erát_. There are actually schoolbooks which treat theverse _ictus_, the beat of the chanter's foot, as a word stress andprescribe _terra tribús scopulís_. I can say of these books only_Pereant ipsi, mutescant scriptores_, and do not mind using apost-classical word in order to say it. 

In disyllables the former vowel or diphthong, if followed immediatelyby another vowel or diphthong, had the quality, and if emphatic alsothe quality, of a long vowel. The distinction was not recognized, and seems not to be generally acknowledged even now. We seem not tohave borrowed many words which will illustrate this. We have however_fiat_, and _pius_ was pronounced exactly as we pronounce 'pious', while for a diphthong we may quote Shelley, Mid the mountains Euganean I stood listening to the paean. 

English derivatives will show the long quality of the vowels in _aer_, _deus_, _coit_, _duo_. To these add _Graius_. 

The rule of _apex_ applies also to words of more than two syllableswith long penultima, as _gravamen_, _arena_, _saliva_, _abdomen_, _acumen_. The rule of _aer_ also holds good though it hardly hasother instances than Greek names, as _Macháon_, _Ænéas_, _Thalía_, _Achelóus_, _Ach['æ]i_. 

In words of more than two syllables with short penultima the vowelin the stressed antepenultima was pronounced short when there was aconsonant between the two last vowels, and _i_ and _y_ were shorteven when no consonant stood in that place. Examples are _stamina_, _Sexagesima_, _minimum_, _modicum_, _tibia_, _Polybius_. But _u_, _au_, _eu_ were, as usual, exceptions, as _tumulus_, _Aufidus_, _Eutychus_. I believe that originally men said _C[)æ]sarem_, as theycertainly said _c[)æ]spitem_ and _C[)æ]tulum_, as also _C[)æ]sarea_, but here in familiar words the cases came to follow the nominative. 

Exceptions to the rule were verb forms which had _[=a]v_, _[=e]v_, _[=i]v_, or _[=o]v_ in the antepenultima, as _am[=a]veram_, _defieverat_, _audivero_, _moveras_, and like forms from aorists withthe penultima long, as _suaseram_, _egero_, _miserat_, _roseras_, andtheir compounds. 

This rule was among the first to break down, and about the middleof the nineteenth century the Westminster Play began to observe thetrue quantities in the antepenultimate syllables. Thus in spite of'cons[)i]deration' boys said _s[=i]dera_, and in spite of 'n[)o]minal'they said _nômina_, while they still said _s[)o]litus_ and_r[)a]pidus_. 

On the other hand the following rule, of which borrowed words providemany examples, still obtains in the Play. In words of more than twosyllables any vowel in the antepenultima other than _i_ or _y_ waspronounced long if no consonant divided the two following vowels. Possibly the reason was that there was a synæresis of the two vowels, but I doubt this, for a parasitic _y_ was treated as a consonant. Examples are _alias_, _genius_, _odium_, _junior_, _anæmia_, andon the other hand _f[)i]lius_, _L[)y]dia_. Compound verbs with ashort prefix were exceptions, as _[)o]beo_, _r[)e]creo_, whence our'recreant'. A long prefix remained long as in _d[=e]sino_. The onlyother exception that I can remember was _Ph[)o]loe_. 

In polysyllables the general rule was that all vowels and diphthongsbefore the penultima other than _u_, when it bore a primary orsecondary stress, and _au_ and _eu_ were pronounced short exceptwhere the 'alias' rule or the 'larva' rule applied. Thus we said_h[)e]r[)e]ditaritis_, _[)æ]qu[)a]bilitas_, _imb[)e]cillus_, _susp[)i]cionem_, but _fid[=u]ciarius_, _m[=e]diocritas_, _p[=a]rticipare_. I do not know why the popular voice now gives_[)A]riadne_, for our forefathers said _[=A]riadne_ as they said_[=a]rea_. 

In very long words the alternation of stress and no-stress wasinsisted on. I remember a schoolmaster who took his degree at Oxfordin the year 1827 reproving a boy for saying _Álphesib['oe]us_ insteadof _Alphesib['oe]us_, and I suspect that Wordsworth meant no invertedstress in

 Laódamía, that at Jove's command--

nor Landor in

 Artémidóra, gods invisible--

though I hope that they did. 

 * * * * *

It is not to be thought that these rules were in any way arbitrary. Solittle was this so that, I believe, they were never even formulated. If examples with the quantities marked were ever given, they must havebeen for the use of foreigners settling in England. English boys didnot want rules, and their teachers could not really have given them. The teachers did not understand that each vowel represented not twosounds only, a long and a short, but many more. This fact was no moreunderstood by John Walker, the actor and lexicographer, who in 1798published a Key to the Classical Pronunciation of Greek and Latinproper names. His general rule was wrong as a general rule, and so faras it agreed with facts it was useless. He says that when a vowel endsa syllable it is long, and when it does not it is short. Apart fromthe confusion of cause and effect there is the error of identifyingfor instance the _e_ in _beatus_ and the _e_ in _habebat_. Moreover, Walker confounds the _u_ in 'curfew', really long, with the short andotherwise different _u_ in 'but'. The rule was useless as a guide, for it did not say whether _moneo_ for instance was to be read as_ino-neo_ or as _mon-eo_, and therefore whether the _o_ was to be longor short. Even Walker's list is no exact guide. He gives for instance_M[=o]-na_, which is right, and _M[=o]-næses_, which is not. Nowwithout going into the difference between long vowels and ordinaryvowels, of which latter some are long in scansion and some short, it is clear that there is no identity. In fact _Mona_, has the long_o_ of 'moan' and _Monæses_ the ordinary _o_ of 'monaster'. A boy atschool was not troubled by these matters. He had only two things tolearn, first the quantity of the penultimate unit, second the factthat a final vowel was pronounced. When he knew these two thingshe gave the Latin word the sounds which it would have if it werean English word imported from the Latin. Thus he finds the word_civilitate_. I am not sure that he could find it, but that does notmatter. He would know 'civility', and he learns that the penultima ofthe Latin word is long. Therefore he says _c[)i]v[)i]l[)i]t[=a]t[)e]_. Again he knows '[)i]nf[)i]n[)i]t' (I must be allowed to spell theword as it is pronounced except in corrupt quires). He finds thatthe penultima of _infinitivus_ is long, and he therefore says_[)i]nf[)i]n[)i]t[=i]v[)u]s_. Again he knows 'irradiate', andfinding that the penultima of _irradiabitur_ is short he says_[)i]rr[=a]d[)i][)a]b[)i]t[)u]r_. It is true that some of theseverb forms under the influence of their congeners came to havean exceptional pronunciation. Thus _irradi[=a]bit_ led at last to_irradi[=a]bitur_, but I doubt whether this occurred before thenineteenth century. The word _dabitur_, almost naturalized by Luther'sadage of _date et dabitur_, kept its short _a_ down to the time whenit regained it, in a slightly different form, by its Roman right;and _am[)a]mini_ and _mon[)e]mini_ were unwavering in their use. Oldpeople said _v[=a]ri[)a]bilis_ long after the true quantities hadasserted themselves, and the word as the specific name of a plant maybe heard even now. Its first syllable of course follows what I shallcall the 'alias' rule. We may still see this rule in other instances. All men say 'hippopót[)a]mus', and even those who know that this _a_is short in Greek can say nothing but 'Mesopot[=a]mia', unless indeedthe word lose its blessed and comforting powers in a disyllabicabbreviation. When a country was named after Cecil Rhodes, where the_e_ in the surname is mute, we all called it 'Rhod[=e]sia'. Had itbeen named after a Newman, where the _a_ is short or rather obscure, we should all have called it 'Newm[=a]nia ', while, named after aDavis, it would certainly have been 'Dav[)i]sia'. The process ofthought would in each case have been unconscious. A new example is'aviation', whose first vowel has been instinctively lengthened. 

Again, when the word 'telegram' was coined, some scholars objected toits formation and insisted upon 'telegrapheme', but the most obdurateGrecian did not propose to keep the long Greek vowel in the firstsyllable. When only the other day 'cinematograph' made its not whollydesirable appearance, it made no claim to a long vowel in either ofits two first syllables. Not till it was reasonably shortened into'c[)i]n[)e]ma' did a Judge from the Bench make a lawless decree for along second vowel, and even he left the _i_ short though it is long inGreek. 

Of course with the manner of speech the quantities had to be learntseparately. The task was not as difficult as some may think. To boyswith a taste for making verses the thumbing of a Gradus (I hope thatno one calls it a Gr[)a]dus) was always a delightful occupation, anda quantity once learnt was seldom forgotten. It must be admitted that, as boys were forced to do verses, whether they could or not, therewere always some who could read and yet forget. 

Although these usages did not precede but followed the pronunciationof words already borrowed from Latin, we may use them to classifythe changes of quantity. We shall see that although there are someexceptions for which it is difficult to give a reason, yet most ofthe exceptions fall under two classes. When words came to us throughFrench, the pronunciation was often affected by the French form of theword. Thus the adjective 'present' would, if it had come direct fromLatin, have had a long vowel in the first syllable. To an English ear'pr[)e]sent' seemed nearer than 'pr[=e]sent' to the French 'présent'. The _N. E. D. _ says that 'gladiator' comes straight from the Latin'gladiatorem'. Surely in that case it would have had its first vowellong, as in 'radiator' and 'mediator'. In any case its pronunciationmust have been affected by 'gladiateur'. The other class of exceptionsconsists of words deliberately introduced by writers at a late period. Thus 'adorable' began as a penman's word. Following 'inéxorable' andthe like it should have been 'ádorable'. Actually it was formed byadding _-able_ to 'adóre', like 'laughable'. It is now too stiff inthe joints to think of a change, and must continue to figure with theother sins of the Restoration. 

Before dealing with the words as classified by their formation, we maymake short lists of typical words to show that for the pronunciationof English derivatives it is idle to refer to the classicalquantities. 

From _[=æ]_: [)e]difice, [)e]mulate, c[)e]rulean, qu[)e]stion. 

From _[=oe]_: [)e]conomy, [)e]cumenical, conf[)e]derate. 

From _[=a]_, : don[)a]tive, n[)a]tural, cl[)a]mour, [)a]verse. 

From _[)a]_: [=a]lien, st[=a]tion, st[=a]ble, [=a]miable. 

From _[=e]_: [)e]vident, Quadrag[)e]sima, pl[)e]nitude, s[)e]gregate. 

From _[)e]_: s[=e]ries, s[=e]nile, g[=e]nus, g[=e]nius. 

From _[=i]_: lasc[)i]vious, erad[)i]cate, d[)i]vidend, f[)i]lial, susp[)i]cion. 

From _[)i]_: l[=i]bel, m[=i]tre, s[=i]lex. 

From _[=o]_: [)o]rator, pr[)o]minent, pr[)o]montory, s[)o]litude. 

From _[)o]_: b[=o]vine, l[=o]cal, f[=o]rum, coll[=o]quial. 

From _[=u]_: fig[)u]rative, script[)u]ral, sol[)u]ble. 

From _[)u]_: n[=u]merous, C[=u]pid, all[=u]vial, cer[=u]lean. 

The _N. E. D. _ prefers the spelling 'oecumenical'; but Newman wrotenaturally 'ecumenical', and so does Dr. J. B. Bury. Dublin scholarshiphas in this matter been markedly correct. 

_CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR LATIN STEMS. _

In classification it seems simplest to take the words accordingto their Latin stems. We must, however, first deal with a class ofadjectives borrowed bodily from the Latin nominative masculine withthe insertion of a meaningless _o_ before the final _-us_. [1] Theseof course follow the rules given above. In words of more than twosyllables the antepenultimate and stressed vowel is shortened, as'[)e]mulous' from _æmulus_ and in 'fr[)i]volous' from _fr[=i]volus_, except where by the 'alias' rule it is long, as in 'egr[=e]gious' from_egr[)e]gius_. Words coined on this analogy also follow the rules. Thus 'glabrous' and 'fibrous' have the vowels long, as in thetraditional pronunciation of _glabrum_ and _fibrum_, where the vowelsin classical Latin were short. The stressed _u_ being always long wehave 'lug[=u]brious' and 'sal[=u]brious', the length being independentof the 'alias' rule. Some words ending in _-ous_ are not of thisclass. Thus 'odorous' and 'clamorous' appear in Italian as _odoroso_and _clamoroso_. Milton has

 Sonórous mettal blowing Martial sounds. 

The Italian is _sonoro_, and our word was simply the Latin _sonorus_borrowed bodily at a somewhat late period. Hence the stress remainson the penultima. Skeat thought that the word would at last become'sónorous'. It maybe hoped that Milton's line will save it from theeffect of a false analogy. 

[Footnote 1: I regard this statement as inaccurate. The _-ous_ inthese words does not come from the nominative ending _-us_, but is theordinary _-ous_ from L. _-osus_ (through Fr. ). It was added to manyLatin adjective stems, because the need of a distinctly adjectivalending was felt. Similarly in early French _-eux_ was appended toadjectives when they were felt to require a termination, as in_pieux_ from _pi-us_. Compare the English _capacious_, _veracious_, _hilarious_, where _-ous_ is added to other stems than those in _o_. Other suffixes of Latin origin are used in the same way: e. G. _-al_ in_aerial_, _ethereal_. --H. B. ]

In classifying by stems it will be well to add, where possible, wordsof Greek origin. Except in some late introductions Greek words, exceptwhen introduced bodily, have been treated as if they came throughLatin, and some of the bodily introductions are in the same case. Thus'anæsthetic' is spelt with the Latin diphthong and the Latin _c_. Even 'skeleton' had a _c_ to start with, while the modern and whollyabominable 'kaleidoscope' is unprincipled on the face of it. 

STEMS ENDING IN -ANT AND -ENT. These are participles or words formedas such. Our words have shed a syllable, thus _regentem_ has become'regent'. Disyllables follow the 'apex' rule and lengthen the firstvowel, as 'agent', 'decent', 'potent'. Exceptions are 'clement' and'present', perhaps under French influence. Words of more than twosyllables with a single consonant before the termination throw thestress back and shorten a long penultima, as 'ignorant', 'president', 'confident', 'adjutant'. Where there are two heavy consonants, thestress remains on the penultima, as 'consultant', 'triumphant', evenwhen one of the consonants is not pronounced, as 'reminiscent'. Insome cases the Latinists seem to have deliberately altered thenatural pronunciation. Thus Gower has 'ápparaúnt', but the word became'appárent' before Shakespeare's time, and later introductions such as'adherent' followed it. What right 'adjacent' has to its long voweland penultimate stress I do not know, but it cannot be altered now. 

STEMS ENDING IN -ATO AND -UTO. These are mostly past participles, butmany of them are used in English as verbs. It must be admitted thatthe disyllabic words are not wholly constant to a principle. Thoseverbs that come from _-latum_ consistently stress the last vowel, as 'dilate', 'relate', 'collate'. So does 'create', because of onevowel following another. Of the rest all the words of any rank havethe stress on the penultima, as 'vibrate', 'frustrate', 'mígrate', 'cástrate', 'púlsate', 'vácate'. Thus Pope has

 The whisper, that to greatness still too near, Perhaps, yet vibrates on his Sov'reign's ear, and Shelley

 Music, when soft voices die, Vibrates in the memory. 

There are, however, verbs of no literary account which in usageeither vary in the stress or take it on the latter syllable. Such are'locate', 'orate', 'negate', 'placate', and perhaps 'rotate'. Withmost of these we could well dispense. 'Equate' is mainly a technicalword. Dictionaries seem to prefer the stress on the ultima, but someat least of the early Victorian mathematicians said 'équate', and thepronunciation is to be supported. Trisyllabic verbs throw the stressback and shorten the penultima, as 'dés[)o]late', 'súff[)o]cate', 'scínt[)i]llate'. Even words with heavy double consonants have adoptedthis habit. Thus where Browning has (like Milton and Cowper)

 I the Trinity illústrate Drinking water'd orange pulp, In three sips the Arian frustrate. While he drains his at one gulp, it is now usual to say 'íllustrate'. 

Adjectives of this class take as early a stress as they can, as'órnate', 'pínnate', 'délicate', 'fórtunate'. Nouns from all thesewords throw the accent back and shorten or obscure all but thepenultimate vowel, as 'ignorance', 'evaporation'. 

STEMS IN -IA. Here even disyllables shorten the penultima, as 'copy', 'province', while longer words throw the stress back as well asshorten the penultima, as 'injury', 'colony', while 'ignominy' almostlost its penultimate vowel, and therefore threw back the stress to thefirst syllable. Shakespeare frankly writes the word as a trisyllable, Thy ignomy sleep with thee in the grave. 

Milton restored the lost syllable, often eliding the final vowel, asin

 Exile, or ignominy, or bonds, or pain. 

Even with heavy consonants we have the early stress, as in 'industry'. Greek words follow the same rules, as 'agony', 'melody'. Some wordsof this class have under French influence been further abbreviated, as'concord'. 

Corresponding STEMS IN -IO keep the same rules. Perhaps the onlydisyllable is 'study'; the shortening of a stressed _u_ shows itsimmediate derivation from the old French _estudie_. Trisyllabicexamples are 'colloquy', 'ministry', 'perjury'. Many words of thisclass have been further abbreviated in their passage through French. Such are 'benefice', 'divorce', 'office', 'presage', 'suffrage', 'vestige', 'adverb', 'homicide', 'proverb'. The stress in 'divórce'is due to the long vowel and the two consonants. A few of thesewords have been borrowed bodily from Latin, as 'odium', 'tedium', 'opprobrium'. 

STEMS IN -DO AND -TO (-SO). These words lose the final Latin syllableand keep the stress on the vowel which bore it in Latin. The stressedvowel, except in _au_, _eu_, is short, even when, as in 'vivid', 'florid', it was long in classical Latin. This, of course, is inaccord with the English pronunciation of Latin. Examples are 'acid', 'tepid', 'rigid', 'horrid', 'humid', 'lurid ', 'absurd', 'tacit', 'digit', 'deposit', 'compact', 'complex', 'revise', 'response', 'acute'. Those which have the suffix _-es_ prefixed throw the stressback, as 'honest', 'modest'. Those which have the suffix _-men_prefixed also throw the stress back, as 'moment', 'pigment', 'torment', and to the antepenultima, if there be one, as 'argument', 'armament', 'emolument', the penultimate vowel becoming short orobscure. In 'temperament' the tendency of the second syllable todisappear has carried the stress still further back. We may compare'Séptuagint', where _u_ becomes consonantal. An exception for which Icannot account is 'cemént', but Shakespeare has 'cément'. 

STEMS IN -T[=A]T. These are nouns and have the stress on theantepenultima, which in Latin bore the secondary stress. Theyof course show the usual shortening of the vowels with the usualexceptions. Examples are 'charity', 'equity', 'liberty', 'ferocity', 'authority', and with long antepenultima 'immunity', 'security', 'university'. With no vowel before the penultima the long quality is, as usual, preserved, as in 'satiety'. 

STEMS IN -OSO. These are adjectives and throw the stress back to theantepenultima, if there be one. In disyllables the penultimate vowelis long, as in 'famous', 'vinous'; in longer words the antepenultimatevowel is short, as 'criminous', 'generous'. Many, however, fallunder the 'alias' rule, as 'ingenious', 'odious', while those whichhave _i_ in the penultimate run the two last syllables into one, as'pernicious', 'religious', 'vicious'. A few late introductions, comingstraight from the Latin, retained the Latin stress, as 'morose', 'verbose'. 

STEMS IN -T[=O]RIO AND -S[=O]RIO. In these words the stress goesback to the fourth syllable from the end, this in Latin having thesecondary stress, or, as in 'circulatory', 'ambulatory', even further. In fact the _o_, which of course is shortened, tends to disappear. Examples are 'declamatory', 'desultory', 'oratory', 'predatory', 'territory'. Three consonants running, as in 'perfunctory', keep thestress where it has to be in a trisyllable, such as 'victory'. So doesa long vowel before _r_ and another consonant, as in 'precursory'. Otherwise two consonants have not this effect, as in 'prómontory', 'cónsistory'. In spite of Milton's

 A gloomy Consistory, and them amidst With looks agast and sad he thus bespake, the word is sometimes mispronounced. 

STEMS IN -[=A]RIO. These follow the same rules, except that, as in'ádversary', combinations like _ers_ are shortened and the stress goesback; and that words ending in _-entary_, such as 'elementary' and'testamentary', stress the antepenultima. Examples are 'antiquary', 'honorary', 'voluntary', 'emissary'. It is difficult to see a reasonfor an irregular quantity in the antepenultima of some trisyllables. The general rule makes it short, as in 'granary', 'salary', but in'library' and 'notary' it has been lengthened. The _N. E. D. _ gives'pl[=e]nary', but our grandfathers said 'pl[)e]nary'. Of course'diary' gives a long quality to the _i_. 

STEMS IN -[)I]LI. These seem originally to have retained the short_i_. Thus Milton's spelling is 'facil' and 'fertil' while otherseventeenth-century writers give 'steril'. This pronunciation stillobtains in America, but in England the words seem to have been usuallyassimilated to 'fragile', as Milton spells it, which perhaps alwayslengthened the vowel. The penultimate vowel is short. 

STEMS IN -[=I]LI. Here the long _i_ is retained, and in disyllablesthe penultima is lengthened, as in 'anile', 'senile', 'virile'. There is no excuse for following the classical quantity in the formersyllables of any of these words. As an English word 'sedilia' shortensthe antepenultimate, like 'tibia' and the rest, the 'alias' rule notapplying when the vowel is _i_. 

STEMS IN -B[)I]LI. These mostly come through French and change thesuffix into _-ble_. Disyllables lengthen the penultima, as 'able', 'stable', 'noble', while 'mobile', as in French, lengthens itslatter vowel. Trisyllables shorten and stress the antepenultima, as 'placable', 'equable', but of course _u_ remains long, as in'mutable'. Longer words throw the stress further back, except merenegatives, like 'implácable', and words with heavy consonants such as'delectable'. Examples are 'miserable', 'admirable', 'intolerable', 'despicable'. The Poet Laureate holds that in these words Milton keptthe long Italian _a_ of the penultimate or secondary stress. 

 Fall'n Cherube, to be weak is miserable. 

In English we have naturalized _-able_ as a suffix and added it toalmost any verb, as 'laughable', 'indescribable', 'desirable'. Thelast word may have been taken from French. The form 'des[)i]derable'occurs from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. Originally'acceptable' threw the stress back, as in Milton's

 So fit, so acceptable, so Divine, but the double mute has brought it into line with 'delectable'. Nowadays one sometimes hears 'dispútable', 'despícable', but theseare intolerable vulgarisms. 

SUFFIXES IN T[)I]LI AND S[)I]LI. These words mostly lengthen the _i_and make the usual shortenings, as 'missile', 'sessile', 'textile', 'volatile', but of course 'futile'. Exceptions which I cannot explainare 'foss[)i]l' and 'fus[)i]le'. 

SUFFIX IN [=A]LI. These adjectives shorten the _-a_ and, with theusual exceptions, the preceding vowels, as 'dóctrinal', 'fílial', 'líberal', 'márital', 'medícinal', but of course by the 'alias'rule 'arb[=o]real' (not a classical word in Latin) and 'g[=e]nial'. Words like 'national' and 'rational' were treated like trisyllables, which they now are. The stress is on the antepenultima except whenheavy consonants bring it on to the penultima, as in 'sepulcral', 'parental', 'triumphal'. 

Those who say 'doctrínal' on the ground that the second vowel is longin Latin commit themselves to 'medicínal', 'natúral', 'nutríment', 'instrúment', and, if their own principle be applied, they make falsequantities by the dozen every day of their lives. 

Three words mostly mispronounced are, from their rarity, perhaps notpast rescue. They are 'décanal', 'ruridécanal', and 'prébendal'. Thereis no more reason for saying 'decánal' than for saying 'matrónal' orfor saying 'prebéndal' than for saying 'caléndar'. Of course wordslike 'tremendous', being imported whole, keep the original stress. In our case the Latin words came into existence as _décanális_, _prébendális_, parallel with _náturális_, which gives us 'nátural'. That mostly wrong-headed man, Burgon of Chichester, was correct inspeaking of his rights or at any rate his claims as 'décanal'. 

STEMS IN -LO. Of these 'stimulus' and 'villa' have been borrowedwhole, while _umbella_ is corrupted into 'umbrella'. Disyllableslengthen the penultima, as 'stable', 'title', 'pupil'. Under Frenchinfluence 'disciple' follows their example. In longer words the usualshortenings are made, as in 'frivolous', 'ridiculous'. The olderwords in _-ulo_ change the suffix into _-le_, as 'uncle', 'maniple', 'tabernacle', 'conventicle', 'receptacle', 'panicle'. Later wordsretain the _u_, as 'vestibule', 'reticule', 'molecule'. 

STEMS IN -NO. The many words of this class are a grief to theclassifier, who seeks in vain for reasons. Thus 'german' and 'germane'have the same source and travelled, it seems, by the same road throughFrance. The Latin _hyacinth[)i]nus_ and _adamant[)i]nus_ are parallelwords, yet Milton has 'hyacinthin' for the one and 'adamantine' forthe other. One classification goes a little way. Thus 'human' and'urban' must have come through French, 'humane' and 'urbane' directfrom Latin. On the other hand while 'meridian' and 'quartan' areFrench, 'publican', 'veteran', and 'oppidan' are Latin. Words witha long _i_, if they came early through France, shorten the vowel, as 'doctrine', 'discipline', 'medicine', and 'masculine', while'genuine', though a later word, followed them, but 'anserine' and'leonine' did not. Disyllables seem to prefer the stress on theultima, as 'divine', 'supine', but even these are not consistent. Somecritics would scan Cassio's words

 The dívine Desdemona, though Shakespeare nowhere else has this stress, while Shelley has. Shelley, too, has

 She cannot know how well the súpine slaves Of blind authority read the truth of things. 

The grammatical term, too, is 'súpine'. Later introductions also havethis stress, as 'bóvine', 'cánine', 'équine'. The last word is notalways understood. At any rate Halliwell-Phillips, referring to awell-known story of Shakespeare's youth, says that the poet probablyattended the theatre 'in some equine capacity'. As it is agreed that'bovine' and 'equine' lengthen the former vowel, we ought by analogyto say 'c[=a]nine', as probably most people do. Words of more than twosyllables have the stress on the antepenultima and the vowel is short, as in 'libertine', 'adulterine', but of course '[=u]terine'. Whenheavy consonants bring the stress on to the penultima, the _i_ isshortened, as in 'clandest[)i]n(e)', 'intest[)i]n(e)', and so in likedisyllables, as 'doctr[)i]n(e)'. The modern words 'morphin(e)' and'strychnin(e)', coined, the one from Morpheus and the other from theGreek name of the plant known to botanists as _Withania somnifera_, correctly follow 'doctrine' in shortening the _i_, though anotherpronunciation is sometimes heard. 

STEMS IN -TUDIN. These shorten the antepenultima, as 'plenitude', 'solitude', with the usual exceptions, such as 'fortitude'. 

STEMS IN -TION. These words retain the suffix, which in early dayswas disyllabic, as it sometimes is in Shakespeare, for instance inPortia's

 Before a friend of this descriptión Shall lose a hair through Bassanio's fault. 

Thus they came under the 'alias' rule, and what is now the penultimatevowel is long unless it be _i_. Examples are 'nation', 'accretion', 'emotion', 'solution', while _i_ is shortened in 'petition', 'munition', and the like, and left short in 'admonition' andothers. In military use an exception is made by 'ration', but thepronunciation is confined to one sense of the word, and is new atthat. I remember old soldiers of George III who spoke of 'r[=a]tions'. Perhaps the ugly change is due to French influence. 

Originally the adjectives from these words must have lengthened thefourth vowel from the end long, as n[=a]t[)i][)o]nal, but when _ti_became _sh_ they came to follow the rule of Latin trisyllables in ourpronunciation. 

STEMS IN -IC. Of these words we have a good many, both Latin andGreek. Those that came direct keep the stress on the vowel which wasantepenultimate and is in English penultimate, and this vowel is shortwhatever its original quantity. Examples are 'aquatic', 'italic', 'Germanic'. Words that came through French threw the stress back, as'lúnatic'. Skeat says that 'fanatic' came through French, but he canhardly be right, for the pronunciation 'fánatic' is barely three scoreyears old. There is no inverted stress in Milton's

 Fanátic Egypt and her priests. 

As for 'unique' it is a modern borrowing from French, and of late'ántique' or 'ántic', as Shakespeare has it, has followed in one ofits senses the French use. It is a pity in face of Milton's

 With mask and ántique Pageantry, and it obscures the etymological identity of 'antique' and 'antic', but the old pronunciation is irredeemable. At least the new avoids thehomophonic inconvenience. 

Greek words of this class used as adjectives mostly follow thesame rule, as 'sporadic', 'dynamic', 'pneumatic', 'esoteric', 'philanthropic', 'emetic', 'panegyric'. As nouns the earlierintroductions threw the stress back, as 'heretic', 'arithmetic', but later words follow the adjectives, as 'emetic', 'enclitic', 'panegyric'. As for 'politic', which is stressed as we stress both byShakespeare and by Milton, it must be under French influence, thoughSkeat seems to think that it came straight from Latin. 

STEMS IN -OS. These words agree in being disyllabic, but otherwisethey are a tiresome and quarrelsome people. For their diversity inspelling some can make a defence, since 'horror', 'pallor', 'stupor'came straight from Latin, but 'tenor', coming through French, shouldhave joined hands with 'colour', 'honour', 'odour'. The short vowel isinevitable in 'horror' and 'pallor', the long in 'ardour', 'stupor', 'tumour'. The rest are at war, 'clamour', 'colour', 'honour', 'dolour', 'rigour', 'squalor', 'tenor', 'vigour' in the shortlegion, 'favour', 'labour', 'odour', 'vapour' in the long. Theircamp-followers ending in -ous are under their discipline, so that, while 'cl[)a]morous', 'r[)i]gorous', 'v[)i]gorous' agree withthe general rule, '[=o]dorous' makes an exception to it. Allthe derivatives of _favor_ are exceptions to the general rule, for 'favourite' and 'favorable' keep its long _a_. Of course'l[)a]b[=o]rious' is quite in order, and so is 'v[)a]pid'. 

STEMS IN -TOR AND -SOR. These words, when they came through French, threw the stress back and shortened the penultimate, _[=o]r[=a]torem_becoming _orateur_, and then '[)o]r[)a]tor', with the stress on theantepenultimate. Others of the same type are 'auditor', 'competitor', 'senator', and Shelley has

 The sister-pest, congrégator of slaves, while 'amateur' is borrowed whole from French and stresses its ultima. Trisyllables of course shorten the first vowel, as 'cr[)e]ditor', 'j[)a]nitor'. Polysyllables follow the stress of the verbs; thus'ágitate' gives 'ágitator' and 'compóse' gives 'compósitor'. To thefirst class belongs 'circulator', 'educator', 'imitator', 'moderator', 'negotiator', 'prevaricator', with which 'gladiator' associatesitself; to the second belongs 'competitor'. Words which came straightfrom Latin keep the stress of the Latin nominative, as 'creator', 'spectator', 'testator', 'coadjutor', 'assessor', to which in Walton'shonour must be added 'Piscator' and 'Venator'. On 'curator' he whodecides does so at his peril. On one occasion Eldon from the Benchcorrected Erskine for saying 'cúr[)a]tor'. 'Cur[=a]tor, Mr. Erskine, cur[=a]tor. ' 'I am glad', was the reply, 'to be set right by soeminent a sen[=a]tor and so eloquent an or[=a]tor as your Lordship. 'Neither eminent lawyer knew much about it, but each was so far rightthat he stuck to the custom of his country. On other grounds Erskinemight be thought to have committed himself to 'tést[)a]tor', if notquite to the 'testy tricks' of Sally in Mrs. Gaskell's 'Ruth'. 

STEMS IN -ERO AND -URO. Adjectives of this type keep the Latin stress, which thus falls on the ultima, and shorten or obscure the penultimatevowel, as 'mature', 'obscure', 'severe', 'sincere', but of course'[=a]ustere'. Of like form though of other origin is 'secure'. Nounstake an early stress, as 'áperture', 'sépulture', 'líterature', 'témperature', unless two mutes obstruct, as in 'conjécture'. Of thedisyllables 'nature' keeps a long penultima, while 'figure' has itshort, not because of the Latin quantity, but because of the French. 

The lonely word 'mediocre' lengthens its first vowel by the 'alias'rule and also stresses it. Whether the penultima has more than asecondary stress is a matter of dispute. 

STEMS IN -ARI. These words have the stress on the antepenultima, which they shorten, as in 'secular' or keep short as in 'jocular', 'familiar', but of course 'pec[=u]liar'. 

_ON CERTAIN GREEK WORDS. _

It will have been seen that Greek words are usually treated as Latin. Thus 'crisis' lengthens the penultima under the 'apex' rule, while'critical' has it short under the general rule of polysyllables. Other examples of lengthening are 'bathos', 'pathos', while the longquantity is of course kept in 'colon' and 'crasis'. For the 'alias'rule we may quote '[=a]theist', 'cryptog[=a]mia', 'h[=o]meopathy', 'heterog[=e]neous', 'pandem[=o]nium', while the normal shorteningsare found in 'an[)o]nymous', 'eph[)e]meral', 'pand[)e]monium', '[)e]r[)e]mite'. Ignorance of English usage has made some editorsflounder on a line of Pope's:

 Yes, or we must renounce the Stagirite. 

The birthplace of Aristotle was of course Stag[=i]ra or, as it is nowfashionable to transcribe it, Stageira, as Pope doubtless knew, butthe editors who accuse him of a false quantity in Greek are on thecontrary themselves guilty of one in English. The penultima in Englishis short whether it was long or, as in 'dynamite' and 'malachite', short in Greek. 

There is, however, one distinct class of Greek words in which theLatin rule is not followed. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuriesthere were scholars who rightly or wrongly treated the Greek accent asa mark of stress. It is clear that this habit led to an inability tomaintain a long quantity in an unstressed syllable. Shakespeare musthave learnt his little Greek from a scholar who had this habit, for hewrites 'Andrón[)i]cus' and also

 I am misánthr[)o]pos and hate mankind. 

Of course all scholars shortened the first vowel of the word, anddoubtless Shakespeare shortened also the third. Busby also thusspoke Greek with the result that Dryden in later life sometimeswrote epsilon instead of eta and also spoke of 'Cleoménes' and'Iphig[=e]n[)i]a'. As a boy at Westminster he wrote

 Learn'd, Vertuous, Pious, Great, and have by this An universal Metempsuchosis. 

Macaulay with an ignorance very unusual in him rebuked his nephew forsaying 'metamórph[)o]sis', and Dr. Johnson, had he been living, wouldhave rebuked Macaulay. For the sake of our poets we ought to save'apothé[)o]sis', which is in some danger. Garth may perhaps beforgotten, Allots the prince of his celestial line An Apotheosis and rights divine, but 'Rejected Addresses' should still carry weight. In the burlesquecouplet, ascribed in the first edition to the younger Colman andafterwards transferred to Theodore Hook, we have

 That John and Mrs. Bull from ale and tea-houses May shout huzza for Punch's apotheosis. 

It need hardly be said that 'tea-houses' like 'grandfathers' has thestress on the antepenultimate. 

There are other words of Greek origin which now break the rules, though I believe the infringement to be quite modern. First we havethe class beginning with _proto_. It can hardly be doubted that ourancestors followed rule and said 'pr[)o]tocol', and 'pr[)o]totype', and I suspect also 'pr[)o]tomartyr'. There seems, however, to bea general agreement nowadays to keep the Greek omega. As for'protagonist' the word is so technical and is often so ludicrouslymisunderstood that writers on the Greek drama would do well to retainthe Greek termination and say 'protagonistes'; for 'protagonist' isvery commonly mistaken and used for the opposite of 'antagonist'. 

Next come words beginning with _hypo_ or _hyph_. In a disyllable thevowel is long by the 'apex' rule, as in 'hyphen'. In longer wordsit should be short. So once it was, and we still say 'hypocaust', 'hypocrit', 'hypochondria' (whence 'hypped'), 'hypothesis', andothers, but a large group of technical and scientific words seemsdetermined to have a long _y_. It looks as though there were a beliefthat _y_ is naturally long, though the French influence which gives us't[=y]rant' does not extend to 'tyranny'. I do not know what Mr. Hardycalls his poem, but I hope he follows the old use and calls it 'TheD[)y]nasts'. It might be thought that 'd[)y]nasty' was safe, but itis not. Some modern words like 'dynamite' have been misused from theirbirth. 

Another class begins with _hydro-_ from the Greek word for water. Noneof them seem to be very old, but probably 'hydraulic' began life witha short _y_. Surely Mrs. Malaprop, when she meant 'hysterics' and said'hydrostatics', must have used the short _y_. Of course 'hydra' whichcomes from the same root follows the 'apex' rule. 

Words beginning with _hyper-_ seem nowadays always to have a long _y_except that one sometimes hears 'h[)y]perbole' and 'h[)y]perbolical'. Of course both in _hypo-_ and in _hyper-_ the vowel is short in Greek, so that here at least the strange lengthening cannot be ascribed tothe Grecians. The false theory of a long _y_ has not affected 'cynic'or 'cynical', while 'Cyril' has been saved by being a Christianname. We may yet hope to retain _y_ short in 'cylinder', 'cynosure', 'lycanthropy', 'mythology', 'pyramid', 'pyrotechnic', 'sycamore', 'synonym', 'typical'. As for 'h[=y]brid' it seems as much a capriceas '[=a]crid', a pronunciation often heard. Though 'acrid' is a falseformation it ought to follow 'vivid' and 'florid'. The 'alias' ruleenforces a long _y_ in 'hygiene' and 'hygienic'. 

On the matter of Greek names the lettern and the pulpit are grievousoffenders. Once it was not so. The clergymen of the old type andthe scholars of the Oxford Retrogression said T[)i]m[=o]th[)e][)u]s, because they had a sense of English and followed, consciously orunconsciously, the 'alias' rule. If there was ever an error, it wason the lips of some illiterate literate who made three syllables ofthe word. Now it seems fashionable to say T[=i]m[)o]th[)e][)u]s. Theliterate was better than this, for he at least had no theory, andfrank ignorance is to be forgiven. It is no shame to a man not to knowthat the second _i_ in 'Villiers' is as mute as that in 'Parliament'or that Bolingbroke's name began with Bull and ended with brook, butwhen ignorance constructs a theory it is quite another matter. Theetymological theory of pronunciation is intolerable. Etymology wasa charming nymph even when men had but a distant acquaintance withher, and a nearer view adds to her graces; but when she is draggedreluctant from her element she flops like a stranded mermaid. Thecurate says 'Deuteronómy', and on his theory ought to say 'económy'and 'etymológy'. When Robert Gomery--why not give the reverendpoetaster his real if less elegant name--published his once popularwork, every one called it 'The Omnípresence of the Deïty', and Shelleyhad already written

 And, as I look'd, the bright omnípresence Of morning through the orient cavern flowed. 

It is true that Ken a century earlier had committed himself to

 Thou while below wert yet on high By Omniprésent Deity, and later Coleridge, perhaps characteristically, had sinned with

 There is one Mind, one omniprésent Mind, but neither the bishop nor the poet would have said 'omniscíence', or'omnipótence'. 

Another word to show signs of etymological corruption is'[)e]volution'. It seems to have been introduced as a technical termof the art of war, and of course, like 'd[)e]volution', shortenedthe _e_. The biologists first borrowed it and later seem desirous ofcorrupting it. Perhaps they think of such words as '[=e]gress', butthe long vowel is right in the stressed penultimate. 

One natural tendency in English runs strongly against etymology. This is the tendency to throw the stress back, which about a centuryago turned 'contémplate' into 'cóntemplate' and somewhat later'illústrate' into 'íllustrate'. Shakespeare and Milton pronounced'instinct' as we pronounce 'distinct' and 'aspect' as we pronounce'respect'. Thus Belarius is made to say

 'Tis wonder That an invisible instínct should frame them To royalty unlearn'd, and Milton has

 By this new felt attraction and instinct, and also

 In battailous aspéct and neerer view. 

The retrogression of the stress is in these instances wellestablished, and we cannot quarrel with it; but against some veryrecent instances a protest may be made. One seems to be a corruptionof the War. In 1884 the _N. E. D. _ recognized no pronunciation of itsave 'allý', as in Romeo's

 This gentleman, the prince's neer Alie. 

The late Mr. B. B. Rogers in his translations of Aristophanes has ofcourse no other pronunciation. His verses are too good to be spoiledby what began as a vulgarism. Another equally recent vulgarism, notrecognized by the _N. E. D. _ and bad enough to make George Russell turnin his grave, is 'mágazine' for 'magazíne'. It is not yet common, butsuch vulgarisms are apt to climb. 

In times not quite so recent the word 'prophecy' has changed, notindeed its stress, but the quantity of its final vowel. When Alfordwrote 'The Queen's English', every one lengthened the last vowel, asin the verb, nor do I remember any other pronunciation in my boyhood. Now the _N. E. D. _ gives the short vowel only. Alford to his ownsatisfaction accounted for the long vowel by the diphthong _ei_ ofthe Greek. It is to be feared that his explanation would involve'dynast[=y]' and 'polic[=y]', even if it did not oblige us to turn'Pompey' into 'Pomp[=y]'. In this case it may be suspected thatthe noun was assimilated to the verb, which follows the analogy of'magnify' and 'multiply'. The voice of the people which now givesus 'prophec[)y]' seems here to have felt the power of analogy andassuredly will prevail. 

_ON PROPER NAMES. _

It is to be hoped that except in reading Latin and Greek texts weshall keep to the traditional pronunciation of proper names as itis enshrined in our poetry and other literature. We must continue tolengthen the stressed penultimate vowel in Athos, Cato, Draco, Eros, Hebrus, Lichas, Nero, Otho, Plato, Pylos, Remus, Samos, Titus, Venus, and the many other disyllables wherein it was short in the ancienttongues. On the other hand we shall shorten the originally longstressed antepenultimate vowel in Brasidas, Euripides, Icarus, Lavinia, Lucilius, Lydia, Nicias, Onesimus, Pegasus, Pyramus, Regulus, Romulus, Scipio, Sisyphus, Socrates, Thucydides, and many more. 

Quin, and the actors of his day, used to give to the first vowel in'Cato' the sound of the _a_ in 'father'. They probably thought thatthey were Italianizing such names. In fact their use was neither Latinnor English. They were like the men of to-day who speak of the townopposite Dover as 'Cally', a name neither French nor English. A townwhich once sent members to the English Parliament has a right to anEnglish name. Prior rhymed it with 'Alice' and Browning has

 When Fortune's malice Lost her Calais. 

Shakespeare, of course, spelt it 'Callis', and this form, which wasfirst evicted by Pope, whom other editors servilely followed, oughtto be restored to Shakespeare's text. In the pronunciation of Cato thestage regained the English diphthong in the mouth of Garrick, whosegood sense was often in evidence. It is recorded that his examplewas not at once followed in Scotland or Ireland. If there was anyHighlander on the stage it may be hoped that he gave to the vowel thetrue Latin sound as it appears in 'Mactavish'. 

A once well-known schoolmaster, a correspondent of Conington's, hada daughter born to him whom in his unregenerate days he christenedRosa. At a later time he became a purist in quantities, and then heshortened the _o_ and took the voice out of the _s_ and spoke of herand to her as Rossa. The mother and the sisters refused to acknowledgewhat they regarded as a touch of shamrock and clung persistentlyto the English flower. The good gentleman did not call his sonSol[=o]mon, [2] though this is the form which ought to be used bythose who turn the traditional English 'Elk[)a]nah' into 'Elk[=a]nah', 'Ab[)a]na' into 'Ab[=a]na', and 'Zeb[)u]lun' into 'Zeb[=u]lun'. Ifthey do not know

 Poor Elk[)a]nah, all other troubles past, For bread in Smithfield dragons hiss'd at last, yet at least they ought to know

 Of Abb[)a]na and Pharphar, lucid streams. 

The malison of Milton on their heads! If the translators of the Biblehad foreseen 'Zeb[=u]lun', they would have chosen some other word than'princes' to avoid the cacophony of 'the princes of Zeb[=u]lun'. 

[Footnote 2: But pedantry would not suggest this. The New Testamenthas [Greek: Solomôn], and the Latin Christian poets have the _o_ short. True, the Vatican Septuagint has [Greek: Salômôn], but there the vowelof the first syllable is _a_. --H. B. ]

That these usages were familiar is evident from the pronunciation ofproper, especially Biblical, names. Thus 'B[=a]bel' and 'B[)a]bylon', 'N[=i]nus' and 'N[)i]neveh', were spoken as unconsciously asM[=i]chael' and 'M[)i]chaelmas'. Nobody thought of asking the quantityof the Hebrew vowels before he spoke of 'C[=a]leb' and 'B[=a]rak', of'G[)i]deon' and 'G[)i]lead', of 'D[)e]borah' and 'Ab[)i]melech', of'[=E]phraim' and 'B[=e]lial'. The seeming exceptions can be explained. Thus the priest said 'H[)e]rod' because in the Vulgate he read'H[)e]rodes', but there was no Greek or Latin form to make him sayanything else than 'M[=e]roz', 'P[=e]rez', 'S[=e]rah', 'T[=e]resh'. He said '[)A]dam' because, although the Septuagint and other booksretained the bare form of the name, there were other writings inwhich the name was extended by a Latin termination. There was no likeextension to tempt him to say anything but 'C[=a]desh', '[=E]dom', 'J[=a]don', 'N[=a]dab'. I must admit my inability to explain'Th[)o]mas', but doubtless there is a reason. The abbreviated form wasof course first 'Th[)o]m' and then 'T[)o]m'. Possibly the pet name hasclaimed dominion over the classical form. As in the _herba impia_of the early botanists, these young shoots sometimes refuse to be'trash'd for overtopping'. 

A story is told of an eccentric Essex rector. He was reading inchurch the fourth chapter of Judges, and after 'Now D[)e]borah, aprophetess', suddenly stopped, not much to the astonishment ofthe rustics, for they knew his ways. Then he went on 'Deb[)o]rah?Deb[)o]rah? Deb[=o]rah! Now Deb[=o]rah, a prophetess', and so on. Probably a freak of memory had reminded him that the letter wasomega in the Septuagint. It will be remembered that Miss Jenkyns in_Cranford_ liked her sister to call her Deb[=o]rah, 'her father havingonce said that the Hebrew name ought to be so pronounced', and it willnot be forgotten that the good rector was too sound a scholar to read'Deb[=o]rah' at the lettern. 

An anecdote of Burgon's is to the point. He had preached in St. Mary'swhat he regarded as an epoch-making sermon, and afterwards he walkedhome to Oriel with Hawkins, the famous Provost. He looked for commentand hoped for praise, but the Provost's only remark was, 'Why doyou say Emm[=a]us?' 'I don't know; isn't it Emm[=a]us?' 'No, no;Emm[)a]us, Emm[)a]us. ' When Hawkins was young, in the days of GeorgeIII, every one said Emmaus, and in such matters he would say, 'I willhave no innovations in my time. ' On the King's lips the phrase, asreferring to politics, was foolish, but Hawkins used it with sense. 

PS. --I had meant to cite an anecdote of Johnson. As he walked in theStrand, a man with a napkin in his hand and no hat stept out of atavern and said, 'Pray, Sir, is it irréparable or irrepáirable thatone should say?'--'The last, I think, Sir, for the adjective ought tofollow the verb; but you had better consult my dictionary than me, for that was the result of more thought than you will now give me timefor. ' The dictionary rightly gives _irréparable_, and both the ruleand example of the Doctor's _obiter dicta_ (literally _obiter_) arewrong. 

J. S. 

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE

 * * * * *

ADDENDA TO HOMOPHONES IN TRACT II

Several correspondents complain of the incompleteness of the listof Homophones in Tract II. The object of that list was to convincereaders of the magnitude of the mischief, and the consequentnecessity for preserving niceties of pronunciation: evidence of itsincompleteness must strengthen its plea. The following words may beadded; they are set here in the order of the literary alphabet. 

Add to Table I (p. 7)

 band, [^1] _a tie_, [^2] _a company_. 

 bend, [^1] _verb_, [^2] _heraldic sub. _

 bay, [^1] _tree_, [^2] _arm of sea_, [^3] _window_, [^4] _barking of dog_, and '_at bay_', [^5] _a dam_, [^6] _of antler_, [^7] _a colour_. 

 blaze, [^1] _of flame_, [^2] _to sound forth_. 

 bluff, [^1] _adj. & sub. = broad = fronted_, [^2] _blinker_, [^3] _sub. And v. Confusing_ [^1] _and_ [^2]. 

 boom, [^1] _to hum_, [^2] _= beam_. 

 cant, [^1] _whine_, [^2] _to tilt_. 

 chaff, [^1] _of wheat_, [^2] _= chafe (slang)_. 

 cove, [^1] _a recess_, [^2] _= chap (slang)_. 

 file, [^1] _string_, [^2] _rasp_, [^3] _= to defile_. 

 grave, [^1] _sub. _, [^2] _adj. _

 hind, [^1] _fem. Of stag_, [^2] _a peasant_, [^3] _adj. Of behind_. 

 limb, [^1] _member_, [^2] _edge_, [^3] limn. 

 limber, [^1] _shaft of cart (verb in artillery)_, [^2] _naut. Subs. _, [^3] _adj. Pliant_. 

 loom, [^1] _subs. _, [^2] _v. _

 nice, gneiss. 

 ounce, [^1] _animal_, [^2] _a weight_. 

 plash, [^1] _= pleach_, [^2] _a puddle_. 

 port, [^1] _demeanour, & military v. _, [^2] _haven_, [^3] _gate & naut. = port-hole_, [^4] _= larboard_, [^5] _a wine_. 

 shingle, [^1] _a wooden tile_, [^2] _gravel_, [^3] (_in pl. _) _a disease_. 

 shrub, [^1] _a bush_, [^2] _a drink_. 

 smack, [^1] _a sounding blow_, [^2] _a fishing boat_, [^3] _taste_. 

 throw, throe. 

Also note that _so_ should be added to _sew, sow_, and that the words_leech_, _leach_, are not sufficiently credited with etymologicalvariety: [see below p. 33]. 

To Table II add

 when, _wen_. 

To Table VIII

The following words, the absence of which has been noted, are not truehomophones:--

 crack fool fume gentle interest palm stem trip

To Table IX add

 must [^1] _obs? new wine_, [^2] _verb. _

To Shakespearean obsoletes p. 27 add

 limn, _lost in_ limb. 

 * * * * *

THE SKILFUL LEECH

The Poet Laureate has pointed out that several useful words have beenlost to the English language because their identity in sound withother words renders it impossible to use them without the risk eitherof being misunderstood or of calling up undesirable associations. It is owing to this cause that English--or, at least, the English ofGreat Britain--has no word that can correctly be used as a generaldesignation for a member of the healing profession. In America, Ibelieve, the word is 'physician'; but in England that appellationbelongs to one branch of the profession exclusively. The most usualterm here is 'doctor'; but the M. D. Rightly objects to the applicationof this title to his professional brother who has no degree; andin a university town to say that John Smith is a doctor would beinconveniently ambiguous. 'Medical man' is cumbrous, and has thefurther disadvantage (in these days) of not being of common gender. Now the lack of any proper word for a meaning so constantly needingto be expressed is certainly a serious defect in modern (insular)English. The Americans have some right to crow over us here; but their'physician' is a long word; and though it has been good English inthe sense of _medicus_ for six hundred years, it ought by etymologyto mean what _physicien_ does in French, and _physicist_ in modernEnglish. Our ancestors were better off in this respect than either weor the Americans. The only native word to denote a practiser of thehealing art is _leech_, which is better than the foreign 'physician'because it is shorter. It was once a term of high dignity: Chaucercould apply it figuratively to God, as the healer of souls; and evenin the sixteenth century a poet could address his lady as 'My sorowesleech'. Why can we not so use it now? Why do we not speak of 'TheRoyal College of Leeches'? Obviously, because a word of the same formhappens to be the name of an ugly little animal of disgusting habits. If I were to introduce my medical attendant to a friend with thewords 'This is my leech', the gentleman (or lady) so presented wouldthink I was indulging in the same sort of pleasantry as is used whena coachman is called a 'whip'; and he (or she) would probably notconsider the joke to be in the best of taste. Of course all educatedpeople know that it was once not unusual to speak of a man of medicineas a 'leech'; but probably there are many who imagine that thisdesignation was a disparaging allusion to the man's tool of trade, andthat it could be applied only to inferior members of the profession. The ancient appellation of the healer is so far obsolete that if Iwere to answer a question as to a man's profession with the words 'Oh, he is a leech', there would be some risk of being misunderstood tomean that he was a money-lender. 

Etymologists generally have regarded the name of the bloodsuckinganimal as the same word with _leech_ a physician, the assumption beingthat the animal received its name from its use as a remedial agent. But the early forms, both in English and Low German, show that thewords are originally unconnected. The English for _medicus_ was inthe tenth century _l['æ]ce_ or _léce_, and in the thirteenth century_leche_; the word for _sanguisuga_ was in the tenth century _lyce_, and in the thirteenth century _liche_. According to phonetic law thelatter word should have become _litch_ in modern English; but it veryearly underwent a punning alteration which made it homophonous withthe ancient word for physician. The unfortunate consequence is thatthe English language has hopelessly lost a valuable word, for which ithas never been able to find a satisfactory substitute. 

H. B. 

DIFFERENTIATION OF HOMOPHONES

On this very difficult question the attitude of a careful Englishspeaker is shown in the following extract from a letter addressed tous:

METAL, METTLE: AND PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE

'I find that I do not _naturally_ distinguish _metal_ and _mettle_in pronunciation, tho' when there is any danger of ambiguity I say_metal_ for the former and _met'l_ for the latter; and I shouldprobably do so (without thinking about it) in a public speech. In myyoung days the people about me usually pronounced _met'l_ for both. Theoretically I think the distinction is a desirable one to make;the fact that the words are etymologically identical seems to meirrelevant. The words are distinctly two in modern use: when we talkof _mettle_ (meaning spiritedness) there is in our mind no thoughtwhatever of the etymological sense of the word, and the recollectionof it, if it occurred, would only be disturbing. So I intend in futureto pronounce metal as _met[e]l_ (when I don't forget). And I am notsure that _met[e]l_ is, strictly speaking, a "spelling-pronunciation":It is possible that the difference in spelling originated in adifference of pronunciation, not the other way about. For _metal_ inits literal sense was originally a scientific word, and in that sensemay have been pronounced carefully by people who would pronounceit carelessly when they used it in a colloquial transferred senseapproaching to slang. 

'The question of _principal_ and _principle_ is different. When I wasyoung, educated people in my circle always, I believe, distinguishedthem; so to this day when I hear principal pronounced as principle itgives me a squirm, tho' I am afraid nearly everybody does it now. Thatthe words are etymologically distinct does not greatly matter; it isof more importance that I have sometimes been puzzled to know whichword a speaker meant; if I remember right, I once had to ask. 

'It would be worth while to distinguish _flower_ and _flour_ (whichoriginally, like _metal_ and _mettle_, were the same word); yet inpractice it is not easy to make the difference audible. The homophonyis sometimes inconvenient. '

CORRECTION TO TRACT II

On p. 37 of TRACT II the words 'the Anglo-prussian society which Mr. Jones represents' have given offence and appear to be inaccurate. TheGerman title of the series in which Jones's Dictionary is one has thefollowing arrangement of words facing the English title:

HERAUSGEGEBEN

UND

DER "ASSOCIATION PHONÉTIQUE INTERNATIONALE" GEWIDMET

VON

H. MICHAELIS, and this misled me. I am assured that, though the dictionary maybe rightly described as Anglo-Prussian, the Phonetic Association isGallo-Scandinavian. In behalf of the S. P. E. I apologize to the A. Ph. I. For my mistake which has led one of its eminent associates toaccuse me of bearing illwill towards the Germans. The logic of thatreproach baffles me utterly. 

[R. B. ]

 * * * * *

SOME LEXICAL MATTERS

FAST = QUICK OR FIRM

'An Old Cricketer' writes:

'After reading your remarks on the ambiguity of the word _fast_ (TractIII, p. 12) I read in the report of a Lancashire cricket match that_Makepeace was the only batsman who was fast-footed_. But for thecontext and my knowledge of the game I should have concluded thatMakepeace kept his feet immovably on the crease; but the very oppositewas intended. At school we used to translate [Greek: podasôkus Achilleus] "swift-footed Achilles", and I took that to mean thatAchilles was a sprinter. I suppose _quick-footed_ would be the epithetfor Makepeace. '

SPRINTER is a good word, though _Sprinting Achilles_ could not berecommended. 

BRATTLE

A correspondent from Newcastle writes advocating the recognitionof the word _brattle_ as descriptive of thunder. It is a good oldecho-word used by Dunbar and Douglas and Burns and by modern Englishwriters. It is familiar through the first stanza of Burns's poem 'To aMouse'. 

 Wee sleekit cow'rin tim'rous beastie, O what a panic's in thy breastie. Thou need na start awa sae hasty Wi' bickering brattle. .. . 

which is not suggestive of thunder. The _N. E. D. _ explains this as 'torun with brattling feet, to scamper'. 

In Burns's 'A Winter Night', it is the noisy confusion of _bitingBoreas_ in the bare trees and bushes:

 I thought me on the ourie cattle Or silly sheep, wha bide this brattle O' winter war. 

It is possible that _brattle_ has fallen into disuse through tooindiscriminate application. After Burns's famous poem the word canestablish itself only in the sense of a scurrying dry noise: it is toosmall for thunder. 

We would call attention to the principle involved in this judgement, for it is one of the main objects of our society to assist and guideEnglishmen in the use of their language by fully exposing the factsthat should determine their practice. Every word has its history, and no word can prosper in the speech or writing of those who do notrespect its inherited and unalterable associations; these cannot begot rid of by ignoring them. Littré in the preface to his dictionaryclaims for it this pre-eminent quality of usefulness, that it willenable his countrymen to speak and write good French by acquaintingthem with historic tradition, and he says that it was enthusiasm forthis one purpose that sustained him in his great work. Its object wasto harmonize the present use of the language with the past usage, inorder that the present usage may possess all the fullness, richness, and certitude which it can have, and which naturally belong to it. Hiswords are: 'Avant tout, et pour ramener à une idée mère ce qui va êtreexpliqué dans la _Préface_, je dirai, définissant ce dictionnaire, qu'il embrasse et combine l'usage présent de la langue et son usagepassé, afin de donner à l'usage présent toute la plénitude et lasûreté qu'il comporte. '

It is the intention of our society to offer only expert andwell-considered opinion on these literary matters, which are oftenpopularly handled in the newspapers and journals as fit subjectsfor private taste and uninformed prejudice: and since the OxfordDictionary has done more fully for English what Littré did for French, our task is comparatively easy. But experts cannot be expected, all ofthem, to have the self-denying zeal of Émile Littré, and the worth ofour tracts will probably improve with the increase of our subscribers. 

BICKER

As Burns happens to use _bickering_ as his epithet for the mouse'sbrattle, we may take this word as another illustration of Littré'sprinciple. The _N. E. D. _ gives the original meaning as _skirmish_, andquotes Shakespeare, If I longer stay We shall begin our ancient bickerings, which a man transposing the third and fourth words might say to-daywithout rising above colloquial speech; but there is another alliedsignification which Milton has in

 Smoak and bickering flame;

and this is followed by many later writers. It would seem therefore, if the word is to have a special sense, that it must be focused in theidea of something that both wavers and skirmishes, and this suggestsanother word which caught our eye in the dictionary, that is

BRANGLE

It is defined in the _N. E. D. _ as 'a brawl, wrangle, squabble' andmarked _obsolete_. It seems to differ from its numerous synonyms bythe suggestion of what we call a muddle: that is an active wranglingwhich has become inextricably confused. 

SURVIVALS IN LANCASHIRE SPEECH

Mr. Ernest Stenhouse sends us notes on Tract II, from which we extractthe following:

'_Poll_ (= to cut the hair) is still familiar in Lancashire. _Tickle_(unstable) is obsolescent but not yet obsolete. As a child I oftenheard _meterly_ (= moderately): e. G. _meterly fausse_ (? false) =moderately cunning. It may still be in use. _Bout_ (= without = A. S. Butan) is commonly heard. 

'The words tabulated in Tract II, p. 34, and the following pairs arenot homophones in Lancashire: stork, stalk; pattern, patten; becausealthough the _r_ in stork and pattern is not trilled as in Scotland, it is distinctly indicated by a modification of the preceding vowel, somewhat similar to that heard in the _[(or]e_ words (p. 35). 

'Homophony may arise from a failure to make distinctions that arerecognized in P. S. P. Thus in Lancashire the diphthong sound in _flow_, _snow_, _bone_, _coal_, _those_, &c. , is very often pronounced as apure vowel (cf. French _eau_, _mot_): hence confusion arises between_flow_ and _flaw_, _sow_ and _saw_, _coal_ and _call_: both thesevowel sounds tending to become indistinguishable from the French_eau_. '

FEASIBLE

_Feasible_ is a good example of a word which appears in danger ofbeing lost through incorrect and ignorant use. It can very wellhappen that a word which is not quite comfortable may feel its wayto a useful place in defiance of etymology; and in such cases it ispedantry to object to its instinctive vagaries. But _feasible_ is awell-set comfortable word which is being ignorantly deprived of itsuseful definite signification. In the following note Mr. Fowler putsits case clearly, and his quotations, being typically illustrative ofthe manner in which this sort of mischief comes about, are worthy ofattention. 

'With those who feel that the use of an ordinary word for an ordinarynotion does not do justice to their vocabulary or sufficiently exhibittheir cultivation, who in fact prefer the stylish to the working word, _feasible_ is now a prime favourite. Its proper sense is "capable ofbeing done, accomplished, or carried out". That is, it means the sameas _possible_ in one of the latter's senses, and its true functionis to be used instead of _possible_ where that might be ambiguous. _Athunderstorm is possible_ (but not _feasible_). Irrigation is possible(or, indifferently, _feasible_). _A counter-revolution is possible_;i. E. , (a) one may for all we know happen, or (b) we can if we choosebring one about; but, if _b_ is the meaning, _feasible_ is better than_possible_ because it cannot properly bear sense _a_, and thereforeobviates ambiguity. 

'The wrong use of _feasible_ is that in which, by a slipshodextension, it is allowed to have also the other sense of _possible_, and that of _probable_. This is described by the highest authorityas "hardly a justifiable sense etymologically, and . .. Recognizedby no dictionary". It is however becoming very common; in all thefollowing quotations, it will be seen that the natural word wouldbe either _possible_ or _probable_, one of which should have beenchosen:--Continuing, Mr. Wood said: "I think it is very feasible thatthe strike may be brought to an end this week, and it is a significantcoincidence that . .. ". / Witness said it was quite feasible that if hehad had night binoculars he would have seen the iceberg earlier. / Weourselves believe that this is the most feasible explanation of thetradition. / This would appear to offer a feasible explanation of thescaffold puzzle. '

PROTAGONIST

Mr. Sargeaunt (on p. 26) suggests that we might do well to keep thefull Greek form of this word, and speak and write _protagonistes_. Familiarity with _Agonistes_ in the title of Milton's drama, whereit is correctly used as equivalent to 'mighty champion', would bemisleading, and the rejection of the English form 'protagonist' seemsotherwise undesirable. The following remarks by Mr. Fowler show thatpopular diction is destroying the word; and if ignorance be allowedits way we shall have a good word destroyed. 

'The word that has so suddenly become a prime favourite withjournalists, who more often than not make it mean champion or advocateor defender, has no right whatever to any of those meanings, andalmost certainly owes them to the mistaking of the first syllable(representing Greek [Greek: prôtos] "first") for [Greek: pro] "onbehalf of"--a mistake made easy by the accidental resemblance to_antagonist_. "Accidental", since the Greek [Greek: agônistês] hasdifferent meanings in the two words, in one "combatant", but inthe other "play-actor". The Greek [Greek: prôtagônistês] means theactor who takes the chief part in a play--a sense readily admitting offigurative application to the most conspicuous personage in any affair. The deuteragonist and tritagonist take parts of second and thirdimportance, and to talk of several protagonists, or of a chiefprotagonist or the like, is an absurdity. In the newspapers it is ararity to meet _protagonist_ in a legitimate sense; but two examplesof it are put first in the following collection. All the others areoutrages on this learned-sounding word, because some of themdistinguish between chief protagonists and others who are not chief, some state or imply that there are more protagonists than one in anaffair, and the rest use _protagonist_ as a mere synonym for advocate. 

'Legitimate uses: _The "cher Halévy" who is the protagonist of theamazing dialogue. / Marco Landi, the protagonist and narrator of astory which is skilfully contrived and excellently told, is a fairlyfamiliar type of soldier of fortune. _

'Absurd uses with _chief_, &c. : _The chief protagonist is a youngNonconformist minister. / Unlike a number of the leading protagonistsin the Home Rule fight, Sir Edward Carson was not in Parliamentwhen. .. . / It presents a spiritual conflict, centred about its twochief protagonists, but shared in by all its characters. _

'Absurd plural uses: _One of the protagonists of that glorious fightfor Parliamentary Reform in 1866 is still actively among us. / Oneof these immense protagonists must fall, and, as we have alreadyforeshadowed, it is the Duke. / By a tragic but rapid process ofelimination most of the protagonists have now been removed. / As on astage where all the protagonists of a drama assemble at the end of thelast act. / That letter is essential to a true understanding ofthe relations of the three great protagonists at this period. / Theprotagonists in the drama, which has the motion and structure of aGreek tragedy_ (Fy! fy!--a Greek tragedy and protagonists?). 

'Confusions with _advocate_, &c. : _The new Warden is a strenuousprotagonist of that party in Convocation. / Mr ----, an enthusiasticprotagonist of militant Protestantism. / The chief protagonist on thecompany's side in the latest railway strike, Mr ----. / It was ahappy thought that placed in the hands of the son of one of the greatprotagonists of Evolution the materials for the biography of another. / But most of the protagonists of this demand have shifted theirground. / As for what the medium himself or his protagonists may thinkof them--for etymological purposes that is neither here nor there. _

'Perhaps we need not consider the Greek scholar's feelings; hehas many advantages over the rest of us, and cannot expect that inaddition he shall be allowed to forbid us a word that we find useful. Is it useful? or is it merely a pretentious blundering substitute forwords that are useful? _Pro-_ in _protagonist_ is not the opposite of_anti-_; _-agonist_ is not the same as in _antagonist_; _advocate_and _champion_ and _defender_ and _combatant_ are better words for thewrong senses given to _protagonist_; and _protagonist_ in its rightsense of _the_ (not _a_) chief actor in an affair has still work to doif it could only be allowed to mind its own business. '

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AMERICAN APPRECIATION

We are glad to reprint the following short extracts from the _New YorkTimes Book Review and Magazine_, September 26, 1920. 

'THE CAMPAIGN FOR PURE ENGLISH

 'Among those who joined it (the S. P. E. ) immediately were Arthur J. Balfour, A. C. Bradley, Austin Dobson, Thomas Hardy, J. W. Mackail, Gilbert Murray, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and Mrs. Wharton. .. . The rallying of these men and women of letters was not more significant than the prompt adhesion of the Professors of English in the various British Universities: W. M. Dixon, Oliver Elton, E. S. Gordon, C. H. Herford, W. P. Ker, G. C. Moore-Smith, F. W. Moorman, A. Quiller-Couch, George Saintsbury, and H. C. K. Wyld. .. . 

 'There is a peril to the proper development of the language in offensive affectations, in persistent pedantry, and in other results of that comprehensive ignorance of the history of English, which we find plentifully revealed in many of our grammars. It is high time that men who love the language, who can use it deftly and forcibly, and who are acquainted with the principles and the processes of its growth, should raise the standard of independence. .. . 

 'It is encouraging to realize that the atrophy of the word-making habit is less obvious in the United States than it is in Great Britain. .. . We cannot but regret that it is not now possible to credit to their several inventors American compounds of a delightful expressiveness--_windjammer, loan-shark, scare-head_, and that more delectable _pussy-footed_--all of them verbal creations with an imaginative quality almost Elizabethan in its felicity, and all of them examples of the purest English. .. . We Americans made the compound _farm-hand_, and employ it in preference to the British [English?] _agricultural labourer_. 

 '_The attention of the officers of the society may be called to the late Professor Lounsbury's lively and enlightening_ History of the English Language, _and to Professor George Philip Krapp's illuminating study of_ Modern English. 

BRANDER MATTHEWS. '

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REPORT

Of the proceedings of the Society for the first year ending Xmas, 1920. 

The Society still remains governed by the small committee of itsoriginal founders: the support of the public and the press has beenaltogether satisfactory: the suggestions and programme which thecommittee originally put forward have met with nothing but favourablecriticism; no opposition has been aroused, and we are thereforeencouraged to meet the numerous invitations that we have received fromall parts of the English-speaking world to make our activities morewidely known. The sale of the Tracts has been sufficient to pay theirexpenses; and we are in this respect very much indebted to the OxfordUniversity Press for its generous co-operation; for it has enabled usto offer our subscribers good workmanship at a reasonable price. Thepublication of this Tract IV closes our first 'year': we regret thatthe prevalent national disturbances have extended it beyond the solarperiod, but the conditions render explanation and apology needless. 

Our list shows 188 members, and their names include many well-knownmen of letters, Professors of Literature, Editors, Journalists, and others interested in the history and present condition of thelanguage. Nineteen members sent donations (above 10s. 6d. ) whichtogether amounted to about £40; and thirty-two sent subscriptions often shillings for the supply of one year's publications. 

To these subscribers (whose names are printed in the list below) allthe four Tracts for this year have been sent: and it will appear thatsince they might have bought the four Tracts for 7s. 6d. , they havemade a donation of 2s. 6d. Apiece to the funds of the Society. Thismargin is very useful and we hope that they will renew their 10s. Subscription in advance for the ensuing year. That will ensure theirreceiving the Society's papers as they are issued, and it willmuch assist the machinery of publication. Also Members who have nothitherto subscribed are now specially invited to do so. They canjudge of the Society's work, and can best support it in this way. The publications of 1921 _will be sent as soon as issued to all suchsubscribers_. 

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LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS

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FINIS