THE LIBRARY OF USEFUL STORIES

 Image: A COTTON FIELD IN TEXAS

 THE STORY OF THE COTTON PLANT

 BY

 FREDERICK WILKINSON, F. G. S. 

 DIRECTOR OF THE TEXTILE AND ENGINEERING SCHOOL, BOLTON AND CO-AUTHOR OF ELEMENTS OF COTTON SPINNING

 _WITH THIRTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS_

 NEW YORK AND LONDON D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1912

 COPYRIGHT, 1898, 1902, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 

 Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE. 

In collecting the facts which will be found in this Story of the Cottonplant, the author has of necessity had to consult many books. He isespecially indebted to Baines' "History of the Cotton Manufacture, "French's "Life and Times of Samuel Crompton, " Lee's "Vegetable Lamb ofTartary, " Report of the U. S. A. Agricultural Department on "The CottonPlant, " and The American Cotton Company's Booklet on the CylindricalBale. 

Mr. Thornley, spinning master at the Technical School, Bolton, has fromtime to time offered very important suggestions during the progress ofthis little work. The author is also deeply indebted to the late Mr. Woods of the Technical School, Bolton, who was good enough to photographmost of the pictures which illustrate this book, and without which itwould have been impossible to make the story clear. 

For permission to reproduce Fig. 3, the thanks of the author are due toMessrs. Sampson Low and Co. , for Fig. 4, to Messrs. Longmans, Green andCo. For Figs. 5, 8, 9, 13, and 36, to Messrs. Dobson and Barlow, Ltd. , Bolton. For Fig. 7, viz. , the Longitudinal and TransverseMicrophotographs of Cotton Fibre, the author is much indebted to Mr. Christie of Mark Lane, London, who generously photographed themespecially for this work. For Fig. 23, I am obliged to Mr. A. Perry, Bolton. 

 FRED WILKINSON. 

 TEXTILE AND ENGINEERING SCHOOL, BOLTON. 

 CONTENTS. 

 CHAPTER PAGE

 I. ORIGIN, GROWTH, AND CHIEF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF COTTON PLANT 9

 II. COTTON-PLANT DISEASES AND PESTS 34

 III. CULTIVATION OF THE COTTON PLANT IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 39

 IV. THE MICROSCOPE AND COTTON FIBRE 64

 V. PLANTATION LIFE AND EARLY CLEANING PROCESSES 72

 VI. MANIPULATION OF COTTON IN OPENING, SCUTCHING, CARDING, DRAWING, AND FLY-FRAME MACHINES 82

 VII. EARLY ATTEMPTS AT SPINNING, AND EARLY INVENTORS 112

 VIII. FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS--ARKWRIGHT AND CROMPTON 126

 IX. THE MODERN SPINNING MULE 146

 X. OTHER PROCESSES IN COTTON SPINNING 160

 XI. DESTINATION OF THE SPUN YARN 176

 INDEX 189

 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

 FIGURE PAGE

 1. A Cotton Field in Texas _Frontispiece_

 2. Bobbins of Cotton Thread 10

 3. The Vegetable Lamb of Tartary 13

 4. Gossypium Barbadense 24

 5. An Indian Cotton field 53

 6. Microscope in position for drawing objects 65

 7. Transverse and Longitudinal Sections of Cotton Fibre 67

 8. Indian women with Roller gin 75

 9. Self-acting Macarthy Cotton gin 78

 10. Bales from various Cotton-growing countries 80

 11. Cylindrical Rolls of Cotton 81

 12. Bale Breaker or Puller 87

 13. Double opener with Hopper Feed 89

 14. Scutching Machine with lap at the back 92

 15. Two views of the Carding Engine 95

 16. Lap, Web, and Sliver of Cotton 99

 17. Drawing Frame, showing eight slivers entering, and one leaving the machine 103

 18. Intermediate Frame (Bobbin and Fly Frame) 108

 19. Twist put in Cotton by the hand 115

 20. Jersey spinning wheel 117

 21. Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny 124

 22. Arkwright's Machine 130

 23. "The Hall ith Wood" 136

 24. Crompton's Spinning Mule 141

 25. Portrait of Samuel Crompton 145

 26. Mule Head showing Quadrant 148

 27. Mules showing "Stretch" of Cotton yarn 150

 28. Mule showing action of Faller Wires 154

 29. Mule Head showing Copping Rail 159

 30. Ring Spinning Frame 161

 31. Combing Machine 170

 32. Sliver Lap Machine 173

 33. Ribbon Lap Machine 175

 34. Reeling Machine 179

 35. Bundling Machine 180

 36. Quick Traverse Winding Frame 182

 37. Ring Doubling Machine 184

 38. Engine House, showing driving to various storeys 186

THE STORY OF THE COTTON PLANT. 

CHAPTER I. 

ORIGIN, GROWTH, AND CHIEF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF COTTON PLANT. 

In the frontispiece of this little work is a picture of a cotton fieldshowing the plants bearing mature pods which contain ripe fibre andseed, and in Fig. 2 stands a number of bobbins or reels of cottonthread, in which there is one having no less than seventeen hundred andsixty yards of sewing cotton, or one English mile of thread, on it. Asboth pictures are compared there appears to be very little in commonbetween them, the white fluffy feathery masses contained in the podsshown in the one picture, standing in strange contrast to the strong, beautifully regular and even threads wound on the bobbins pictured inthe other. 

From cotton tree to cotton thread is undoubtedly a far cry, but it willbe seen further on that the connection between the two is a very realand vital one. 

Now it is the main purpose of this book to unfold the wonderful story ofthe plant, and to fill in the details of the gap from tree to thread, and to trace the many changes through which the beautiful downy cottonwool passes before it arrives in the prim looking state of thread readyalike for the sewing machine or the needle of a seamstress. 

Image: FIG. 2. --Bobbins of cotton thread. 

Remembering that the great majority of the readers of this little bookmust of necessity be quite unaccustomed to trade terms and technicalexpressions, the author has endeavoured to present to his readers inuntechnical language a simple yet truthful account of the manyoperations and conditions through which cotton is made to pass beforereaching the final stages. 

Nature provides no lovelier sight than the newly opened capsulescontaining the pure white and creamy flocculent masses of the cottonfibre as they hang from almost every branch of the tree at the end of afavourable season. 

And how strange is the story of this plant as we look back through thecenturies and listen to the myths and fables, almost legion, which earlyhistorians have handed down to us or imaginative travellers haveconceived. There is, however, every reason to believe that in the fardistant ages of antiquity this plant was cultivated, and yielded then, as it does now, a fibre from which the inhabitants of those far-offtimes produced material with which to clothe their bodies. 

It will not be considered out of place if some of the early beliefswhich obtained among the peoples of Western Asia and Europe for manyyears are related. 

Like many other things the origin of the Cotton plant is shrouded inmystery, and many writers are agreed that it originally came from theEast, but it will be seen later on that equally strong claims can bepresented from other countries in the Western Hemisphere. Many of ushave been amused at the curious ideas which people, say of a hundredyears ago, had of the Coral Polyp. 

Even to-day children may be heard singing in school, "Far adown the silent ocean Dwells the coral _insect_ small"!

Not a few of the early naturalists believed that the Coral was a plantand while living in the sea water it was soft, and when dead it becamehard!

We smile at this, of course, but it was not until actual investigationon the spot, as to what the Coral was, that the truth came out. 

It was then discovered to be an animal and not a plant, and that duringlife its hard limy skeleton was covered by soft muscular tissue, which, when decomposing, was readily washed away by the sea, leaving the hardinterior exposed as coral. 

When the absurd beliefs are read which found credence among all classesof the people during the middle ages, and down even to the end of theseventeenth century, as to what the cotton boll or pod was, the readeris inclined to rub his eyes and think surely he must be reading "BaronMunchausen" over again, for a nearer approach to the wonderfulstatements of that former-fabled traveller it would be difficult to findthan the simple crude conceptions which prevailed of the growth, habits, and physical characteristics of the Cotton plant. 

The subject of the early myths and fables of the plant in question hasbeen very fully treated by the late Mr. Henry Lee, F. L. S. , who was fora time at the Brighton Aquarium. His book, the "Vegetable Lamb ofTartary, " shows indefatigable research for a correct explanation of themyth, and after a strictly impartial inquiry he comes to the conclusionthat all the various phases which these fabulous concoctions assumed, had their beginnings in nothing more or less than the simple mature podof the Cotton plant. 

It will not be necessary to consider here more than one or two of thesevery curious beliefs about cotton. By some it was supposed that in acountry which went by the name "The Tartars of the East, " there grew awonderful tree which yielded buds still more wonderful. These, whenripe, were said to burst and expose to view tiny lambs whose fleecesgave a pure white wool which the natives made into different garments. 

By and by, a delightfully curious change took place, and it is foundthat the fruit which was formerly said to have the little lamb within, was now changed into a live lamb attached to the top of the plant. Mr. Lee says: "The stem or stalk on which the lamb was suspended above theground, was sufficiently flexible to allow the animal to bend downward, and browse on the herbage within its reach. When all the grass withinthe length of its tether had been consumed, the stem withered and theplant died. This plant lamb was reported to have bones, blood, anddelicate flesh, and to be a favourite food of wolves, though no othercarnivorous animal would attack it. "

Image: FIG. 3. --The vegetable lamb of Tartary. 

In Fig. 3 is shown Joannes Zahn's idea of what this wonderful "Barometzor Tartarian lamb" was like. Now, mainly through an imaginativeEnglishman named Sir John Mandeville, who lived in the reign of EdwardIII. , did this latter form of the story find its way into England. 

This illustrious traveller left his native country in 1322, and for overthirty years traversed the principal countries of Europe and Asia. Whenhe came home he commenced to write a history of his remarkable travels. In these are found references to the Cotton plant, and so curious anaccount does he give of it, that it has been considered worthreproduction in his own words: "And there growethe a maner of Fruyt, asthough it weren Gourdes: and whan ther been rype men kutten hem ato, andmen fynden with inne a lyttle Best, in Flesche, in Bon and Blode, asthough it were a lytylle Lomb with outen Wolle. And men eten both theFrut and the Best; and that is a great Marveylle. Of that Frute I haveeaten; alle thoughe it were wondirfulle, but that I knowe well that Godis Marveyllous in his Werkes. "

No wonder that many accepted his account of the "Vegetable Lamb" withoutquestion. When a nobleman of the reputation of Sir J. Mandeville statedthat he had actually eaten of the fruit of the Cotton, was there anyneed for further doubt?

It appears, however, that contemporary with Mandeville was anothertraveller, an Italian Friar, named Odoricus, who also had travelled inAsia and heard of the plant which yielded cotton. He, too, fell a preyto the lamb theory. Many other writers and travellers followed, all moreor less believing in the plant animal theory. However, in 1641, Kircherof Avignon in describing cotton declared it to be a plant. And so thestory for years passed through many changes. First one would assert whathe considered to be the right solution, and this was immediatelychallenged by the next investigator, so that assertion and contradictionfollowed each other in quick succession. 

In 1725, however, a German doctor named Breyn communicated with theRoyal Society on the subject of the "Vegetable lamb, " emphaticallystating the story to be nothing more or less than a fable. He verynaïvely remarked that "the work and productions of nature should bediscovered, not invented, " and he threw doubts as to whether those whohad written about the mythical lamb had ever seen one. 

When the writings and dissertations of Mandeville, Odoricus and othersare carefully considered, these conclusions force themselves upon us:that direct personal observation must have played a very minor part inthe attempt to get at the truth in connection with the origin and growthof the Cotton plant. 

Their statements stand in very sharp contrast with those of writers wholived before the Christian era commenced. Of these, mention must be madeof Herodotus, surnamed the _Father of History_. 

This celebrated Greek historian and philosopher was born, B. C. 484, inHalicarnassus in Greece. In his book of travels he speaks of the Cottonplant. It appears, mainly owing to the tyrannical government ofLygdamis, he left his native land and travelled in many countries inEurope, Asia, and Africa. He appears to have at least determined, thathe would only write of those things of which he had intimate knowledge, and would under no circumstances take for granted what he could not bypersonal observation verify for himself. In speaking of India and theCotton plant, he says: "The wild trees in that country bear for theirfruit fleeces surpassing those of sheep in beauty and excellence, andthe natives clothe themselves in cloths made therefrom. " In anotherplace he refers to a present which was sent by one of the kings ofEgypt, which was padded with cotton. He also describes a machine forseparating the seed from the fibre or lint. Compared with our moderngins, as they are called, this machine was exceedingly primitive andsimple in construction. 

There is not the slightest doubt that the first reliable information ofthe physical characters of the fibre and its uses was conveyed intoEurope by the officers of the Emperor Alexander. One of his greatestAdmirals, named Nearchus, observed the growth of cotton in India, andthe use to which it was put, especially the making of sheets, shirts andturbans. 

Perhaps one of the most careful observers that lived before theChristian era commenced, was Theophrastus, who wrote some strikinglycorrect things about the Cotton plant of India three centuries beforeChrist!

In describing the tree he said it was useful in producing cotton whichthe Indians wove into garments, that it was not unlike the dog rose, andthat the leaves were somewhat like the leaves of the mulberry tree. Thecultivation of the plant was also very correctly noted as to the rows inwhich the cotton seeds were placed, and as to the distances to whichthese rows were set. According to Dr. Royle, however, reference is madeto cotton in the "Sacred Institutes of Manu" so frequently that theconclusion is admitted that cotton must have been in frequent use inIndia at that time, which was 800 B. C. 

As was to be expected, Persia very early had cottons and calicoesimported from India. In the sixth verse of the first chapter of Estherdefinite reference is made to the use to which cotton was put at thefeasts which King Ahasuerus gave about 519 B. C. "White, green, and bluehangings" are said to have been used on this occasion, and fromauthorities who have specially investigated this subject, we are toldthat the hangings mentioned were simply white and blue striped cottons. This would also confirm the statement that dyeing is one of the oldestindustries we have. 

It appears that the Greeks and Romans in good time learned to valuegoods made of cotton, and soon followed the Oriental custom of erectingawnings or coverings for protection from the sun's rays. The EmperorCæsar is said to have constructed a huge screen extending from his ownresidence along the Sacred Way to the top of the Capitoline Hill. Thewhole of the Roman Forum was also covered in by him in a similar way. Coverings for tents, sail cloth made from cotton, and fancy coverletswere also in use among the people of these stirring times. 

And now comes the important question: Was cotton indigenous to India inthese very early times? and was it carried and afterwards planted inEgypt, Africa, and America?

As an attempt is made to successfully answer this question, our mindsare thrown back to the time when Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, havingheard of India, desired to find a new way to that country. Comparativelypoor himself, he was unable to equip an expedition, and laid his schemebefore the Council of Genoa. They declined to have anything to do withit, and he is found next presenting his case to the King of Portugal. Here he alike failed, and he ultimately applied to the King and Queen ofSpain, when he met with success. 

The 3rd of August, 1492, found him fully equipped with two ships, and onhis way west to find a new way to India. He first touched the Bahamasthirty days after setting sail from Europe, and to his astonishment hewas met by the natives, who came out to meet him in canoes, bringingwith them cotton yarn and thread for the purpose of barter. In Cuba hewas surprised to find hammocks made from cotton cord in very generaluse. What Columbus observed in the West Indies as to the growth andmanufacture of cotton, was found afterwards to be by no means confinedto these islands, but that in South and Central America the natives werequite accustomed both to the growth and manufacture of cotton. 

Indisputable evidence can be presented to prove that the ancientcivilisations of Mexico, Peru, and Central America, were well acquaintedwith cotton. When Peru was subjugated in 1522 by Pizarro, themanufacture of cotton was in a flourishing condition. 

Similarly when Mexico fell into the hands of Cortez in 1519, he toofound that the use of cotton was very general. So delighted was he atwhat he saw of the quality and beauty of their manufactured goods, thathe had no hesitation in dispatching to Europe a present consisting ofmantles, to the Emperor Charles V. 

Five years after Columbus started on his momentous voyage, anotherexpedition under Vasco da Gama set out from the Tagus to make the voyageto India by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. 

Immediately Gama had safely reached India, there were others who quicklydesired to follow, and in 1516 another adventurous Spaniard on his wayto India called at S. Africa, and found the natives wearing garmentsmade of cotton. 

There is therefore no reason to question the statement which hasrepeatedly been made, that at least three centres are known in which theCotton plant from very early times has been indigenous, and that thepeoples of these countries were well acquainted with the property anduses of the cotton wool obtained from the plant. An average of more than1, 000, 000 bales, each weighing 500 lbs. , are exported from Egypt everyyear, and the question has been raised whether the cultivation of theplant in Egypt can be said to date far back. This is not so. The fibrealmost exclusively used by the ancient Egyptians was flax, and thenature of the garments covering the mummies of the ancient Egyptians hasbeen satisfactorily decided by the microscope. It is very probable thatthe cultivation of the plant at the beginning of the thirteenth centurywas carried on purely for the purpose of ornamental gardening, and evenwhen the seventeenth century was fairly well advanced, the Egyptiansstill imported cotton. 

The nineteenth century, however, has seen important developments in thecultivation of cotton in Egypt, and now the position attained by thiscountry is only outdistanced by the United States and India. 

=The Botany of Cotton. =--Botanists tell us that the vegetable kingdom isprimarily divided into three great classes--viz. , (1) Dicotyledons; (2)Monocotyledons; and (3) Acotyledons. 

Now these names solely refer to the nature and form of the seedsproduced by the plants, and by the first it is understood that a singleseed is divisible into two seed lobes in developing. In the case of thesecond, the seed is formed only of one lobe, and in the third the seedis wanting as a cotyledon, but the method of propagation is carried onby what are called spores. We have examples of the last-named class inthe ferns, lycopods and horsetail plants. The first two of theabove-named classes have been well called Seed plants. These are againbroken up into divisions, to which the name Natural Orders has beengiven. Most of us know, as the following are examined, Anemone, Buttercup, Marsh Marigold, Globe Flower, and Larkspur, that they havethe same general structural arrangement, but in many particulars theydiffer. Thus these natural orders are again subdivided into genera, anda still further subdivision into species is made. 

The Cotton plant is put in the genus _Gossypium_, which is one fallinginto the natural order _Malvacæ_, and which is one of a very largenumber forming an important division of the dicotyledons where thestamens are found to be inserted below the pistil, and where the corollais composed of free separate petals, and where the plant has a flowerbearing both calyx and corolla. So far as numbers are concerned, theMalvacæ cannot be said to be important, but few genera being known tofall into this order. Three are familiar at least--viz. , the MarshMallow, which was formerly used a great deal in making ointment; theMusk Mallow, and the Tree Mallow. The most important genus in this orderis the Gossypium. This name was given to the Cotton plant by Pliny, though the reasons for so doing are not clear. Very many species areknown to exist at the present time, and this is not to be wondered at, when the area in which the plant is cultivated is so vast, and coupledwith the fact that the plant is susceptible to the slightest change and"sports" most readily. 

Differences of soil, climate, position with regard to the sea board, andvariations in the method of cultivation could only be expected to resultin the species being exceedingly numerous. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that no two botanists agree as to the number ofspecies comprising the Gossypium family. A list, however, of thecommoner varieties found in various cotton-growing areas of the globewill be given, but before doing so, it is deemed advisable to give ageneral botanical description of the plant. 

The Gossypium is either herbaceous, shrubby, or treelike, varying inheight from three to twenty feet. In some cases it is perennial; inmost, as in the cultivated species, it is an annual or biennial. A fewexamples are noted for the vast number of hairs found everywhere on theplant, and on almost every part of the plant also, there may be observedblack spots or glands. Usually the stem is erect, and as a rule theCotton plant in form is not unlike the fir tree, that is, its lowerbranches are wider than those above, and this gradual tapering extendsto the top of the tree. In consequence of this it is said to be_terete_. The leaves are alternate, veined and petiolated, that is, theyhave a leaf stalk connecting leaf and stem. In shape the leaves arecordate or heart-shaped, as well as sub-cordate, and the number of lobesfound in the leaf varies from three to seven. The stipules or littleappendages found on the petioles, resembling small leaves in appearanceand texture, are generally found in pairs. The calyx is cup-shaped, andthe petals of the flower are very conspicuous, and vary in colouraccording to the species, being brownish-red, purple, rose-coloured, and yellow. The petals, five in number, are often joined together at thebase. The ovary is sessile, that is, it directly rests upon the mainstem, and is usually three to five celled. The pod or capsule, whichcontains the seeds and cotton fibre, when ripe splits into valves, whichvary in number from three to five. A characteristic feature of the podis the sharp top point formed by the meeting of the pointed valves. Theseeds are numerous and very seldom smooth, being usually thickly coveredwith fibrous matter known as raw cotton. As is well known, the windperforms a very important function in the dispersal of seeds. It isclear that when a seed is ready to be set free, and is provided by atuft of hair, such as is seen on the cotton seed, dandelion and willowherb, it becomes a very easy matter for it to be carried ever so far, when a good breeze is blowing. Most of us have blown, when children, atthe crown of white feathery matter in the dandelion, and have beendelighted to see the tiny parachutes carrying off its tiny seed to beafterward deposited, and ultimately take root and appear as a new plant. Much in the same way, before it was cultivated, the Cotton plantperpetuated its own species. It should be added that the root of theCotton plant is tap shaped, and penetrates deeply into the earth. 

It would be well nigh impossible to enumerate all the species which arenow known in the Cotton plant family, and it is not proposed here todescribe more than the principal types of the Gossypium. In a reportprepared by Mr. Tracy of Mississippi, U. S. A. , no less than onehundred and thirty varieties of American cotton are given. He says:"The word 'variety' refers exclusively to the various forms and kindswhich are called varieties by cotton planters, and is not restricted tothe more marked and permanent types which are recognised by botanists. Of botanical varieties there are but few, while of agriculturalvarieties there are an almost infinite number, and the names under whichthe agricultural varieties are known are many times greater than therecognisable forms. " The Cotton plant most readily responds to anychanges of climate, methods of cultivation, change of soil or offertilizers. So that it is easy to understand in a plant so susceptibleand prone to vary as is the cotton, that new species may in a few yearsbe brought into existence, and especially by means of proper selectionof the seed, and careful cultivation. 

The chief commercial types of _Gossypium_ are--1. _Barbadense_; 2. _Herbaceum_; 3. _Hirsutum_; 4. _Arboreum_; 5. _Neglectum_; 6. _Peruvianum_. 

_Gossypium Barbadense. _--The fine long silky fibres of commerce are allderived from this species. It is indigenous to a group of the WestIndian Islands named the Lesser Antilles. It gets its name fromBarbadoes, one of the West Indies. At the present time it is cultivatedthroughout the Southern States of North America which border on the sea, in most of the West Indian Islands, Central America, Western Africalying between the tropics, Bourbon, Egypt, Australia, and the EastIndies. There is no doubt that the plant comes to its highest and mostperfect state of cultivation when it is planted near the sea. Dr. Evanssays: "It may be cultivated in any region adapted to the olive and nearthe sea, the principal requisite being a hot and humid atmosphere, butthe results of acclimatisation indicate that the humid atmosphere is notentirely necessary if irrigation be employed, as this species isundoubtedly grown extensively in Egypt. " The height of this speciesvaries from 3 to 4 feet if cultivated as an annual, and from 6 to 8 feetif allowed to grow as a perennial. When in full leaf and flower, it is amost graceful-looking plant. Yarns having the finest counts, as they arecalled, are all spun from Sea Islands, which belongs to this class. Whenwe are told that a single pound of this cotton is often spun into athread about 160 miles long we can see that it must be exceedingly goodand strong cotton to do this. 

Image: FIG. 4. --The Gossypium Barbadense. 

_Lint_ is the name given to the cotton which remains when separated fromthe seeds. Every other American type of cotton gives a greaterpercentage of lint than the Sea Islands cotton, though it should bestated that the price per pound is greater than any other kind of cottongrown in the States. There are from six to nine seeds in each capsuleand the prevailing colour is black. A cotton grown in Egypt and known bythe name _Gallini_ is of the Sea Islands type and has been produced fromseed of the G. Barbadense. It should be added that the colour of theflower is yellow and that in India this plant is known by the name ofBourbon Cotton. 

_Gossypium Herbaceum_. --As indicated by the name, this type isherbaceous in character, especially the cultivated type. When Lamarckclassified this tree, he gave it the name Indicum because he consideredmost of the Indian types and some of the Chinese belonged to thisparticular species. India, too, is considered by Parlatore to have beenthe original home of the herbaceous type, and he specially fixes theCoromandel Coast as the first centre from which it sprang. There is muchconflict of opinion in localising the primitive habitat of this type, and it is now thought that the present stock is probably the result ofhybridisation of several species more or less related to each other. However, the areas in which this class of cotton grows are very numerousand extensive, for we find it growing in India, China, Arabia, Persia, Asia Minor, and Africa. A very characteristic feature of this plant isthat it quickly decays after podding, when cultivated as an annual. 

The _Vine Cotton_ grown in Cuba belongs to the herbaceous type and isremarkable for its large pods, which contain an abnormal number ofseeds. The so-called "Nankeen" cottons are said to be "Colourvariations" of the herbaceous Cotton plant. Many varieties of Egyptiancottons are produced from this particular class, as well as the Suratcotton of India. 

A feature which distinguishes this type is that the seeds are coveredwith two kinds of fibre, a long and short, the latter being very dense. The process of taking the longer fibre from the seed must be verycarefully watched, as it becomes a troublesome matter to remove theshorter fibre when once it has come away from the seed with the longer. Hence great care should be taken in gathering this class of cotton. Another point which should not be lost sight of is, that the herbaceoustype of Cotton plant readily hybridises with some other varieties andthe result is a strain of much better quality. 

_Gossypium Hirsutum_. --This variety is so called because of the hairynature of every part of the plant, leaves, stems, branches, pods andseeds--all having short hairs upon them. By Dr. Royle it is considered asub-variety of the Barbadense cotton, and by other American experts itis given as synonymous with G. Herbaceum. However this may be, the planthas certain well-defined characteristics which possibly entitle it to beconsidered as a distinct type. It has been asserted by a competentauthority that the original habitat of this particular cotton wasMexico, and that from this country cultivators have imported itthroughout the sub-tropical districts of the world. 

It is also stated that longstapled Georgian Uplands cotton belongs tothe Hirsutum variety. In fact most of the types cultivated in Americafall into this class. Parlatore also considers it to be indigenous toMexico, and states that all green seeded cotton which is so extensivelycultivated has been obtained from this type originally. M. Deschamps, indescribing the Hirsutum species, says it is divided into two varieties, one having green seeds, being of a hardier type, and the other havinggreyish seeds, being more delicate and growing in the more southerndistricts of the States. 

_Gossypium Arboreum_. --This plant attains treelike proportions, hencethe name Arboreum. In some cases it will grow as high as twenty feet. Itis also known by the name G. Religiosum, because the cotton spun fromthis plant was used only for making threads which were woven into clothfor making turbans for the priests of India. Dr. Royle on one occasionwhile in that country was informed by the head gardener of a BotanicalGarden at Saharunpore that this cotton was not used for making cloth forthe lower garments at all, its use being restricted to turbans for theirheads, as it was sacred to the gods. That is why it also received thename, "_Deo Cotton_. "

One or two interesting features of this type may be pointed out. Thecolour of the flowers is characteristic, being brownish and purply-redand having a dark spot purple in colour near the base of the corolla, this latter being bell-shaped. Like the herbaceous type two kinds offibre are found on the seed and great care is needed in the separationof them. Also, it should be pointed out that the fibres, in this classare with difficulty removed from the seed, clinging very tenaciously toit. 

The Arboreum type is indigenous to India and along the sea board washedby the Indian Ocean. The fibre from this species is much shorter inaverage length than any of the preceding varieties. 

_Gossypium Neglectum. _--This too is an Indian cotton, and according toRoyle the celebrated and beautiful Dacca cotton which gives the famousmuslins, as well as the long cloth of Madras, are made from cottonobtained from the Neglectum variety. An important feature of this plantis the small pod which bears the fibre and the small number of seedscontained in each septa of the capsule, being only from five to eight innumber. Like some preceding forms, the seeds carry cotton of twolengths, the shorter of the two being ashy green in colour. The longerfibre is harsh to the touch and white in colour. In many points it isvery similar to the Arboreum type and is considered by some botaniststo be a cross between the Arboreum species and some other. It does notattain any great height, being often in bush form under two feet. Thecountry of Five Rivers or the Punjaub, North West Provinces and Bengal, are the districts in India in which it is mostly cultivated as a fieldcrop. It has a high commercial value, forming the main bulk of thecotton produced in the Bengal presidency. This plant is indigenous toIndia. 

_Gossypium Peruvianum. _--So called because Peru was considered to be thehabitat of this cotton. By some authorities this particular species isfor all practical purposes synonymous with the first typedescribed--viz. , Barbadense. By others it is said to be closely alliedto the Acuminatum variety, so named because of the pointed character ofits capsules and leaves. Perhaps the most striking feature of this plantis the colour of the seeds, which is black. Another interesting pointabout the seeds is that they adhere closely to each other, and form acone-like mass. Brazil is the home of this particular species, though itis cultivated here in two forms, as "Tree Cotton" and as "HerbaceousCotton. " The former is also known by the name Crioulo or Maranhâo Cottonor short Mananams. It appears also that the Tree Cotton is one of thevery few which does not suffer from the depredations of the cottoncaterpillar. What is known as "Kidney Cotton" belongs to this species, which is sometimes named Braziliense. The name kidney is given becauseof the peculiar manner in which the seeds are arranged in the capsule, adhering together in each cell in the form of a kidney. 

The most important countries in which it is grown are Brazil and Peru, though it is produced in other districts outside these countries, butnot to any great extent. 

A very curious cotton which receives the name of "Red Peruvian" is alsoproduced in South America. On account of its colour, it has only a verylimited sale. This is owing to the difficulty there is in blending ormixing it with any other cotton of similar quality. 

Cottons known generally as Santos, Cæra and Pernams are not of thisspecies--viz. , Gossypium Peruvianum, but belong to the first and secondof the types already described. 

=The Strength of Cotton Fibres. =--Mr. O'Neill some years ago made manyexperiments with a view to obtaining the strengths of the differentfibres, and the following table compiled by him, will be of interest tothe general reader. 

 Sea Islands 83. 9 mean breaking strain in grains. Queensland 147. 6 " " Egyptian 127. 2 " " Maranham 107. 1 " " Bengueld 100. 6 " " Pernambuco 140. 2 " " New Orleans 147. 7 " " Upland 104. 5 " " Surat (Dhollerah) 141. 9 " " Surat (Comptah) 163. 7 " "

From this table it is arguable that the strength of fibre variesaccording to the diameter, that is to say, the fibre with the thickestdiameter carries the highest strain. The order, therefore, in which thefibres would fall, according to strength, would be, Indian, American, Australian, Brazilian, Egyptian, and Sea Islands last. 

=The Chemistry of the Cotton Plant. =--Messrs. M'Bryde & Beal, Chemists inthe Experimental Station in Tennessee, say, "As a rule our stapleagricultural plants have not received the thorough, systematic chemicalinvestigation that their importance demands. " It would appear that untilrecent times the above statement was only too true. Now, however, theUnited States Government and others have instituted experiments on alarge scale, and everything is now being done in the direction ofresearch, with a view to improving the quality of this important plant. 

A complete Cotton plant consists of roots, stems, leaves, bolls, seedand lint. Now if these six parts of the plant be weighed, they vary verymuch, proving that some of them are more exhaustive than others, so faras the fertilizing matters found in the soil are concerned. For example, if water be discarded in the calculation, though this takes up a fairpercentage of the total weight, about 10, it is found that the rootstake up by weight over 8 per cent. Of the whole plant, stems over 23 percent. , leaves over 20, bolls over 14, seeds over 23, and lint only10-1/2 per cent. 

Now this statement is interesting as showing one or two importantfeatures. The weight of the seed is seen to be nearly a quarter of thewhole plant, while the stems and leaves together take up nearly onehalf. A very small proportion by weight of the plant is taken by thelint. 

A chemical analysis of the mature Cotton plant yielded the followingsubstances:--

 Water. Potash. Ash. Lime. Nitrogen. Magnesia. Phosphoric acid. Sulphuric acid. Insoluble matter. 

Of ten analyses made with the cotton lint (which takes up about 10-1/2per cent. Of the whole) M'Bryde states that the average amount of waterfound was 6. 77, ash 1. 8, nitrogen . 2, phosphoric acid . 05, potash . 85, lime . 15, and magnesia . 16. 

He very pertinently remarks also "that if the lint were the only part ofthe plant removed from the land on which it is grown, cotton would beone of the least exhaustive of farm crops. The only other part whichneed be permanently lost to the soil is the oil, which also containsvery small amounts of fertilising constituents. " In connection with thishe further says "that even when the seed is taken away along with thelint, cotton still removes smaller amounts of fertilising materials fromthe soil than either oats or corn. " It should be borne in mind that thesoil upon which cotton is cultivated lies fallow for a greater part ofthe year, and the fact of absence of cultivation, with consequentnon-fertilising and non-enriching of land, must tend in the direction ofsoil exhaustion by the Cotton plant. 

Another useful and important fact in connection with the Cotton plant isthe medicinal use to which the roots are put. According to the _AmericanJournal of Pharmacy_, the bark from the roots of the Cotton plantcontain an active ingredient which in its effects is very much likeergot. 

Chemical investigations have conclusively proved that the ripe fibre ofthe Cotton plant is composed of the following substances:--

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and they tell us that when cotton is fullyripe it is almost pure cellulose. 

Dr. Bowman has pointed out that the percentage of water in cotton fibre"varies with different seasons from 1 to 4 per cent. In the new crop, and rather less as the season advances. Above 2 per cent. Of moisture, however, seems to be an excessive quantity even in a new crop cotton, and when more than this is present it is either the result of a wetseason and the cotton has been packed before drying, or else it has beenartificially added. "

About one fifth of the whole plant by weight consists of the seed, andan analysis of this shows them to be composed of water, ash, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, sulphuric acid, ferricoxide, chlorine, and insoluble matter. 

As a commercial product seeds are exceedingly valuable, and yield thefollowing substances:--oil, meal, hulls, and linters. When the hulls areground they receive the name of cotton seed bran. The inside of theseed, when the hull has been removed, is often called the kernel and issometimes also designated peeled seed, hulled seed, and meats. It isthis kernel seed which, when properly treated, yields large supplies ofoil and meal. 

CHAPTER II. 

COTTON-PLANT DISEASES AND PESTS. 

There are several classes of agents all of which act injuriously more orless on the Cotton plant. 

 1. Climatic changes, including hygrometric variations of the atmosphere, and extremes of heat and cold. 

 2. Insect pests. 

 3. Physiological diseases of the plant. 

 4. Blights caused by fungi. 

It has been pointed out in the early pages of this story, how verysensible to changes of heat and cold, the Cotton plant is, especially inthe early growing period. When the plant has just risen above theground, and is beginning to spread its roots, too great an amount ofheat would be fatal to its further growth. 

Instances could be given where very serious decreases in the productionof cotton in the States especially have taken place, due entirely tounusually high temperatures which obtained during the early growingperiod of the Cotton plant. 

Extremes of frost are likewise fatal to the growth of the young plant. By the beginning of April, frosts have as a rule disappeared, and nofurther fear need be felt on that account, though if the end of winterhas been abnormally warm, and the young plants have been making leaf tooquickly, it will be readily seen how fatal a sharp frost or two must beto the young and tender plant. There are cases, however, when a frostis beneficial. 

Then again, while rain is needed in fair quantity, too much of it isfollowed by rot and myriads of pests. If the planter desires anything atall when his crop is ripe, it is fine weather in which to gather hisharvest. 

Frequently large quantities of cotton are left on the plantations, because it is too wet to gather it. This happened a few years ago to anunusual extent, when a vast quantity of cotton had to be left upon thefields. 

Of all the injurious agents most dreaded in the cotton-growing districtsof the globe, none are so widely spread or so disastrous as "insectpests. "

They attack different parts of the plant during its growth, and when thebolls are formed they commit great havoc among these by boring throughand completely ruining the immature fibre. Then again, while the plantis young, they may attack the most tender portion of the plant, viz. , the new and young leaves found at or near the top. This they soon clearand make their way as caterpillars down the plant, and they frequentlyclear it as though the leaves had been plucked off. 

So completely do they do their work that it has been calculated incertain years the loss on this account alone cannot have been far shortin America of 3-1/2 million pounds in one year. 

Of the chief forms of insect pests, two specially stand out intoprominence, both of which belong to the moth tribe of insects, viz. , _Alethia argillacea_ or Cotton Caterpillar, and the _Heliothis armiger_or Cotton Boll-Caterpillar. 

The operations of the former are mostly confined to devastating theleaves and buds, while the latter confines its special attention to thebolls which, were they allowed to ripen, would burst with cotton. 

The eggs of the former, too, are laid on the under side of the upperleaves and vast numbers are deposited. The moth flies by night, and theeggs laid are extremely difficult to discover--indeed it takes an expertto quickly find them. 

Usually, about midsummer, the eggs are hatched in three or four days andthen comes the period for spoliation. 

All that is tender is assimilated, usually the under side of the youngtender leaves found at the top of the plant. 

During this stage of its existence the caterpillar moults five times andthe larva period varies somewhat according to the weather from one tothree weeks. 

The chrysalis or pupa state covers from one week to four, and at lastemerges as a beautiful olive gray moth with a purplish lustre. 

In about four days the female commences to lay eggs very rapidly andwill lay sometimes as many as six hundred during its life. No wonder, then, with several generations during a season and vast numbers ofmoths, that untold damages can be wrought by these particular insects ina single season. 

A number of remedies has been successfully applied in the direction ofspraying various chemical solutions, and in sowing plants which have hadthe direct effect of reducing the spread of this terrible pest. Itsmethod of working can be seen on referring to Fig. 4. 

Now the Boll-Caterpillar, though it lives much in the same way as theAlethia, has a very different method of procedure so far as itsdestructive habits are concerned. 

And its fields and pastures, too, are by no means confined to onecontinent, or to one kind of plant, for it attacks both the tomato andcorn plants. According to Dr. Howard, "It feeds upon peas, beans, tobacco, pumpkin, squash, okra, and a number of garden flowering plants, such as cultivated geranium, gladiolus, mignonette, as well as a numberof wild plants. " As the name indicates, the Boll-Caterpillar makes theboll its happy hunting-ground. The eggs are laid in the same way by theparent moth as the Cotton Caterpillar or Alethia, and when hatched theyoung powerfully jawed caterpillar makes its way to the newly-formedboll, and applying itself vigorously, very soon gains an entrance. Hereit rests for a time, eating away at the best it can find. It ultimatelyemerges and is transformed into the pupa, taking up its quarters in theground, until the next change takes place, when in a week or two's timeit appears as a moth much the same in size as its cousin the Alethia, but coloured ochre yellow to dull olive-green and being more varied inits markings. It will lay during one season about 500 eggs. 

Many remedies have been applied for the extirpation of this particularinsect, but these only seem to have met with partial success. It willreadily be seen how much more difficult this pest is to deal with thanthe preceding one. Living as it does in the boll and in the ground for agreat part of its existence, it will be exceedingly difficult to getat. 

In Mexico what is known as the Cotton-Boll Weevil (_Anthonomus grundis_)appears to do great mischief to the Cotton plant. It does most damageduring the larvæ stage, eating up the tender portions of the boll whilein residence here. When matured it is only a little under half an inchin length. 

Many other insects act injuriously upon the Cotton plant, but thefollowing may be taken as the chief: Cotton Cutworm (_Feltia malefida_);Cotton lice (_Aphis gossypii_). Among the lepidoptera may be mentioned, _Cocæcia rosaceana_, or "Leaf-roller, " so called from its habit ofcuriously rolling the leaves of the Cotton plant and then feeding insidethe roll. Then grasshoppers and locusts occasionally do some damage, aswell as a beetle named _Ataxia crypta_, which is noted for attacking thestalks of the Cotton plants, but it should be pointed out this beetledoes not prey upon healthy and vigorous plants at all. 

Scores of other insects could be mentioned as injurious, though some ofthem do but very slight damage indeed to the Cotton plant. 

It does appear, however, from long years of experiment and observations, that little damage needs to be feared if the plants, while growing, andduring the formation of the boll, can be carefully watched and guarded. The plants when matured are better able to withstand the onslaughtswhich these predaceous insects make upon them. 

Then again, there are large numbers of physiological diseases of thecotton due to inherent weakness of the plant or failure of assimilativeprocesses. 

And lastly, vast numbers of fungi, too numerous to mention here, workserious injury to leaf, flower and boll in certain seasons of the year. 

CHAPTER III. 

CULTIVATION OF THE COTTON PLANT IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 

From what has already been said, it will be quite clear that the Cottonplant will only successfully thrive in those regions on the earth'ssurface where there are suitable temperature and soil, and a proper andadequate supply of moisture both in the atmosphere and soil. When the45th parallel of North Latitude is reached, the plant ceases to growexcept under glass or in exceptionally well favoured and temperatedistricts. Below the Equator the southern limit is the 35th parallel. 

With a model of the globe before him, the reader will see, if he markthe two lines already named, what a small belt the "Cotton-growing zone"is, compared with the rest of the globe, and yet in 1901 it is estimatedthat no fewer than 10, 486, 000 bales of 500 lbs. Net average each wereproduced in the United States alone, 695, 000 came from the cotton fieldsof India, from Egypt 1, 224, 000, an increase of 600, 000 bales in tenyears. This vast quantity does not include what was produced in othercountries, which we know in the aggregate was very considerable. 

=American Cultivation of the Cotton Plant. =--Perhaps no countryillustrates the fact so well as does the United States, that thevariations in the quality of cotton are very largely--it may be saidalmost entirely--due to distance from sea board, height above sea leveland difference of soil. 

The surface geology of the Southern United States as a whole, is of amost diversified character, and the following States in which cotton isproduced, in many cases show a similar variation. 

 North Carolina. Tennessee. South Carolina. Alabama. Georgia. Mississippi. Florida. Louisiana. Arkansas. Texas. 

Perhaps Texas shows the greatest number of distinct soil areas, viz. , eight. Height above the sea level has also a considerable influence uponthe plants cultivated, and only the hardier and more robust types are tobe found on the more elevated lands. At the beginning of the nineteenthcentury South Carolina produced more cotton than any other State. Fiftyyears later, Alabama was to the front. Ten years later, Mississippi ledthe way, and in 1901 Texas occupied the premier position with 3, 526, 649bales, followed in order by Georgia and Mississippi. 

The following table from Bulletin 100 of the Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce and Labor, gives the acreage devoted tocultivation of cotton in 1908 as follows:

 Alabama 3, 591, 000 acres. Arkansas 2, 296, 000 " Florida 265, 000 " Georgia 4, 848, 000 " Louisiana 1, 550, 000 " Mississippi 3, 395, 000 " Missouri 87, 000 " North Carolina 1, 458, 000 " Oklahoma 2, 311, 000 " South Carolina 2, 545, 000 " Tennessee 754, 000 " Texas 9, 316, 000 " Virginia 28, 000 " ---------- 32, 444, 000 "

The figure for Missouri includes other cotton-producing localities notnamed. 

Before dealing with the actual cultivation of cotton, as carried on inthe States, it will be well to briefly name the kind of soils which aremet with in this cotton area. Generally speaking, soils are divided intothe following classes:--

 Clayey soils. Clayey loam soils. Loamy soils. Sandy loam soils. Sandy soils. 

This classification is determined by the relative percentage of sand andclay. 

In the States we have all these types, and in some districts they liewithin easy reach of each other. It should be pointed out thatsufficient and uniform heat and humidity are essential to theproduction of good cotton crops, and as the sandy soils are of an opencharacter, it is plain that moisture will readily pass from these, whilethe heavy clays act just in the opposite direction, viz. , prevent theuniform evaporation of the moisture within them; hence, as a rule, clayey lands are moist and damp, and it has been found from observationthat on lands of this class, a good deal of wood and leaf are produced, and but little fruit relatively. A matter therefore which must not belost sight of, is that a suitable texture should be found, or, in otherwords, the amount of sand and clay in the soils should be in the rightproportion. Of course, however suitable a soil may be, if the climaticconditions are adverse, only failure can result. Given good land, properly drained and a suitable temperature, together with an uniformsupply of moisture, heavy crops may be expected. Sudden changes in thetemperature, and variations in the amount of moisture, certainly actdeleteriously upon the plant, especially during the period in which theyoung one is growing. There is a great difference between a wet soil anda moist one, and there is perhaps nothing so much dreaded by theplanters as a sodden soil. Up to the end of July the soil should becontinuously and uniformly moist, and it would appear that, providedthis condition is satisfied, there is every likelihood of a heavy cropresulting, if the temperature has been anything like suitable. Looked atfrom every point of view, therefore, the best and safest soil in whichto grow cotton is a deep loam where there is every probability of thenecessary conditions being fulfilled. 

As compared with sixty years ago the present methods of cultivationshow very great differences. Most of us are acquainted with theconditions of labour which existed at that time. Mrs. H. Beecher Stowe, in her pathetic and life-like story, "Uncle Tom's Cabin, " has given ussuch a glimpse into slave life that she has placed us all under lastingobligations to her. Happily all that has gone and the slave, as such, isnow known no more in America. Three causes are said to have done more tochange the methods of American cotton cultivation than anything else, viz. :--

 The Civil War. The abolition of slavery. Introduction of artificial fertilisers. 

There are those who affirm to-day that the last-named has been the mostpotent factor of the three. 

In many cases, previous to the war, crop after crop was grown upon thesame land without any thought of returning those elements, in the formof manure, to the earth, which it so much required. But immediatelyafter the conclusion of the war, the conditions of labour were changedand it became a matter of absolute necessity to find something whichwould give life to the land, hence the introduction of fertilisers. Itis stated on the authority of Dr. White of Georgia, that it would be"difficult to conceive how cotton culture could have been continued orsustained but for the use of such manures. "

In a work of this kind it is impossible to describe in detail thevarious methods of cultivation adopted in the several cotton States, butthe following will give a fair idea of what actually takes place on alarge cotton plantation, assuming that the land is well drained. Itshould be said here draining has not received that attention which itought to have done, and many of the failures put down to other causesare now known to have been due entirely to bad drainage. As analternative to proper drainage, the practice of raising the Cotton plantbeds and cultivating them to greater depth, has been followed. Most ofthe planters are too poor to drain properly, and so adopt the bankingmethod, though in the long run this is the more expensive of the two. 

Let us assume that the cotton crop has all been gathered. We have animmense quantity of old cotton stalks which need removing. This isusually done before February. As a rule, the litter is gathered intoheaps and burned. Ploughing and harrowing next follow, and ridges areformed which in the elevated districts are not quite so far apart as inthe low-lying areas. We can see that in the latter districts the plantswill be much more prolific and grow to a better state of perfection, hence more room must be allowed for them. These ridges lie, in somecases, 3 feet apart and in others 4 and 5. 

Especially when manures or fertilisers have been used, bedding up isgenerally adopted. 

As is to be expected in a country like America, the very best and mostapproved methods of cultivation are followed, hence the old system ofsowing seed by hand is discarded, and seed-planting machines are nowcoming into general use. The distance apart which the seeds (about fiveor six in one hole) should be set, is still a moot question, but it isgenerally admitted to be unsafe to plant at greater distances than 12inches. When sown, a light covering is put over, and in a fewdays--about twelve generally--the tiny plants make their appearance. Twoor three days after, another leaf is seen, and it may be said that thereal and anxious work of the cultivator now begins. In the Carolinadistricts this will happen about the end of April. The planting in themore southern States will take place earlier. What has next to be doneis very particular work, viz. , cutting down and thinning the plants, which, if allowed to grow, would simply choke one another. Here andthere at suitable distances, groups of plants in the same row areselected as "stands" or groups of plants from which will be selected thebest plant, which is allowed to go forward in its growth; all the restbeing chopped out or weeded out. 

Banking up or bedding up is the next process, and this is done runningthe plough in the spaces between the ridges or practically over the oldcotton bed of the preceding season. This will improve the ventilatingpower of the bed considerably and prevent somewhat the logging of thesoil, which is extremely undesirable. The plough is immediately followedby the field labourers, whose work is now to draw the loose soil roundthe Cotton plants. This last process of "hauling" completes thelabourers' work for a time, and is done for the purpose of keeping theplant erect and preventing it from falling down. This hauling process isrepeated until July, when only one plant is left out of the five or sixwhich were planted originally. After four haulings, which are completedas a rule by the end of July, the productive processes may be said to becompleted. If the weather has been favourable and the soil kept fairlymoist, a good crop may be fully anticipated. What the planters like tosee during the growing period is a summer in which the sun shines everyday, accompanied by those frequent and gentle showers which clean theplant and give the necessary humidity to the atmosphere and soil. Twothings are dreaded by the planter--excessive heats and abnormal showers. The bloom appears about the middle of June and a couple of months afterthis the plants are ready for picking. This operation usually is carriedon from the beginning of September or end of August right on intoNovember, sometimes through this month into December. Here are given afew particulars which have been collected by Shepperson bearing on thisparticular subject. 

+-------------+---------+----------+---------+------------------+---------+| | Usual | | Usual | | Usual || | date to |Usual date| date to | Usual date to | date to || | begin | to begin | finish | begin Picking. | finish || STATES |Preparing| Planting. |Planting. | | Picking. || | the | | | | || | Land. | | | | |+-------------+---------+----------+---------+------------------+---------+| N. Carolina | Feb. 25 | April 15 | May 10 | Sep. 1 | Dec. 10 || S. Carolina | Mar. 5 | April 15 | May 7 | Aug. 15 to Sep. 1| Dec. 1 || Georgia | Feb. 1 | April 10 | May 1 | Aug. 15 to 20 | Dec. 1 || Florida | Jan. 20 | April 1 | May 1 | Aug. 10 | Dec. 1 || Alabama | Feb. 1 | April 5 | May 10 | Aug. 10 to 20 | Dec. 15 || Mississippi | Feb. 1 | April 5 | May 10 | Aug. 10 to 20 | Dec. 15 || Louisiana | Feb. 1 | April 1 | May 10 | Aug. 1 to 15 | Dec. 15 || Texas | Jan. 15 | March 15 | May 10 | Aug. 1 | Dec. 20 || Arkansas | Feb. 15 | April 15 | May 15 | Aug. 15 to 20 | Jan. 15 || Tennessee | Mar. 1 | April 15 | May 15 | Sep. 1 to 10 | Jan. 15 |+-------------+---------+----------+---------+------------------+---------+

=Other Cotton-producing Countries in America. =--In addition to the States, which have already been named, there are other cotton-producingcountries in the Western Hemisphere, among which are the following:--

Brazil. Mexico. West Indies. Peru and the South Sea Islands. 

=Cultivation of Cotton in Brazil. =--From a very remote period, cotton hasbeen cultivated in Brazil. Early in the sixteenth century historiansrefer to the uses to which cotton was put at that time. Seguro, in hiswork describing the customs of the ancient people who lived in theAmazon valleys, says that the arrows used in connection with theirblowguns were covered with cotton. It is probable that, before the dawnof the eighteenth century, the cultivation of cotton was practised moreor less throughout the country. Up to thirty years ago, it looked asthough the cotton-growing industry in Brazil was likely to be anincreasing and profitable business. Owing, however, to many causes, thetrade has not grown as was to have been expected. 

Among the chief of these causes are:--

 1. Laxity of method in cultivating. 2. Poor means of transmission. 3. Severe competition by the United States. 4. Disturbed condition of the country. 

All these have helped to keep down an industry which at one time badefair to be a source of great income to the country. 

Tree Cotton and Herbaceous Cotton are both cultivated in Brazil. Thebest kinds of Sea Islands have been tried, but have not succeeded. 

Compared with the United States, the methods of cultivation pursued inBrazil are exceedingly primitive and irregular. No such thing asploughing or preparing of the soil is adopted. 

The only preparation seems to be to rid the land of cotton stumps, andthis is done in a somewhat careless and indifferent manner. It wouldseem that as little labour as possible is expended upon the land inpreparing it for the reception of seed. Hilaire's aphorism--"Nothing inthis country is less expensive, or more productive, than cottonculture"--would seem, when the facts of the whole case are known, to beperfectly warranted so far as Brazil is concerned. Certainly, from aclimatic point of view, this country is exceptionally well favoured, anequable and suitable temperature together with an adequate supply ofearth and air, moisture and rich alluvial soils, a long dry season forpicking extending over many weeks--all point to an ideal cotton-growingarea. In fact, there is no reason why a crop of at least 40, 000, 000bales should not be obtained annually in Brazil, if needed. At present, only about one three-hundredth part of this is grown. The cotton-growingcentres are Minas Geraes, Bahia, Fernando de Noronha, Rio Janeiro, SaoPaulo. 

=Cotton Cultivation in Mexico. =--The cultivation of cotton has for manycenturies been carried on in Mexico. Much the same drawbacks exist hereas in Brazil, viz. , lack of labour, poor railway system, high rates fortransmission, and indifferent methods employed in cultivating. 

Mexico enjoys a splendid geographical position and would prove, if thebusiness-like habits and methods obtained as in case of the States, oneof the most serious competitors of its adjacent Northern neighbour. 

The best cotton is produced in the State of Guerrero on the Easternside, though the greater part--about one half--of the Mexican crop isgrown in Laguna district, which lies in the Coahuila country. There arethree distinct areas of production in Mexico, viz. , along the Easterncoast, along the Western coast, and on the Central tableland. In theWestern area irrigation is resorted to. 

In the year 1898, 100, 000, 000 pounds of cotton were grown, though all ornearly all of it was used at home. Within the last twenty years manymills have been erected in this country, and this will account for thelarge quantity of cotton consumed at home. The poorest Mexican cotton isproduced in Chiapas. Acapulco, near the mouth of the Grande del NorteRiver, is the chief Mexican cotton port on the Eastern coast. 

=Cotton-growing in Peru. =--It would be a difficult matter to fix a timewhen cotton was first grown in Peru. Pizarro, who conquered this countryearly in the sixteenth century, found that the natives were fullyengaged in the growing and spinning of cotton. Dr. Dabney, AssistantSecretary of the U. S. A. Agricultural Department, states that he has seena cloth made of cotton recently taken from one of the Peruvian mummieswhich must be many, many centuries old. There is not the slightest doubtthat the Cotton plant is indigenous to Peru. 

Thirty-five years ago Liverpool received no less than 300, 000 poundsweight of cotton from Peru, and three years later over 4, 000, 000 pounds. During the last decade of the century it exceeded 6, 000, 000 pounds toEngland alone. Two kinds of Peruvian cotton are grown--smooth and rough. This latter is a rough, strong fibre, and is exceptionally well adaptedfor mixing with wool in the manufacture of hosiery, and a greater partof this cotton coming in England is used in the hosiery trade. Theplant from which it is produced is a perennial, and for six or sevenyears is said to give two crops a year. Owing to the peculiarlyfavourable climate of Peru and the suitability of the soil, it isexceedingly improbable that any strong competitor will come to divertthe Peruvian trade, so that for some time yet we may look to thiscountry supplying the hosiery trade with rough Peruvian cotton. Theimportations of Peruvian cotton into the United States for 1894-95 were24, 000 bales; for 1895-96, 24, 603 bales; for 1896-97, 16, 604 bales. 

=The Cultivation of Cotton in India. =--There are other Asiatic cottonfields besides those of India, viz. , China, Corea, Japan, the Levant, and Russia in Asia. The term "India" will be used in a somewhatrestricted sense in this section, and will cover only that hugetriangular-shaped peninsula lying to the south of Thibet in Asia. It is1800 miles in width and nearly 2000 miles in length. The total area, notincluding Assam and Burmah, is about 1, 300, 000 square miles, the nativestates alone covering 595, 000 square miles. 

Out of the 28° of North Latitude through which India stretches, no lessthan 15-1/2° are in the tropics, the remainder being in the TemperateZone. The climate, owing to a number of circumstances, such as differentaltitudes and uneven distribution of moisture, is exceedingly varied. 

During the months April to September the sun, during the day or somepart of it, is overhead. Consequently the heat received will be greaterthan over the ocean at the south, taking a similar area. A direct causeof this is the starting of winds which receive the name of monsoons. These blow from the S. W. , and bring vast quantities of moisture withthem. This moisture-laden wind is partially robbed of its load as itstrikes the Western Ghats and consequently much moisture is depositedhere, giving rise to many valuable rivers which water the Deccan orCentral Tableland of India. The Mahanuddy, Godavari, Kristna, andKauvari are rivers fed by the S. W. Monsoon. Then, again, the low-lyinglands near the mouth of the Indus, the great desert of Rajputana, thepeninsula of Gujerat and the district of Malwa--all allow, by reason oftheir low-lying nature, the S. W. Winds to pass over them laden as theyare with vast quantities of moisture. They travel on till they meet theHimalayas, where again they help to swell the volume of the waters inthe rivers Ganges and Indus. When the N. E. Monsoons blow they do notcarry anything like the amount of moisture which the S. W. Monsoons do, as their areas of collection are very much more limited. Consequentlythis part of the year is usually a dry one (viz. , from October toMarch). 

Thus it will be seen that the great plain of Southern India is much lesswatered than the more Northerly portions and consequently is much lessfertile. This fact must be borne in mind as the cotton-growing areas aredescribed and indicated. 

India, which grows more cotton than any other country in the world (theStates excepted), may be said to possess four distinct areas for theproduction of commercial cotton. They are--

 1. Central Tableland or Deccan. 2. Valley of the Ganges. 3. Western India. 4. Southern India. 

and the above order shows them also according to their commercialimportance. 

_Central District. _--This is a vast plateau bounded on the north by theVindhya mountains, on the east and west by the Ghats of those names, andon the south by the River Krishna. As is to be expected, the collectingand exporting of the cottons grown in this district are done at Bombay. The finest cottons grown in India are produced in this region. 

Four centres stand out prominently in the production of cotton, viz. , Dharwar, Hyderabad, Nagpore and Berar. The soils generally in the Deccanare very rich and capable of retaining moisture during the growing termof the plant's life. What are known as the black soils of India are tobe found plentifully in this district, and these are exceedingly rich inmineral matter. Nagpore should specially be named, as it is in thisprovince that the finest cotton grown in all India is produced, viz. :--

 "Hingunghat Cotton. "

"Oomrawattee Cotton" is the name given to a special kind which isproduced in the province of Berar. It is sometimes called "Oomras. " Thisdistrict lies in the "Nizam's Dominions" and is watered by severaltributaries of the Tapti and Godivari. It possesses a soil which forrichness and fertility has no equal in India. 

With the exception of Bengal, this district is more plentifully suppliedwith rivers than any other part of India. 

Image: FIG. 5. --An Indian cotton field. 

The Dharwar district is noted for its cottons, for two or three reasons. It was in this region that in 1842 New Orleans cotton was planted witha view to its ultimately being cultivated here. As the climate and soilare very similar to some of the districts in the Mississippi valley, itsucceeded beyond anticipation. Dharwar lies S. W. Of the province ofHyderabad near the sea, and almost touches 15° N. Latitude. 

_The Valley of the Ganges District_ cannot be said to grow very goodcotton, though it was in this region, at Dacca, that in former days thecotton which was afterward made into the celebrated Dacca muslin wasgrown. 

By far the greater part of the fibre produced in this district comesfrom two centres: (1) Bundelkhand, which lies 79° E. Long. , and 25° N. Latitude (this is very near to Allahabad), and (2) Doab. As was pointedout in describing the monsoons, these two centres suffer by reason ofdroughts, owing mainly to their geographical position. They are subjectalso to severe floods, which are certainly against successfulcultivation of cotton. The entire crop of the North West Provinces maybe said to come from the districts of Doab and Bundelkhand. 

_Western India District. _--The three centres for the production ofcotton in the west, may be said to be Peninsula of Guzerat, the Islandof Cutch and the Delta district of the Indus named Sind. The whole ofthese provinces lies in what may be called a dry area, missing, as wasshown, much of the S. W. Monsoon, which ultimately finds its way acrosscountry to the Himalayas. Consequently there will be little rainfall inthis area, Sind and Cutch not more than 10 inches, some parts of Guzerathaving much more. 

This has a very serious effect upon the quality of the cotton produced. 

The Surat, Broach and Sind Cottons, all poor types, are all grown inthis part of India. 

_Southern India District. _--This lies in the southern part of theResidency of Madras, and east of the province of Travancore. TheNilgiris and Shevaroy Hills are found here, as are also the Cauvery andVaigai Rivers. The cotton districts best known are Coimbatore andTinnevelley, both of which are admirably situated and well watered. TheCalicut of fame which gave rise to the name Calico is also in thisdistrict. Tinnevelley lies almost at the extreme south of India on theGulf of Manaar opposite to Island of Ceylon. Its cotton is well known, but is of a poor type. As far back as 1847, experiments carried outunder the superintendence of Dr. Wright proved that this district wasvery suitable for the cultivation of American cotton. A fact interestingas well as instructive is given by him to the effect that in thesouthern part of India the crops universally failed where grown from thenative seed, while those grown from American seed realised very fairamounts--better even than were obtained when good crops were got afterusing Indian seed. 

The methods of preparing, planting, and cultivating the Indian Plantsare exceedingly antiquated. In but few districts are anything likemodern methods practised. Advantage however is taken of the period justpreceding the rain monsoon and this differs a little according to thedistrict. Thus in Bengal, Berar, and Broach, May and June are usuallytaken for scantily preparing the land, and in Madras and Dharwar, August and September. This consists of turning over the soil and buryingthe old Cotton plants of the previous season which have been allowed torot. As no fertilisers are used, these roots and branches at best make avery poor substitute. Ploughing, hoeing and other agriculturaloperations are of the rudest types and oxen are used for almosteverything in the way of heavy labour. Farm implements, gearing carts, etc. , are all of a style and differ very little from those usedcenturies ago. The seeds are sown broadcast, and almost everything isdone by hand. 

The plantations as a rule are much smaller than those in America, running from 5 to 30 acres. On the larger plantations the cotton iscultivated mainly by paid labourers. 

The following table, by Shepperson, shows the acreage devoted to cottonof the different states in India:--

 Bombay and Sind 5, 021, 000 acres. Punjaub 1, 177, 000 " N. W. Provinces 1, 424, 000 " Bengal 153, 000 " Rajputana 549, 000 " Central India 503, 000 " Berar 2, 307, 000 " Central Provinces 616, 000 " Hyderabad (Nizam's) 2, 308, 000 " Madras 1, 655, 000 " Mysore } Assam } 230, 000 " Burmah (Lower)} Burmah (Upper)} Ajmere and Meywara 40, 000 " ---------- 15, 983, 000 "

Bombay, Kurrachee, Calcutta, Madras, Tuticorin and Cocanada are thechief Indian cotton ports. 

=Cotton-growing in Russia in Asia. =--Lying immediately north of Persia andAfghanistan and south of Khirghiz Steppes lies an immense area much ofwhich is now being cultivated and most of it very fit for the productionof cotton. The Sea of Ural has running into it two very large rivers, Amu Daria and the Syr Daria, and it is in the neighbourhood of these tworivers where we find by far the greatest weight of cotton of Turkestanproduced. 

There are four important areas, viz. , Syr Daria, the centre of which isTashkend; Fergana, which lies between Samarcand and Bokhara; thedistrict of Samarcand itself; and Merv, which stands on the OverlandRailway. It appears that many attempts were made to introduce cottons ofvarious types into this locality, but most of the delicate speciesfailed. The Upland of America, however, survived, and has continued tosucceed, thanks to the valuable help which the Government gave in theway of instruction and distribution of free seed. 

The first Government cotton plantation was commenced at Tashkend, one ofthe termini of the Transcaspian Railway. Eight years ago there wereupwards of a quarter of a million acres devoted to cotton cultivation. 

During the American War (that period which quickened all thecotton-growing centres of the Eastern Hemisphere) the production offibre may be said to have commenced in earnest in Turkestan, and so lateago as 1890 no less than forty-five and a half million pounds of goodfibre were grown. Tashkend, it would appear, promises to hold its own, as it is determined to practise the best and most scientific methods inthe growth of cotton; in fact, in very few centres outside thisdistrict, old and out of date operations are followed. Even in thedistricts of Fergana and Samarcand, the old wooden plough called a"sokha" is still in use. 

Seed, as in the case of India, is mostly sown broadcast, and very littlepreparing of the land is done. Yet, in spite of these deficiencies, goodcrops are raised in many districts, capital soil and a most equableclimate making up for the shortcomings of the planter. The formation ofthe Transcaspian Railway cannot but have an important influence upon thecotton-growing industry in Turkestan, running as it does through thevery heart of the best land in the country. It should be noted thatBohkara annually produces over 50, 000, 000 pounds of cotton of theherbaceous type, and Khiva, another district lying still further east ofthose already mentioned, over 20, 000, 000 pounds. 

Lying between the Caspian Sea and Black Sea, lies another district namedTranscaucasia, which yields large supplies of cotton. It has 100, 000acres devoted to cotton, giving over 20, 000, 000 pounds per annum. Northof Kokan, on the river Syr Daria, is a rising cotton district namedKhojend, where annually 3, 000, 000 pounds of cotton of the American typeare raised. 

When we consider that the quantity of cotton carried by the TranscaspianRailway since 1888 has more than quadrupled, and that in ten years thequantity shipped has been increased from quarter of a million pounds toover 72, 000, 000 pounds, we can quite appreciate the significance of thestatement that before long Russia will be able to grow all her owncotton for the medium and lower numbers of yarns. 

=Cotton-growing in China, Corea and Japan. =--Japan, the land of thechrysanthemum, for many years now has been developing cotton-growing aswell as cotton manufacturing. From evidence which the cold type of theBoard of Trade gives, Japan bids fair to largely increase her trade withIndia to the disadvantage of the present suppliers. 

Cotton-growing has been practised for some centuries in Japan, but itwas not until the seventeenth century that anything like progress couldbe reported. From that time to the present the growth has been graduallyon the increase. 

Japan proper consists of the Islands of Niphon, Kiusiu, Shikoku, Yesso, and an immense number of smaller islands. Cotton cultivation is carriedon mainly on the first three islands named, and in the followingdistricts:--San Indo, Wakayama, Osaka, Kuantoebene, Hitachi and Suo. 

Taken as a whole, the cotton grown in the best areas is good, thoughmuch of an inferior kind is produced. The most southerly area ofWakayama in Niphon yields the best cotton of Japan. 

The length of the fibre generally is much less than the herbaceous kind. About 10 per cent. Of the entire arable land is now under cultivationfor cotton. As a rule, methods and processes are of a primitive kind. 

=Cotton-growing in Corea. =--Lying directly to the west of Japan, this vastpeninsula has of late years been developing its cotton-growing. Fivecenturies ago cotton was imported from China, and one sees on every handthe influence of the Celestials. The cultivated plant is of theperennial type, though it is planted annually, the old plants being dugup and burned, the ash being used as a fertiliser. Statistics at presentare not to be relied upon, though it is supposed that something likethree quarters of a million acres are now under cultivation, giving onthe average about 250 pounds of cotton lint. As in the case of Japanvery little of this is exported, all of it or nearly so being spun andwoven at home on the most primitive of machines. 

The chief districts engaged in growing cotton, nearly all of which liein the southern portion of the peninsula, are Hwang-Hi, Kyeng-Sang, Chel-La, Kyeng Kwi, and Chung Cheog. 

=Cotton-growing in China. =--Owing to the great difficulty of obtaining anyreliable statistical information, it is impossible to give anythingapproaching accuracy as to number of pounds of cotton produced annually, or number of acres devoted to the cultivation of the Cotton plant. Thismuch, however, is known, that for many centuries cotton cultivating hasbeen followed and that there has been within recent years a greatincrease in the weight of the cotton crop as well as in the acreage. Thetype of plant most generally cultivated is the herbaceous, and thecotton resulting is only poor in quality. Little or no preparation ismade before sowing seed, which is generally done broadcast. As a resultthere is much overcrowding, and as is inevitable, there is produced astubby plant with small bolls and much unripe cotton. On the terracesof the hillsides something approaching cultivation is pursued, with theresult of a better crop. 

Usually twenty weeks intervene between planting and picking, this latteroperation being mostly the work of children and women. The old cottonstalks are afterward collected and dried for fuel. 

Very few large plantations exist in China, most of them being only a fewacres in extent. 

But little of the cotton grown at home is exported, most of it beingspun and woven by women, though some of the fibre is sent to Japan. 

=Cultivation of Cotton in Egypt. =--It is now over thirty years since SirSamuel Baker, the great African traveller, wrote these words: "The Nilemight be so controlled that the enormous volume of water that now rushesuselessly into the Mediterranean might be led through the deserts, totransform them into cotton fields that would render England independentof America. "

The crop for the season 1900-01 was no less than 1, 224, 000 bales of 500pounds each. Ten years ago only 868, 000 acres were devoted to cottoncultivation as against 1, 350, 000 acres laid down to-day. Everything, then, points to Sir Samuel Baker's statement becoming an actual factmuch sooner than the famous traveller himself anticipated. 

Egypt enjoys many advantages over her competitors across the Atlantic. In the first place, she can get almost twice as much cotton from theacre, so productive is the soil. Labour is cheaper, and the plant itselfwhen young is not subject to the devastating frosts so often met with inAmerica. 

Egypt is divided into three great areas:--Lower Egypt, which includesthe whole of the Delta of the Nile; Upper Egypt; and Nubia. It is in thefirst-named district where the whole of Egyptian cotton is produced. Atthe present time immense sums are being spent on irrigation and drainageworks, and as these are extended the areas devoted to cotton productionwill greatly increase. 

At the present time five distinct varieties of cotton are cultivated--

 Mitafifi. Bamia. Abbasi. Gallini. Ashmouni-Hamouli. 

The latter variety was originally known by a different name, Mako Jumel. For a long time Ashmouni cotton was the principal fibre exported, butMitafifi is now in the front of all the other Egyptian cottons. Anoteworthy fact in connection with Ashmouni is, that its cultivation ison the decline. 

Sea Islands Gallini--as it was sometimes called--has practically ceasedto be cultivated. Of Mitafifi and Bamia fibres, Mr. Handy, U. S. A. , says: "The Mitafifi was discovered by a Greek merchant in the village ofthat name. The seed has a bluish tuft at the extremity, which attractedthe merchant's attention, and on planting it he found that it possesseddecided advantage over the old Ashmouni. It is more hardy, and yields agreater proportion of lint to the seed. At first from 315 pounds of seedcotton, 112 pounds of lint was secured, and sometimes even more. It isnow somewhat deteriorated, and rarely yields so much, averaging about106 pounds of lint to 315 of seed cotton. The Mitafifi is a richer anddarker brown than the Ashmouni. The fibre is long, very strong, and fineto the touch, and is in great demand. In fact, it controls the market. 

"Next to Mitafifi, Bamia is perhaps the most extensively cultivatedvariety in Lower Egypt. It was discovered by a Copt in 1873. The plantis of large size and course growth. It is later and less hardy thanMitafifi, and the fibre is poor as compared with that of Mitafifi andAbbasi, light and brown in colour, and not very strong. In general, itmay be said that this variety is inferior to Mitafifi in yield, hardiness and length and strength of fibre. "

=Other places where Cotton is grown. =--In Africa, on the eastern andwestern coasts, large quantities of cotton are produced. The followingcountries are specially suitable to the growth of cotton: Soudan, Senegambia, Congo River, Free States, and Liberia. Possibly, when thesedistricts are more opened up to outside trade, and European capital andlabour are expended, abundant supplies of cotton fibre will be given. 

Cotton is also grown in the East Indies, at Java, Sumatra, and MalayStates. 

In the West Indies formerly, large supplies were yielded, but owing tothe cultivation of other crops that of cotton has steadily declined. 

Greece and Turkey both yield cotton which goes by the name of LevantCotton. 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE MICROSCOPE AND COTTON FIBRE. 

This story would be very incomplete if some reference were not made tothe wonderful assistance which has been given to the study of cottonfibre by the microscope. As seen by its help, some strikingpeculiarities at once make themselves apparent. It is proposed, briefly, in this chapter, to do three things:

 1. To describe the construction of a suitable instrument sufficient for a complete examination of fibres in general. 

 2. To indicate the chief microscopic features of cotton fibres. 

 3. To show how to exactly measure the lengths and diameters of fibres by means of micrometers. 

First, as to the instrument: a good substantial stand is desirable, onethat will not readily vibrate. The microscope shown in Fig. 6 is a cheapand commendable form, and good work can be done by this instrument, which is made by Ross, London. The stand carries the body-tube, and atthe lower end is placed the objective, so called, because the image ofthe object (which rests upon the stage as shown) under examination isfirst focussed by it and conveyed along the body-tube. 

The top end of the said tube contains the eye-piece, so named because byits aid the eye is allowed to receive the image duly focussed andenlarged. 

As a rule, beginners work with one objective only, generally a one inch. 

Image: FIG. 6. --Microscope in position for drawing objects. 

A much higher power than this is necessary if the fibre in question isto be seen at its best, and for the purpose of this chapter a quarterinch objective will be used. 

Underneath the stage, which is pierced by a circular aperture, is adiaphragm. This regulates the quantity of light which is to betransmitted by means of the silvered reflector shown in theillustration. 

As a rule, two reflectors are fixed in the same holder; one a concavemirror, the other a plane one. The former brings the rays of light to apoint or focus while the latter simply passes the beam of light alongjust as it received it, viz. , as a parallel beam of light. 

In examining fibres the concave mirror will be of most use. An ordinarylamp is usually good enough for the light required, the one figuredbeing very suitable and having a tube-like arrangement of wick. Behindthe body-tube are two forms of adjustment, coarse and fine. The latteris worked by means of the milled screw, conical in shape, which is foundimmediately behind the coarse adjustment. The operator is supposed tohave had some slight experience in the manipulation of the microscope. The slide is now placed upon the stage. Fine Sea Islands cotton ismounted in Canada Balsam and protected by a small circular cover glass. 

Now rack down the body-tube by means of the coarse adjustment untilwithin 1/16 of an inch of the cover-glass of the slide. Now see that thelight from the lamp is fully on the cotton strands. Rack up or down, asthe case may be, with the fine adjustment, and a wonderful sight meetsthe eye, for the cotton viewed through the microscope is altogetherunlike what we should expect it to be. 

Running completely across the field are a number of strands, varying inthickness, form and natural twist. What is meant by natural twist isvery clearly shown in Fig. 7. 

Most people have seen india-rubber tubing or piping such as is used inthe chemical laboratory or that often found attached to feeding bottles. Take about a foot of this and hold one end firmly. Abstract the air bymeans of the mouth, and it will be found that immediately the air istaken out the tube collapses. Now if the rubber be variable inthickness, here and there along these lines of least resistance will befound certain twists, and it is the same kind of twists which can be sodistinctly seen as the cotton fibre is viewed through the microscope. They are exceedingly irregular in number, on equal lengths of the samesingle fibre. When they run for some length, and are fairly regular, theedges appear like wavy lines or corrugations. It will now be seen bythe reader why these twists are so invaluable in spinning: locking andintertwining with each other, they materially assist the spinner inbuilding up a long and continuous thread. 

Image: FIG. 7. --Transverse and longitudinal sections of cotton fibre. 

Then, too, are to be seen lying close to the regularly twisted fibres anumber of others which are very like ribbons, with here and there anapology for a twist, and further, a careful scrutiny will be rewarded byfinding in what is reputedly the best cotton a number of filaments whichdo not display any twists whatever and are very much like the roundtubing referred to a little while ago. Others again are quite flat, without any distinguishing twists whatever. These are said to be thehalf-ripe and unripe fibres, and give much trouble later on (if workedup with good cotton) to the dyer and spinner. 

As the slide containing the cotton is moved laterally, it will be seenthat this twisting of the fibre is continued for almost the wholelength, and as many as 300 twists have been counted on a singlefilament. In some, the fibre tapers slightly, becoming more and morecylindrical as the end most remote from the seed is approached, until itis quite solid. These stiff ends soon disappear after the cotton hasbeen treated in the early processes of manufacture. Thus there may befound in almost every sample of cotton what are called ripe, half-ripeand unripe cotton. The last-named kind result from--

 1. Gathering the crop before the boll is properly ripened and matured. 

 2. Bad seasons; too much moisture and too little heat. 

Then again in the same boll all fibres do not ripen together just as allapples on the same tree do not ripen together. 

Immature or unripe cotton cannot be dyed, and when small white specksare seen in any dyed fabric they are often due to the fact that unripecotton has been used in the manufacture of the cloth. 

=Measurement of the Cotton Fibre. =--This is not at all a difficult matter, and the ordinary student may, by means of very simple and inexpensiveapparatus, obtain fairly satisfactory results in the measurement offibres. 

There is a choice of one of three methods, viz. :--

 1. By having the mechanical stage so arranged that the slightest displacement either to the left or right can be measured, and having the eye-piece so marked (generally a hair stretched across it) that when an object is to be measured, one side of it is made to coincide with this central line and the stage rack is worked left or right until the opposite side of the object is brought coincident with the central line again; the amount of displacement can then be readily obtained on referring to the graduated stage. 

 2. By having a stage micrometer and camera lucida. 

 3. By having two micrometers, a stage micrometer and eye-piece micrometer. 

This latter method is certainly the least expensive, and for allpractical purposes can be safely recommended. 

A stage micrometer consists of a slip of glass 3" × 1" on which aremarked divisions of an inch, usually 1/100ths and 1/1000ths. As a rulethese markings are protected by means of a small cover-glass. 

Eye-piece micrometers vary much in form, size and value, but the onewhich is here described is of the simplest type. It consists of twocircular pieces of glass carefully cemented together. On one of theinner surfaces are marked usually the 1/100ths divisions of an inch. Insome 1/200ths are marked. If the top lense of the eye-piece beunscrewed, a diaphragm will be found on which the eye-piece micrometerwill easily rest. Screw on the top lense again and, generally, theeye-piece will be ready for use. If the micrometer is not properly infocus after a few trials, it may easily be made right. In order, then, to measure the diameter of a single fibre of Sea Islands cotton, fit inthe quarter inch objective and place the stage micrometer in positionon the stage. First, focus the fine lines which are plainly to be seen, and remember the lines which are farthest apart are 1/100th of an inch;the others 1/1000th of an inch. 

As a rule, these lines run from N. To S. Of the field; in other words, from top to bottom across the circles of light. Now look at thedivisions in the eye-piece micrometer, which are 1/100th of an inchapart. 

It will be found often that an exact number of these divisions fill upone of the 1/100th divisions of the stage micrometer markings. If anexact number are not found, the draw-tube at the top end of thebody-tube should be withdrawn until an exact number is found to liewithin two lines of the lower micrometer. 

Suppose twenty-two of the spaces on the eye-piece micrometer just coverone of the divisions (1/100th of an inch) on the stage micrometer. Thenit is clear that each division of the former represents 1/100 × 1/22 ofan inch, or 1/2200th of an inch. For every fresh objective used, a freshestimation of eye-piece and stage micrometer ratio is necessary. Havingnow got in the eye-piece micrometer a unit of measurement, it becomes acomparatively easy matter to measure the fibre. 

Remove the stage-micrometer and put a slide of Sea Islands cotton in itsplace. Focus the fibre and observe the number of divisions or parts of adivision covered by any particular fibre, and its measurement is at onceknown. Thus if a single filament covers two of the divisions then it is2/2200th of an inch in diameter, or 1/1100th of an inch. Exactly thesame method is adopted if it is desired to measure the diameters ofsections of the same fibres. 

The making of the drawing of a fibre, either transverse or horizontalsection, is not at all a difficult matter. 

All that is needed is what is known as a camera lucida. This consists ofa brass fixing for the eye-piece end of the body-tube and a smallreflecting prism. This prism receives the image of the objective, andreflects it in this case at right angles downward on to a sheet ofpaper, which is placed beneath for the purpose of tracing the saidimage. 

Focus the object, first having the microscope in a horizontal position. This will not be a difficult matter. Now remove the cap which fits onthe eye-piece, and fix on the camera lucida as shown in the illustration(see Fig. 6). Adjust this until the image of the fibre is seen. Usuallyone or two smoke-coloured glasses are fixed below the prism, and theseare now brought into position so as to allow the image of the fibre topass through them. Place a sheet of drawing paper directly under thecamera lucida, sitting as shown in the illustration. After a few trialsit will not be a difficult matter to follow the outline of the image bymeans of a black lead on the paper as is shown in the figure. In thisway many useful working drawings can be made, and a little carefulcalculation will give the amplification of the drawing after it ismade. 

CHAPTER V. 

PLANTATION LIFE AND THE EARLY CLEANING PROCESSES. 

After many months of anxious watching and waiting, towards the end ofJuly or early in August, the planter may be seen to be constantly andwistfully looking for the appearance of the bursting bolls of cotton. Daily in the early mornings he is to be seen casting his eyes down thepod-laden rows of cotton plants, to see if he can count a few ripe openbolls as he stands at the head of a row. If this be so, he knows thathis harvest is close at hand, and his pickers must be ready at anymoment to begin what is certainly the most tedious and difficult work ofthe plantation, namely, picking the raw cotton from the bursting bolls. 

While the planter has been on the lookout in the fields, necessary andimportant operations have been going on inside in the farm outbuildings. Sacks and baskets which can most expeditiously aid in the removal of thepicked cotton from the field to the ginning factory are being got ready. To suit the young and old, tall and small, weak and strong, differentsized bags and baskets are required, and after the marking and brandingof the same, they are ready for being put into use. 

Now the picking of cotton is not at all an easy operation, longcontinuous bending, a hot sun (for it is a rule scarcely ever brokenthat cotton must not be plucked unless the sun is shining upon it), aconstantly increasing weight round the neck or on the arm, monotonouspicking of the cotton from the bolls without bringing away any of thehusk or leaf--all tend to make the work of the picker very trying andtiresome. The plantation hands must be early at work, and while the dayis very young they are to be seen wending their way, ready to begin whenthe sun makes its appearance. Often the clothes of the workers are quitewet with the early morning dews. This is specially the case in Septemberand October. By ten o'clock a hot blazing sun streams down upon thepickers as they diligently relieve the heavy-laden bushes of the whitefleecy load of cotton. As each picker fills his or her bag, it isquickly emptied into a larger receptacle, and ultimately carried away tothe gin house, where it is desirable the cotton should be housed beforethe night dews come on and consequently damage materially the cottonwhich the pickers have been careful to pick while the sun was on it. 

Mr. Lyman, in his book on the Cotton Culture in the States, says: "Itseems like very easy work to gather a material which shows itself insuch abundance as fairly to whiten the field, but let the sceptic or thegrumbler take a bag on his shoulders and start in between a couple ofrows. He will find upon taking hold of the first boll that the fibresare quite firmly attached to the interior lining of the pod, and if hemakes a quick snatch, thinking to gather the entire lock, he will onlytear it in two, or leave considerable adhering to the pod. And yet hemay notice that an experienced picker will gather the cotton and lay hisfingers into the middle of the open pod with a certain expertness whichonly practice gives, the effect of which is to clear the whole pod withone movement of the hand. "

Knowing how intensely monotonous and dreary the work of cotton pickingis, Mr. Lyman advises the planters to allow a very fair amount ofliberty so far as merrymaking is concerned, and he says on this pointthat "though too much talking and singing must interfere with labour, itis earnestly recommended to every cotton grower to take care to securecheerfulness if not hilarity in the field. Remember that it is a verysevere strain upon the patience and spirits of any one, to be urged torapid labour of precisely the same description day by day, week by week, month by month. Let there be refreshments at the baskets, a dish of hotcoffee in a cool morning, or a pail of buttermilk in a hot afternoon, ora tub of sweetened water, or a basket of apples. "

As a rule the cotton gathered on one farm, which has, generallyspeaking, had something like uniformity in method of cultivation, willproduce cotton varying very little in quality and weight. 

Hence on large farms there will be something like uniform quality ofcotton produced. It will, however, be clear to the general reader thaton the small farms of India, say where sufficient cannot be gathered onone farm, or perhaps on a few farms, to make one bale, there will not bethat uniformity which is desirable, hence Indian cotton, especially ofthe poorer types, varies a great deal more than the American varieties. When the hands have gathered sufficient to fill the carts drawn inAmerica usually by mules, and in India by oxen, the cotton is taken tohouses in which the seeds are separated from the fibre. This process iscalled "ginning. "

It is astonishing to find how tenaciously the fibres cling to the seedwhen an attempt is made to separate them. At first much loss wasoccasioned because of the brutal methods employed, and now even withvery much more perfect machinery a good deal of the cotton fibre isinjured in the ginning process. 

Image: FIG. 8. --Indian women with roller gin. 

At present, most of the cotton produced in various parts of the world isginned by machinery, though in India and China foot gins and otherprimitive types are still employed. 

It should be stated that where a large production of cotton is desiredthe foot gin or even what is known as the "Churka gin" (which consistsof a couple of rollers turned by hand) is never employed. Only a fewpounds a day of cotton can be separated from the seeds when this methodis adopted. 

The following extract from a lecture by the late Sir Benjamin Dobsonwill be of interest here, as showing what is done at an Americanginnery:

"The farmer brings the cotton to the mill in a waggon, with mules oroxen attached; the cotton is weighed, and then thrown out of the waggoninto a hopper alongside. From this hopper it is taken by an elevator, orlift, either pneumatic or mechanical, and raised to the third story ofthe ginning factory. There it is delivered into another part of the roomuntil required. When the cotton is to be ginned it is brought by rakesalong the floor to an open sort of hopper or trunk, and from hereconveyed to the gins below by travelling lattices. 

"In the factory of which I am speaking there were six gins, all of themsaw-gins. Each gin was provided with a hopper of its own, and theattendant, when any hopper was full, could either divert the feed tosome other gin, as he required, or stop it altogether. The gins producedfrom 300 pounds to 350 pounds per hour. The cotton is dropped from thecondenser, in front of the gin, upon the floor close to the balingpress, into which it is raked by the attendant and baled loosely, butonly temporarily. The seed falls into a travelling lattice, and isconducted to a straight cylindrical tube, in which works a screw. Thistakes it some one hundred yards to the oil mill. There the seed isdropped into what are known as 'linting' machines, and as much aspossible of the lint or fibre left upon the seed is removed. 

"These linting machines--practically another sort of gin--deliver thecotton or waste in a kind of roll, which is straightway put behind acarding engine. Coming out of the carding engine it is made intowadding by pasting it on cardboard paper, for filling in quilts, petticoats, and for other purposes. When the seed has passed the lintingmachine, it is taken, still by a lattice, to a hulling machine. Thismachine will take off the outside shell, which is passed to one side, while the green kernel of the seed goes down a shoot. The seed fillscertain receptacles placed in the oil press, and is submitted to ahydraulic press. The result is a clear and sweet oil, which I amcredibly informed is sold in England and other countries under the nameof 'olive oil. ' The remains of the green kernel are then pressed intowhat are termed cattle cakes, or oil cakes, for feeding cattle. "

But the reader is probably asking, what is a gin like?

The illustration seen in Fig. 9 is a gin which goes by the name of the"single-acting Macarthy gin, " so called because it has only oneoscillating blade for removing the fibre from the seed. The back of themachine is shown in the figure. This process at the best is a brutalone, especially when certain gins are employed, but the one figured hereis considered to do little damage to the fibre when extracting the seed. 

The gin shown in Fig. 9 is of simple construction, consisting of a largeleather roller about 40 inches in length and 5 in diameter. "The rolleris built up by means of solid washers, or in strips fastened on to wood, against which is pressed a doctor knife. 

"The cotton is thrown into a hopper, and, falling, is seized by thefriction of the leather and drawn between the doctor knife and theleather surface. Whilst this is taking place, there is a beater knifewhich is reciprocated at a considerable speed and which strikes the seedattached to the cotton drawn away by the leather roller. The detachedseed will then fall through a grid provided for the purpose. Asingle-action gin should produce about 30 pounds of cleaned cotton perhour. "

Image: FIG. 9. --Single-acting Macarthy gin. 

Another gin which does considerable damage to fibre, especially if it beover-fed, is still in use in the States. This was the invention of anAmerican named Eli Whitney, and has been named a "saw-gin. "

If the reader can imagine a number of circular saws (such as are to beseen in a wood-sawing mill) placed nearly together on a shaft to form analmost continuous roller, he will have a good idea of what the chiefpart of a saw-gin is like. 

As the cotton is fed to the machine, the saws seize it and strip thecotton from the seeds, which fall through grids placed below the saws. The cotton is afterward stripped from the saws themselves by means of aquickly revolving brush which turns in the opposite direction to thesaws. This gin is best suited to short stapled cottons, especially suchas are grown in the States. For the longer fibred cotton this gin is notwell adapted, much injury resulting to the cotton treated by it. 

After the cotton is ginned, it is gathered into bundles and roughlybaled. When a sufficient quantity has been so treated, it is carried tothe "compressors, " where the cotton undergoes great reduction in bulk asa result of the enormous pressure to which it is subjected. 

For the general reader it will scarcely be necessary or wise to describea "cotton press" in detail. Let it suffice to say that by means of aseries of levers--in the Morse Press seven are used--tremendous pressurecan be obtained. Thus for every 1 pound pressure of steam generatedthere will be seven times that pressure, if seven levers are used. When200 pounds pressure of steam is up, there will be 1400 pounds pressureper inch on the cotton. So great is the pressure exerted that a bundleof cotton coming to the press from the ginnery, 4 feet in depth, isreduced to 7 inches when drawn from the compressor. While in the pressiron bands are put round the cotton, and readers will have frequentlyseen cotton on its way to the mills having these iron bands round it. 

The following table shows the number of bands which are found on balescoming to England from cotton-growing countries:--

 No. Of bands. Weight in lbs. American bale 6 or 7 500 Egyptian " 11 700 Indian " 13 390 Turkish " 4 250-325 American Cylindrical bale -- 420-430 Brazilian -- 175-220

Within the last few years an entirely new industry has been started insome of the Southern States of America. 

Up to recently the bales sent to European countries from America wereall of the same type as shown by the centre bale in Fig. 10. 

Image: FIG. 10. --Bales from various cotton-growing countries. 

Now a vast quantity of cotton is being baled in the form as shown inFig. 11, and what are known as cylindrical bales are being exported inlarge numbers. In the "Round Bale" Circular of the American CottonCompany, it is stated that from the 21st November, 1896, to January2nd, 1897, no less than 1443 round bales were turned out of the factoryat Waco in Texas. The total weight of these bales was 614, 832 pounds, giving an average of 426 pounds per bale. 

By means of a press the cotton is rolled into the form as shown in theillustration. The press makes a bale 4 feet long and 2 feet in diameterand weighs over 35 pounds per cubic foot or 50 per cent. Denser than thebale made under the system as shown in Fig. 10. 

Image: FIG. 11. --Cylindrical rolls of cotton. 

It is claimed for this new system that the regularity of the size of thebale, 4 x 2 feet, makes it pack much closer than the irregularturtle-backed bales as usually made on the old system. 

Under the new style the cotton is pressed gradually and not all at once. For this reason it is claimed that the fibre is not injured and thecotton arrives at the mill with the fibre in as good condition as whenit left the gins. 

"Bagging and ties are entirely dispensed with, as the air is pressed outof the cotton and it has no tendency to expand again, and the coveringneeded is only sufficient to keep the cotton clean. "

From a number of experiments it is proved that the "round bale" is bothfireproof and water proof. 

From the illustration of the round bale shown in Fig. 11, it will beseen how readily this new form of bale lends itself to greatly aidingthe operatives in the opening processes in the mill. The roll which lieson the floor like a roll of carpet could be so fixed that the cottoncould be fed to the opener by being unrolled as shown in theillustration. 

At present the round bale system is not popular and it remains to beseen whether it will commend itself to cotton spinners. 

CHAPTER VI. 

MANIPULATION OF COTTON IN OPENING, SCUTCHING, CARDING, DRAWING, ANDFLY-FRAME MACHINES. 

Before attempting to give the readers of this story an insight into thevarious operations through which cotton is made to pass, it may beadvisable to briefly enumerate them first. 

On the field there are the operations of collecting and ginning, thatis, separating the raw cotton from the seeds. To the stranger it is veryastonishing that as many as 66 to 75 pounds of seed are got from every100 pounds of seed cotton gathered. Then in or near the cotton fieldthe process of baling is carried out. Thus there are collecting, ginningand baling, as preliminary processes. 

When the cotton arrives in bales at the mill (see Fig. 10), in which itis to be cleaned, opened and spun, it is first weighed and a recordkept. 

In the mill the first real operation is the taking of quantities ofcotton from different bales of cotton from various countries, ordifferent grades from the same country, and "mixing" so as to secure agreater uniformity in the quality of the yarn produced. In this processit is now the common practice to use a machine termed the "BaleBreaker, " or "Cotton Puller. "

The second important process carried out in the mill is "opening. " Bythis the matted masses of cotton fibres are to a great extent openedout, and a large percentage of the heavy impurities, such as sand, shell, and leaf, fall out by their own weight. It is now also usual atthis stage to form the cotton into a large roll or sheet called the"lap. "

Immediately following the "opening" comes "scutching, " which is merely acontinuation of the work performed by the "opener, " but done in such away that greater attention is bestowed upon the production of an evensheet or "lap" of cotton. 

The cotton at this stage is practically in the same condition as it waswhen first gathered from the tree in the plantation. 

=Carding= comes next in order, and it should be observed that this is oneof the most beautiful and instructive operations carried on in themill. 

The process of opening out the cotton is continued in this operation tosuch an extent that the fibres are practically _individually separated_, and while in this condition very fine impurities are removed, and manyof the short and unripe fibres which are always more or less present areremoved. Before leaving the machine the fibres are gathered togetheragain in a most wonderful manner and converted into a "sliver, " whichfor all the world looks like a rope of cotton, a little less than aninch in diameter. 

In most mills "drawing" succeeds "carding, " this operation having forits object (1) the doubling together of four to eight slivers from thecard and attenuating them to the dimension of one so as to securegreater uniformity in diameter. (2) The reduction of the crossed andentangled fibres from the card into parallel or side by side order. 

After "drawing, " the cotton is brought to and sent through a series ofmachines termed "Bobbin and Fly Frames. " There are usually three ofthese machines for the cotton to pass through, to which are given thenames of "Slubbing, " "Intermediate, " and "Roving" Frames. 

Their duties are to carry on the operation of making the sliver ofcotton finer or thinner until it is ready for the final process ofspinning, and incidentally to add to the uniformity and cleanliness ofthe thread of cotton. 

The final process of spinning is chiefly performed on one of twomachines, the "Mule" and the "Ring Frame, " either of which makes athread largely used without further treatment in a spinning mill. 

Sometimes, however, the thread is further treated by such operations asdoubling, reeling, gassing, etc. It should be added that in theproduction of the finest and best yarns an important process is gonethrough, named "combing. "

This may be defined as a continuation of the carding process alreadynamed before to a much more perfect degree. The chief object is toextract all fibres below a certain required length, and reject them aswaste. There is as much of this latter made at this stage of manufactureas that made by all the other machines put together, that is, about 17per cent. Of course it will be readily seen that this is a costlyoperation and is limited entirely to the production of the very best andfinest yarns. 

This process necessitates the employment of a machine called a "SliverLap" and sometimes a "Ribbon Lap Machine" in order to put the sliversfrom the carding engine into a small lap suitable for the "creel" of the"Combing Machine. "

=Cotton Mixing and the Bale Breaker. =--As before stated, the firstoperation in the mill is the opening out of bales of raw material andmaking a "mixing. " Of course the weight of the bale is ascertainedbefore it is opened. 

All varieties of cotton vary in their commercial properties, thisvariation being due to a number of causes. From a commercial value pointof view, there is an enormous difference between the very best and thevery worst cottons; so much so, indeed, that they are never blendedtogether. Between these two extremes there is a well-graded number ofvarieties and classifications of cotton, and some approximate so closelyto others in quality, that they are often blended together in the"mixing. "

Further than this, the same class of cotton often varies in spinningqualities from a number of circumstances that need not here be named. This is, however, an additional reason why cotton from various balesshould be blended together in order to secure uniformity. 

A cotton "mixing" may be described as a kind of "stack, " resemblingsomewhat the haystack of the farm yards. 

The method usually pursued in making this mixing is somewhat asfollows:--A portion of cotton from a certain bale is taken off andspread over a given area of floor space. Then a similar portion fromanother bale is placed over the first layer already lying on the floor. 

The same operation is followed with a third and fourth layer fromdifferent bales, and so on with as many bales as the management considerthere are variations in quality, the larger the mixing the better forsecuring uniformity of yarn. 

When it is desired to use the cotton, it should be pulled downvertically from the face of the "mixing, " so as to secure a fair portionfrom each bale composing the mixture. Before spreading the cotton out itis usually pulled into pieces of moderate size by the hands of theoperative. 

During recent years it has become the very general practice to use asmall machine called the "Bale Breaker" or "Cotton Puller, " and to havealso working in conjunction with this machine long travelling "lattices"called "mixing lattices. " These perform the operation of "pulling" and"mixing" the cotton much more quickly and effectively than by handlabour. 

The "Cotton Puller" or "Bale Breaker" (see Fig. 12) simply consists, inits most useful form, of four pairs of coarsely fluted or spikedrollers of about 6 inches diameter with a feed apron or lattice such asis shown in the illustration. 

Image: FIG. 12. --Bale breaker or puller. 

The method adopted with the "Bale Breaker" and "mixing lattices" in useis as follows:--

The various bales of cotton intended for "mixing" are placed very nearto the feed apron of the Bale Breaker, and a layer from each bale insuccession is placed on the apron. The latter feeds the cotton at a slowrate to the revolving rollers of the machine, and as each pair of topand bottom rollers that the cotton meets is revolving more rapidly thanthe preceding pair, the result is a pulling asunder of the cotton by therollers, into much smaller pieces, quite suitable for the next machine. The Bale Breaker delivers the cotton upon long travelling aprons oflattice work, which carry the cotton away and deposit it upon anydesired portion of the floor to form the "mixing. "

=Opening. =--The name of the next process, viz. , "opening, " has been givenit because its primary function is "to open" out the cotton to such anextent that the greater bulk of the seed, leaf, sand, and dust isreadily extracted. The details of this machine and indeed practically ofall machines used in cotton spinning, vary so much with differentmakers, that it would be utterly out of place to deal with them here, sothat it may be said at once, that all such points are entirely omittedfrom this treatment of the subject. 

The essential and principal portions of the machines are practicallyidentical for all makers, and it is with these only that it is proposedto deal, taking in all cases the best present-day practice. 

The opener, then, is a very powerful machine, being in fact the mostpowerful used in cotton spinning, and the most important feature of themachine is the employment of a strong beater, to which is fitted a largenumber of iron or steel knives or spikes. These beat down the cotton andopen it at a terrific rate, the beater having a surface speed of perhaps4000 feet a minute. Various fans, rollers, and other parts are employedto feed the cotton to the beater, and to take it away again aftertreatment. It will perhaps best serve the purpose of our readers if thepassage of the cotton be described through an opener of the most modernand approved construction, dealing with the subject in non-technicalterms. 

With this object in view, take for example what is termed "The DoubleCotton Opener" with "Hopper Feed Attachment. " This machine is shown inFig. 13. 

Image: FIG. 13. --"Double opener" with "hopper feed. "

The Hopper Feed is about the most recent improvement of any magnitudegenerally adopted in cotton spinning mills. It is an attachment to theinitial or feed end of an opener with the object of feeding the cottonmore cheaply and effectively than it can be done by hand. 

It may be said to consist of a large iron feed box, into which thecotton is passed in considerable quantities at one time. At the bottomof the feed box, or hopper, is a travelling apron which carries thecotton forward, so as to be brought within the action of steel pins inan inclined travelling apron or lattice. This latter carries the cottonupwards, and special mechanism is provided in the shape of what istermed an "Evener roller, " to prevent too much cotton going forward atonce. 

The cotton that passes over the top of the inclined lattice or apron isstripped off by what is denominated the stripping roller, and is thendeposited on the feed apron of the opener, where formerly it was placedby hand. 

It may be said that one man can feed two machines with Hopper Feeds asagainst one without them, and in the best makes the work is done moreeffectively. 

The feed lattice of the opener carries the cotton along to the feedrollers, which project it forward into the path of the large beater. Itis here that the opening and cleaning actions are chiefly performed. 

The strong knives or spikes of the beater break the cotton into verysmall portions indeed, and dash it against "cleaning bars" or "gratebars" specially arranged and constructed. Through the interstices ofthese bars much of the now loosened seed and dirt present in the cottonpasses into a suitable receptacle, which is afterward cleaned out atregular intervals. 

The opened and cleaned cotton is taken away from the action of thebeater by an air current produced by a powerful fan. This latter createsa partial vacuum in the beater chamber by blowing the air out of certainair exit trunks specially provided. To supply this partial vacuumafresh, air can only be obtained from the beater chamber, and the aircurrent thus induced, takes the cotton along with it, and deposits it inthe form of a sheet upon what are termed "cages" or "sieve cylinders. "

These are hollow cylinders of iron or zinc perforated with a very largenumber of small holes through which the air rushes, leaving the cotton, as it were, plastered on the outer surfaces of the cages. 

It is usual to have a pair of these cages, working one over the otherlike the pair of rollers in a wringing machine. 

The cotton now passes between two pairs of small guide rollers, and isfed by the second pair to a second beater, but of very differentconstruction from the first one. 

This consists of two or three iron or steel blades extending the fullwidth of the machine and carried by specially constructed arms from astrong central shaft. 

The edges of these beater blades are made somewhat sharp, and theystrike down the cotton from the feed roller at the rate of 2000 or moreblows per minute. 

This of course carries the opening work of the cotton of the firstbeater to a still further degree, and as in this case the cotton is alsostruck down upon "beater bars" or cleaning bars, a further quantity ofloosened impurities passes through the bars. As before, another powerfulfan creates an air current by which the cotton is carried away from thebeater and placed upon a pair of "Cages. " From this point the cotton isconducted in the form of a sheet between four heavy calender orcompression rollers, the rollers being superimposed over each other, andthe cotton receiving three compressions in its passage. 

This makes a much more solid and tractable sheet of cotton, and it isnow simply wound upon an iron roller in the form of a roll of cottontermed a "lap, " being now ready for the subsequent process, as shown inthe illustration (Fig. 14). 

Image: FIG. 14. --Scutching machine with "lap" at the back. 

=Scutching. =--This term obviously means beating, and the process itself issimply a repetition of the opening and cleaning properties of theopener, these objects being attained to a greater degree of perfection. For the best classes of cotton it is often deemed sufficient to pass itthrough the opener alone, and then to immediately transfer the lap tothe process of carding. For some cottons it is the practice to pass thecotton through two scutchers in addition to the opener, while in othercases it is the practice to use one scutcher only in addition to theopener. 

In the scutcher it is the most common practice to take four laps fromthe opener and to place them in a specially constructed creel andresting on a travelling "lattice" or apron. By this they are slowlyunwound and the four sheets are laid one upon another and passed in onecombined sheet, through feed rollers, to a two or three bladed beater, exactly like the second one described when treating upon the doubleopener. Also, exactly in the same manner, a lap is formed ready for theimmediately succeeding process of carding. In the scutcher the doublingof four laps together tends to produce a sheet of cotton more uniform inthickness and weight than that from the opener. This object of equalityof lap is also invariably aided by what are termed Automatic FeedRegulators, which regulate the weight of cotton given to the beater tosomething like a continuous uniformity. The action is clearly seen inthe illustration. 

=Carding. =--By many persons this is deemed to be the most importantoperation in cotton spinning. Its several duties may be stated asfollows:--

 1. The removal of a large proportion of any impurities, such as broken leaf, seed and shell, that may have escaped the previous processes. It may usually be deemed to be the final process of cleansing. 

 2. To open out and disentangle the clusters of fibres into even greater individualisation than existed when first picked, and to leave them in such condition that the subsequent operations can easily draw them out, and reduce them to parallel order. 

 3. The extraction of a good proportion of the short, broken and unripe fibres, present more or less in all cottons grown, and practically worthless from a manufacturing point of view. 

 4. The reduction of the heavy sheet or lap of cotton from the scutcher, into a comparatively light and thin sliver. Ordinarily, one yard of the lap put up behind the card weighs more than 100 times as heavy as the sliver delivered at the front of the card. 

There are several varieties of Carding Engine, but in each case nearlyall the essential features are practically the same in one card as inanother. At the present time, the type of Carding Engine which haspractically superseded all others is denominated the "Revolving FlatCard. " This Card originated with Mr. Evan Leigh, of Manchester, andafter being in close competition with several other types has almostdriven them out of the market. Of course it has been considerablyimproved by later inventors, and various machine makers have their owntechnical peculiarities. 

In the illustration seen in Fig. 15 there is conveyed an excellent ideaof the appearance of the heavy lap of cotton as it is placed behind theCarding Engine, and of the manner in which the same cotton appears as a"sliver" or soft strand of cotton as it issues from the front of thesame machine, and enters the cylindrical can into which it is passed, and coiled into compact layers, suitable for withdrawal at theimmediately succeeding process. 

Image: FIG. 15. --Two views of the carding engine: upper view, cotton entering; lower view, cotton leaving. 

In the main, the parts which operate upon the cotton fibres in theirpassage through this machine consist of a number of cylinders or rollersof various diameters, but practically equal in width. Some of theserollers are merely to guide and conduct the cotton forward, but the moreimportant are literally bristling all over with a vast number of closelyset and finely drawn steel wire teeth, whose duty it is to open, andcomb out, and clean the fibers as they pass along. 

To begin with, the "lap" or roll of cotton is placed behind the machineso as to rest on a roller of 6 inches in diameter, which slowly unwindsthe lap at the rate of about 9 inches per minute, by frictional contacttherewith. 

Here, it may be said that the width of this and other chief rollers andcylindrical parts of the card may be about 38 inches or 40 inches wide, there being a tendency to make present-day Carding Engines rathernarrower than formerly, in order to give greater strength to certainparts. From the lap roller the sheet of cotton is conducted for about 8inches over a smooth feed plate, and then it goes underneath a flutedroller of 2-1/4 inches diameter, termed the feed roller, havingpractically the same surface speed as the lap roller, or possibly asmall fraction more to keep the cotton lap tight. 

At this stage the actual work of the Carding Engine may be said tocommence. While the feed roller and the feed plate hold the end of thesheet of cotton and project it forward at the slow rate of 8 or 9 inchesper minute, this projecting end of the lap becomes subject to the actionof a powerful roller or beater termed the taker-in or licker-in. 

The most recent and improved construction of this roller is termed theMetallic Taker-in, and it is covered all over with strong steel teethshaped something like those of a saw. It is about 9 inches in diameter, and its strong teeth strike the cotton down from the feed roller with asurface speed of nearly 1000 feet per minute. 

It is at this stage that the bulk of the heavier impurities still foundin the cotton are removed, as these fall through certain grids below thetaker-in immediately they are loosened from the retaining fibres by thepowerful teeth of the taker-in. 

The great bulk of the cotton fibres, however, are retained by the teethof the taker-in and carried round the under side to a point where theyare exposed to the action of the central and most important part ofevery Carding Engine, viz. , the main "cylinder. " The licker-in containsabout twenty-eight teeth per square inch, but the "cylinder" is thefirst of the parts that the cotton arrives at, previously referred to asbeing covered with a vast number of closely set steel wire teeth. 

Just to convey an idea of this point to the uninitiated reader, it maybe said that it is quite common to have on the "cylinder" as many as 600steel wire teeth in one square inch. For a cylinder 40 inches wide and50 inches diameter, this works out to the vast number of over 3, 800, 000steel wire teeth on one cylinder, each tooth being about 1/4 inch long, and secured in a cloth or rubber foundation before the latter is woundround the cylinder. 

The steel teeth of the cylinder strip the fibres from the taker-in andcarry them in an upward direction, the surface speed of the cylinderbeing over 2000 feet per minute. 

Placed over the cylinder, and extending for nearly one-half of itscircumference, are what are technically known as the "flats. "

These are narrow iron bars, each about 1-3/8 inches wide; each beingcovered with steel wire teeth in the same manner as the cylinder; andeach extending right across the width of the cylinder, and resting on asuitable bearing termed the "bend. "

They are formed into an endless chain containing about 108 "flats, " butonly about 44 of which are in actual work at one time; this endlesschain of flats being given a slow movement of about 3 inches per minute. 

Here it may be said that the various working parts are set as close aspossible to each other without being in actual contact, the usualdistance being about 1/143rd of an inch determined by a speciallyconstructed gauge, in the hands of a skilled workman. 

The steel teeth of the flats, being set very close to those of thecylinder, catch hold of and retain a portion of the short warty fibresand fine impurities that may be on the points of the cylinder teeth, theamount of this reaching about 3 per cent. Of the cotton passed throughthe machine. In addition to this the teeth of the flats work againstthose of the cylinder so as to exercise a combing action on the cottonfibres. 

Having passed the "flats, " the cotton is deposited by the cylinder onwhat is termed the doffer. This is a cylindrical body, exactly similarto the main "cylinder" excepting that it is only about half thediameter, say 24 inches. Its steel wire teeth are set in the oppositeway to those of the cylinder, and its surface speed is only about 75feet per minute. These two circumstances acting together enable it totake the cotton fibres from the main cylinder. 

The operations of carding may now be said to be practically performed, as the remaining operations have for their object the stripping, collecting, and guiding of the cotton into a form suitable for the nextsucceeding processes. The fleece of cotton is stripped from the dofferby the "Doffer Comb, " which is a thin bar of steel, having a serratedunder edge, and making about 1600 beats or strokes per minute. From thispoint cotton is collected into the form of a loose rope or "sliver, " andpassed first through a trumpet-shaped mouth, and then through a pair ofcalender rollers about six inches wide and four inches in diameter. 

Image: FIG. 16. --Lap, web, and sliver of cotton. 

Finally, the sliver of cotton is carried upward, as shown in theillustration (Fig. 15), and passed through special apparatus anddeposited into the can, also shown. This latter is about 10 inches indiameter and 36 inches in length, and the whole arrangement fordepositing the cotton suitably into the can is denominated the "Coiler. "In the next illustration (Fig. 16) are shown three forms in which thecotton is found before and after working by the Carding Engine. That tothe left is the lap as it enters, the middle figure is part of the webas it comes from the doffer, and that to the right is part of a coil ofcotton from the can. 

Such is a brief description of the most important of the preparatoryprocesses of cotton spinning. There are innumerable details involvingtechnical knowledge which fall outside the province of this story. 

=Drawing Frames. =--It is a very common thing for a new beginner in thestudy of cotton spinning to ask--what is the use of the drawing frame?As a matter of fact, the unpractised eye cannot see any differencebetween the sliver or soft rope of cotton as it reaches, the drawingframe and as it leaves the frame. 

The experienced eye of the practical man can, however, detect awonderful difference. 

It has been shown that the immediately preceding operation ofcarding--amongst other things--reduces the heavy lap into acomparatively thin light sliver; thus advancing with one great stride along way toward the production of the long fine thread of yarn ready forthe market. 

No such difference can be perceived in the sliver at the drawing frame. This machine is practically devoted to improving the thread finallymade in two distinct and important ways. 

1. The fibres of cotton in the sliver, as they leave the Carding Engine, are in a very crossed and entangled condition, not at all suited to theproduction of a strong yarn by the usual processes of cotton spinning. The first duty of the drawing frame may be said, therefore, to be thelaying of the fibres in parallel order to one another, by the action ofthe drawing rollers. 

2. The sliver of cotton, as it leaves the card, is by no meanssufficiently uniform in weight per yard for the production of a uniformand strong finished thread. It will easily be conceived by the readersof this story of the cotton plant that the strength of any thread isonly that of its weakest portions. 

Take a rope intended to hold a heavy weight suspended at its lower end, and assume it to be made of the best material and stoutest substance, but to contain one very weak place in it; this rope would practically beuseless, because the strength of the rope would only be that of theweakest part. 

The drawing machine in cotton spinning aims at removing the weak placesin cotton thread, thus making the real strength of the thread vastlygreater than it would otherwise be. 

The method by which these important objects are attained may be brieflyexplained as follows:--

From four to eight, but most usually six, cans of sliver from theprevious machine are placed behind the frame, and the ends of theslivers conducted over special mechanism within the range of action offour pairs of drawing rollers. This passage of the cotton is shown veryclearly in Fig. 17. 

The top rollers are made of cast iron, covered with soft and highlyfinished leather made from sheepskins, the object of this being to causethe rollers to have a firm grip of the cotton fibres, without at thesame time injuring them. The bottom rollers are of iron or steel, madewith longitudinal flutes or grooves, in order to bite the cotton fibresfirmly on the leathers of the top rollers. In order to assist therollers in maintaining a firm grip of the fibres the top rollers areheld down by somewhat heavy weights. 

The action of the drawing rollers will be adequately discussed later inthis story, when dealing with the inventions of Lewis Paul and SirRichard Arkwright, and need not be enlarged upon at this stage. 

It will be sufficient, therefore, to say that, assuming that six sliversare put up together at the back of the frame, the "draft" or amount ofdrawing-out between the first and second pairs of rollers the cottoncomes to, may be about 1. 3, between the second and third pairs 1. 8, andbetween the third and fourth pairs 2. 6. These three multiplied togethergive a total draft of slightly over 6. 

In other words, assuming that 1 inch of cotton be passed through thefirst pair of rollers, the second pair will immediately draw it out into1. 3 inches; the third pair will draw out the same portion of cotton into1. 3 × 1. 8 inches = 2. 34 inches, and the fourth or last pair of rollerswill draw out the same portion of cotton into 2. 34 × 2. 6 inches = 6. 084. 

Image: FIG. 17. --Drawing frame showing eight slivers entering and one leaving the machine. 

The six slivers put up at the back are therefore drawn out orattenuated to the dimensions of one by the rollers, and then at thedelivery side of the machine the six slivers are united into one sliver, and arranged in beautiful order inside a can exactly as described forthe Carding Engine. 

Now it is in the doubling together and again drawing-out of the sliversof cotton that the two objects of making the fibres parallel and theslivers uniform are effected. 

In the first place, even the uninitiated readers of this story mayconceive that the combining of six slivers will naturally cause anyextra thick or thin places in any of the individual slivers to becomemuch reduced in extent by falling along with correct diameters of theother five slivers; and experience proves that such is the actual fact. In this way the slivers, or soft untwisted ropes of cotton, are madeuniform. 

It is perhaps not so easy to see how it is that drawing rollers make thefibres of cotton parallel. As a matter of fact, it may be said that aseach pair of rollers projects the fibres forward, the next pair ofrollers takes hold of the fibres and draws their front extremitiesforward more rapidly than the other pair will let the back extremitiesof the same fibres pass forward. It is this action often repeated thatdraws the fibres straight, or in other words, reduces them to acondition in which they are parallel to each other. 

It is the usual practice to pass each portion of cotton through threeseparate frames in this manner, in immediate and rapid succession. The"slivers" or ropes of cotton made at the front of the first drawingframe, would be placed in their cans behind a second drawing frame andthe exact process just described would be repeated. The same identicalprocess would usually be performed yet a third time in order to securethe required objects with what is considered a sufficient degree ofperfection. 

After this the cotton is usually deemed to be quite ready for theimmediately succeeding process of "slubbing. "

=Bobbin and Fly Frames. =--The series of machines now to be dealt with, aredistinguished more for their complicated mechanism in putting twist intothe attenuated cotton and in winding it upon bobbins in suitable formfor the immediately succeeding process, than for the action of the partsupon the cotton so as to render it better fitted for the production ofstrong, fine yarn. 

The manner in which these machines perform a part in the actualproduction of a thread or yarn is practically a repetition of the workof the drawing frame, with the great difference that the strand or thinrope of cotton leaves each machine of the series in a thinner and longercondition than when it arrived. 

This attenuation of the cotton roving is indeed the chief desideratumthat bobbin and fly frames aim at, although they assist in making thestrand of cotton more uniform by carrying still further to a limitedextent the doubling principle so extensively utilised at the drawingframes. 

The basis of the operations are again the drawing rollers, brought tosuch a state of perfection by Richard Arkwright, and here it may beuseful to remind the readers of this story how superior in this respectof general adaption Arkwright's method of spinning was to that ofHargreaves'. It will be remembered that the latter named inventorutilised a travelling carriage, for drawing the cotton finer, while theformer performed the same work by drawing rollers. 

Although the travelling carriage principle was at one time somewhatlargely utilised in preparing the rovings for the final process ofspinning, it has long since entirely given way before the superiormerits and adaptability of the drawing roller principle; and it is nowthis latter method which is universally employed. 

It usually takes three bobbin and fly frames to make up what may becalled a "set, " each portion of the cotton roving passing through thethree machines in succession. For low classes of yarn only two of thesemachines may be used, while for the finest yarns there are sometimesfour used to make up the "set. "

Of course, all the readers of this story must understand that in anordinary-sized cotton spinning mill there will be many sets of thesemachines, just as there will be a large number of "carding engines" and"drawing frames, " and mules. Bale brakers, openers and scutchers are sovery productive that only a limited number is required as compared withthe other machines already named. 

Those of our readers who have studied the details of Arkwright'sspinning frame, described in another chapter in this book, and haveunderstood those details, will have a clear comprehension of the actionof the parts and leading mechanical principles concerned in theoperations of a modern bobbin and fly frame. Certainly there are some ofthe most difficult problems of cotton spinning involved in the mechanismof these machines, but these points are so highly technical that it isnot intended to introduce them here. 

The "set" of machines just named are usually known by the names"Slubber, " "Intermediate or Second Slubber, " and "Roving" Frames. 

Nearly all the operations and mechanisms involved in one are almostidentical in the others, so that a description of one only in the set isnecessary, merely explaining that the parts of each machine the cottoncomes to in the latter two of the set are smaller and more finely setthan the corresponding parts of the immediately preceding machine. 

Taking the Intermediate frame as a basis, the operation may be describedas follows:--The bobbins formed at the slubbing frame are put in thecreel of the Intermediate, as shown in the photograph (Fig. 18), eachbobbin resting on a wooden skewer or peg which will easily rotate. 

In order to increase the uniformity of the roving or strand of cotton, the ends from two of the slubbing rovings are conducted together throughthe rollers of the machine. 

There are three pairs of these rollers, acting on the cotton in everyway just as described for the drawing frame. 

Although two rovings are put together behind the rollers, yet the"draft" or drawing-out power of the rollers is such, that the rovingthat issues from the front of the rollers is about three times as thinas each individual roving put up behind the rollers. This drawing-outaction of the rollers need not be further dilated upon at this stage. 

The points which demand some little attention at our hands, are themethods and mechanism involved in twisting the attenuated roving, andwinding it upon bobbins or spools in suitable form for the next process. 

Image: FIG. 18. --Intermediate frame (bobbin and fly frame). 

As regards twisting of the roving it must be distinctly understood thatwhen the attenuated strand of cotton issues from the rollers of thefirst bobbin and fly frame, it has become so thin and weak that it canno longer withstand the requisite handling without being seriouslydamaged. Hence the introduction of "Twist, " which is by far the mostimportant strength-producing factor or principle entering into thecomposition of cotton roving and yarn. 

Without twist there would be no cotton factories, no cotton goods; noneof the splendid and gigantic buildings of one description or anotherwhich are found so plentifully intermingled with the dwellings andfactories of large cotton manufacturing towns!

In a sense it is to this all-powerful factor of "twist" that all thesebuildings owe their existence, since it would be practically impossibleto make a thread from cotton fibres without the assistance of "twist" tomake the fibres adhere to each other. Hence there could be none of thatwealth which has caused the erection of these buildings. 

This is true in a double sense, since we have both the natural twist ofthe cotton fibres and the artificial twist introduced at the latterprocesses of cotton spinning, in order to make individual fibres andaggregations of fibres adhere to each other. What is termed the naturaltwist of the fibres may average in good cottons upwards of 180 twistsper inch, while the twists per inch put into the finished threads ofyarn from those fibres may vary, say, between 20 and 30 twists perinch. 

In all the fly frames, therefore, this artificial twist is invariablyand necessarily put into the roving. As the cotton leaves the front ordelivery rollers, each strand descends to a bobbin of from 8 to 12inches long, upon which it is wound by special mechanism. As inArkwright's frame, this bobbin is placed loosely upon a vertical"spindle, " and upon the latter is fitted a "flyer, " whose duty it is toguide the cotton upon the bobbin. 

The primary duty of the spindle is to insert the "twist" which has beenshown to be so necessary to give sufficient strength to the roving. 

Let any reader of this story hold a piece of soft stuff in one handwhile with the other hand he rotates or twists the roving and he willhave an idea of the method and effect of twisting (see Fig. 19). 

Without going into minute details we may say that the practical effectis that, while the roving is held firmly by the rollers, it is twistedby means of its connection at the other end to the rotating bobbin, spindle and flyer. The twist runs right from the spindle along the 6 to12 inches of cotton that may extend from the spindle top to the "nip" ofthe rollers, thus imparting the requisite strength to the roving as itissues from the rollers. The mechanism for revolving the spindles is byno means difficult to understand, simply consisting of a number ofshafts and wheels revolved at a constant, definite and regulated speedper minute. 

Not only is it necessary to provide special apparatus for twisting thecotton at the bobbin and fly frames, but also very complicated andhighly ingenious mechanism for winding the attenuated cotton in suitableform upon the bobbins. Indeed it is with this very mechanism that someof the most difficult problems of cotton spinning machinery areassociated. 

Although the cotton at this stage is strengthened by twist, yet it isextremely inadvisable and practically inadmissible to insert more thanfrom 1 to about 4 twists per inch at any of these machines, so that atthe best the rovings are still very weak. 

If too much twist were inserted at any stage, the drawing rollers of theimmediately succeeding machine could not carry on the attenuatingprocess satisfactorily. 

This winding problem was so difficult that it absolutely baffled theingenuity of Arkwright and his contemporaries and immediate successors, and it was not until about 1825 that the difficulties were solved by theinvention of the differential winding motion by Mr. Holdsworth, awell-known Manchester spinner, whose successors are still eminent mastercotton spinners. 

This winding motion is still more extensively used than any other, although it may be said that quite recently several new motions havebeen more or less adopted, whose design is to displace Holdsworth'smotion by performing the same work in a rather more satisfactory manner. 

In these pages no attempt whatever will be made to give a technicalexplanation of the mechanism of the winding motion. It may be said thatit was a special application of the Sun and Planet motion originallyutilised by Watt in his Steam Engine, for obtaining a rotary motion ofhis fly-wheel. 

Sufficient be it to say that this "Differential Motion, " acting inconjunction with what are termed "Cone drums, " imparts a varying motionto the bobbins upon which the cotton is wound, in such a manner that therate of winding is kept practically constant throughout the formation ofthe bobbins of roving, although the diameters of the latter areconstantly increasing. 

The spindles and bobbins always rotate in the same direction, but whilethe revolutions per minute of the spindles are constant, so as to keepthe twist uniform, those of the bobbins are always varying, in order tocompensate for their increasing diameters or thicknesses of the bobbins. The delivery of cotton from the rollers is also constant and themechanism required to operate them is exceedingly simple. 

A vast number of details could easily be added respecting the operationsperformed by the bobbin and fly frames, but further treatment is deemedunnecessary in this story. 

CHAPTER VII. 

EARLY ATTEMPTS AT SPINNING, AND EARLY INVENTORS. 

There can be no better illustration of the truth of the old saying, that"Necessity is the mother of invention, " than to read the early historyof the cotton manufacture, and the difficulties under which the pioneersof England's greatest industry laboured. 

The middle years of the eighteenth century act as the watershed betweenthe old and the new in cotton manufacture, for up to 1760 the same typeof machinery was found in England which had existed in India forcenturies. But a change was coming, and as a greater demand arose forcotton goods, it became absolutely necessary to discover some better wayof manipulating cotton, in order to get off a greater production. 

"When inventors fail in their projects, no one pities them; when theysucceed, persecution, envy, and jealousy are their reward. " So saysBaines, and it would appear, from reference to the history of the cottonindustry, to be only too true. Certain it is, that the early inventorsof the machinery for improving cotton spinning did not reap theadvantages which their labours and inventions entitled them to. Theyploughed and sowed, but others reaped. 

Among the most celebrated of the early inventors, the following standout in great prominence--John Kay, Lewis Paul, John Wyatt, RichardArkwright, Thomas Highs, James Hargreaves, and Samuel Crompton. 

When and how spinning originated no one can say, though it can be tracedback through many, many centuries. Several nations claim to have beenthe first to discover the art, but when asked for proof the initialstages are greatly obscured by impenetrable clouds of mystery. 

For example, the Egyptians credit the goddess Isis with the discovery, the Greeks Minerva, the Chinese the Emperor Yao. It is related ofHercules, that, when in love with Omphale, he debased himself by takingthe spindle and spinning a thread at her feet. This form of work wasconsidered to belong only to women, and by spinning for her in thisposition he was thought to have greatly humiliated himself. 

If Hercules were back again, and could stand between two modern mulesand see the men and boys engaged in spinning hundreds of threads _atonce_, no doubt he would wonder, just as we do to-day at his fabledfeats. 

It is not difficult to imagine that very early on in the world's historythe twisting together of strands of wool and cotton would force itselfupon the attention of the ancients. If the reader will take a littlecotton wool in the left hand and by means of the first finger and thumbof the right take a few cotton fibres and gently twist them together andat the same time draw the thread formed outwards, it will be seen howvery easy it is (from the nature of the cotton) to form a continuousthread. 

What would very soon suggest itself would be something to which thethread, when twisted, could be fastened and, according to Mr. Marsden(who supposes the first spinner to have been a shepherd boy), a twigwhich was close at hand would be the very thing to which he could attachhis twisted fibres. He also supposes that, having spun a short length, the twig by accident was allowed to dangle and immediately to untwist byspinning round in the reverse way, and ultimately fall to the ground. 

He further adds, the boy would argue to himself "that if this revolvingtwig could take the twist out by a reversion of its movements, it couldbe made to put it in. " This would be the first spinning spindle. Theexplanation is probably not very far wide of the mark. 

A weighted twig or spindle would next be used, and as each length ofspun thread was finished, it would be wound on to the spindle andfastened. 

As it would be extremely awkward to work the fibre up without a propersupply, a bundle of this was fastened to the end of a stick and carriedmost probably under the left arm, leaving the right hand free, or in thebelt, much in the same way as is done in some country districts in theNorth of Europe to-day. 

The modern name for this stick is _Distaff_, a word which is derivedfrom the Low German--_diesse_, the bunch of flax on a distaff, and_staff_. Originally it would be the staff on which the tow or flax wasfastened, and from which the thread was drawn. The modern representativeof the spindle with the twisted thread wound on it is the "_cop_, " andthe intermittent actions of first putting _twist_ in the thread and then_winding_ on the spindle, have their exact counterparts on the latest ofthe self-acting mules of to-day. 

Image: FIG. 19. --Twist put in cotton by the hand. 

It may be interesting to note that St. Distaff's Day is January 7th, the day after the Epiphany, a church festival celebrated incommemoration of the visit of the Wise Men of the East to Bethlehem. Asthis marks the end of the Christmas festival, work with the distaff wascommenced, hence the name, St. Distaff's Day. 

It is also called "Rock Day, " rock being another name for distaff. "Rocking Day" in Scotland was a feasting day when friends and neighboursmet together in the early days of the New Year, to celebrate the end ofthe Christmastide festival. 

The reign of Henry VII. Is said to have witnessed the introduction intoEngland of the spindle and distaff. 

In process of time, the suspended spindle was superseded by one whichwas driven by mechanical means. Over and over again, the spindle, as itlay upon the floor, must have suggested that it could be made to work inthat position, viz. , horizontal. And so comes now a contrivance forholding the spindle in this position. 

Mr. Baines, in his history of the cotton manufacture, gives a figure ofan old Hindoo spinning wheel, and it is extremely likely that this veryform of machine was the forerunner of the type which later on found itsway into Europe. At the beginning of the sixteenth century what wasknown as the Jersey wheel came into common use. This machine is shown inFig. 20. 

Lying to the left hand of the woman in the illustration is a hand card. This consisted of square board with a handle, and was covered by finewire driven in, so as to make what was really a wire brush. By means ofthis, the spinner was enabled to prepare her cotton, and she did withit (though not nearly so well) what is done by the Carding Engine ofto-day, viz. , fully opened out the fibres of cotton ready for spinning. Having taken the cotton from the hand cards, she produced at first avery thick thread which was called a _roving_. This she wound on aspindle, which was afterwards treated again on the wheel a second time, and drawn out still more, and then having the twist put in, it was mademuch thinner into so-called yarn. Only one thread could by this methodbe dealt with at a time by one person, but the main operations carriedout on the old spinning wheel have their exact reproductions on the muleof to-day, viz. :--Drawing, Twisting and Winding. 

Image: FIG. 20. --Jersey spinning wheel (after Baines). 

But still the process of evolution went on, and following quickly onthe heels of the Jersey wheel is the Saxony or Leipsic wheel. Here forthe first time is seen the combination of spindle, flyer and bobbin. 

This machine was so arranged that by means of two grooved wheels ofdifferent diameters, but both driven by the large wheel similar to theone in the Jersey wheel, and which was operated by the spinner, twospeeds were obtained. The bobbin was attached to the smaller, and thespindle, to which was fastened the flyer or "Twister, " was driven by thelarger of two wheels. 

In this form of spinning machine, then, there were the followingoperations performed:--

By the spindle and flyer both revolving at the same velocity, the threadwas attenuated and twisted as it was carried to the bobbin. This latterwas, as already named, driven by the smaller of the two wheels and had amotion all its own, though much quicker than that of the spindle. Inthis way a bobbin of yarn was built up, and the Saxony wheel no doubtgave many fruitful ideas to the inventors who appeared later on, andwho, by reason of their research and experiment, evolved the fly framesof to-day; this was notably so in the case of Arkwright. 

There had been very great opposition to the introduction of cotton goodsinto England by manufacturers and others interested in the wool andfustian trade, and matters even got so bad that the British Parliamentwas foolish enough to actually pass an Act in 1720, prohibiting "the useor wear in Great Britain, in any garment or apparel whatsoever, of anyprinted, painted, stained, or dyed _calico_, under the penalty offorfeiting to the informer the sum of £5. "

Just as though this was not sufficiently severe, it was also enactedthat persons using printed or dyed calico "in or about any bed, chair, cushion, window-curtain, or any other sort of household stuff orfurniture, " would be fined £20, and a like amount was to be paid bythose who sold the stuff. 

There can be no doubt whatever, that this Act was designed to strike adeath-blow at the cotton industry, which at this time was beginning tomake itself felt in the commerce of the country. A curious exceptionshould be mentioned here. Calico, which was all blue, was exempted fromthe provisions of this Act, as were also muslins, fustians andneck-ties. However, in 1736 this iniquitous piece of legislation wassomewhat relaxed, and Parliament was good enough to decree in the yearjust named that it would be lawful for anyone to wear "any sort of stuffmade of linen yarn and cotton wool manufactured and printed or paintedwith any colour or colours within the kingdom of Great Britain, providedthat the warp thereof be entirely linen yarn. "

Now as half a loaf is better than none, the cotton manufacturersreceived a direct impulse by the partial removal of the obnoxiousrestriction, and very soon the supply was far ahead of the demand. 

Manufacturers were crying out constantly for more weight and betterstuff, but how by the mechanical means at the disposal of the spinnerswere they to get it? Lancashire historians say that it was no uncommonthing for weavers to travel miles in search of weft, and then many ofthem returned to their looms with only a quarter of the amount theyrequired. 

Another cause which acted in the direction of increasing the demand foryarns and weft was the invention of the _flying shuttle_ by John Kayabout 1738. Previous to his time, the heavy shuttles containing thewefts were sent across the looms by two persons. Now, by his new shuttlehe dispensed with the services of one of these artisans, and by means ofhis arrangement for quickly sending the shuttle along the lathe of theloom, much more cloth was produced. Poor Kay suffered much by the cruelpersecution of his countrymen, who ignorantly supposed that in bringinghis new shuttle to such perfection, they would be deprived _permanently_of their occupations, with nothing but starvation looking them in theface. Of course, nothing could be wider of the truth than this, but Kayhad to flee his country, and died in poverty and obscurity in a foreignland. Still the shuttle continued to be used, for the makers of clothhad learned that increased production meant more work, and possiblygreater profit, and though Kay disappeared, his works remained behind. The demand for weft grew more and more. It has been said that it is theoccasion which makes the man, and not man the occasion. It was so inthis case, for here was a cry for some mechanical means to be discoveredfor satisfying the ever-increasing demand for cotton weft. Hithertosingle threads only had been dealt with on the spinning machines, butthe same year witnessed the introduction of an invention which in a fewyears completely revolutionized the spinning industry, and whichenabled one worker to spin hundreds of threads at once. 

The year 1738, which witnessed the birth of Kay's invention, also sawthat of Lewis Paul, an artisan of Birmingham. This was a new method ofspinning by means of _Rollers_. It should be remembered that this wasthirty years before Arkwright attempted to obtain letters patent for hissystem of spinning by rollers. 

Most of the readers of this little book will have seen what is known in_domestic parlance_ as a clothes-wringer. Here the wooden or rubberrollers, by means of weights or screws, are made to squeeze out most ofthe moisture which remains after the garment has left the washing-tub. Now if two sets of such rollers could be put together, so that insection the four centres would coincide with the four angular points ofa square, and the back pair could be made to have a greater surfacevelocity than the front pair, this arrangement would give something likethe idea which Paul had in his mind at that time. Why make the back pairrevolve at a greater rate? For this reason, that as the cotton wassupplied to the front pair, and passed on to the second, rememberingthat these are going at a greater rate, it follows that the cotton_would be drawn out_ in passing from the first to the second pair. Hadthe rollers been both going at the same speeds, the cotton would passout as it went in, unaffected. Now it was this idea which Paulpractically set out in his machine. From some reason or other, Paul'sright to this patent has been often called into question, and up to 1858it was popularly supposed to have been the sole invention of John Wyattof Birmingham. In the year named, Mr. Cole, in a paper read before theBritish Association, proved that Paul was the real patentee, andestablished the validity of his claim without doubt. 

The two distinguishing features of Paul's Spinning Machine were: (1) bymeans of the rollers and flyers he performed the operations ofdrawing-out and twisting, which had hitherto been done by the fingersand thumbs of the spinners; and (2) he changed the position of thespindle itself from the horizontal to the vertical. 

A glance at the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement ofArts, Manufactures and Commerce, shows that this period (1760-1770) wasmost prolific of inventions specially relating to the various sectionsof the cotton industry. There were "improved spinning wheels, " "ahorizontal spinning wheel, " and three other forms of "spinning machines"submitted to the above society between 1761 and 1767, in the hope ofobtaining money grants in the shape of premiums, which had been offeredto the best inventions for improving spinning machinery in general. 

The above list does not however contain any reference to one improvementby James Hargreaves of Blackburn, Lancashire, to which in this storyspecial mention must be made. 

It appears that in 1764 or 1765 this individual had completed a machinefor spinning eleven threads _simultaneously_; and five years later hehad developed the machine to so perfect a state that he took out apatent for it, from which time it became known to the industrial worldas a _Spinning Jenny_. His right to the patent has over and over againbeen challenged, and it has been alleged that Thomas Highs of Leigh, also in Lancashire, was the real inventor. Baines, in his "History ofthe Cotton Manufacture, " is inclined to the view that Hargreaves was thefirst to perfect the machine known as the "Jenny" (see Fig. 21). 

From whatever point of view Hargreaves' machine is looked at, it must beacknowledged to be a decided step forward in the direction of spinningmachinery improvement. 

The jenny was so unlike Arkwright's frame or Paul's, and preceded thatof the former by some years, that its claim to originality can not bequestioned. How the inventor came to produce his machine can not bestated, but it is reported that on one occasion he saw a single threadspinning wheel which had been accidentally knocked over, lying with thewheel and spindle free and both revolving. 

If the reader will think for a minute it will be apparent that thehorizontal position of the spindle would be changed to a vertical one, and Hargreaves argued if one spindle could revolve in that way, whyshould not eight or any number of spindles be made to work at the sametime. How far he successfully worked out that idea will be seen ifreference be made to the illustration of the jenny which is shown inFig. 21. 

After what has been said under the head of Carding, Drawing, and Roving, it will easily be understood when it is said that, unlike Arkwright'sMachine, Hargreaves' Jenny could only deal with the cotton when in thestate of _roving_, and it was the roving which this machine attenuatedand twisted or spun into yarn. 

If the reader will imagine he or she is standing in front of the jenny, the following description will be made much clearer:--

Image: FIG. 21. --Hargreaves' spinning jenny (after Baines). 

The rovings, which have previously been prepared, are each passed fromthe bobbins seen on the lower creel, through a number of grooves on oneof the bars which run across the frame, as seen in the illustration. These rovings are next passed on to the spindles standing at the back ofthe frame and secured to them. A second bar in front of the one overwhich the rovings pass, acts as a brake and prevents, when in its properposition, any more roving being delivered, thus securing all between thespindles and the said bar. The wheel which is seen on the right of thejenny communicates with a cylinder by means of a strap or rope, and thiscylinder in turning gives circular motion to the spindles which areconnected with the cylinder by endless bands. On the spindle is thewharf, specially formed to allow the band to run without slipping. 

The operations for a complete spinning of one delivery is described byBaines as follows:--

"A certain portion of roving being extended from the spindles to thewooden clasp, the clasp was closed, and was then drawn along thehorizontal frame to a considerable distance from the spindles, by whichthe threads were lengthened out, and reduced to the proper tenuity; thiswas done with the spinner's left hand, and his right hand at the sametime turned a wheel which caused the spindles to revolve rapidly, andthus the roving was spun into yarn. By returning the clasp to its firstsituation, and letting down a presser wire, the yarn was wound on thespindle. "

Hatred and jealousy were immediately born when Hargreaves' splendidimprovement became known, and, like poor Kay before him, he had to leavehis native soil and get to some more secluded spot. He ultimatelyarrived in Nottingham, set at once to accommodate himself to his newenvironment, and soon entered into partnership with a Mr. James, and in1770 took out a patent for his Jenny. In conjunction with his newpartner, a mill was built, said to be one of the first, if not thefirst, spinning mill so called in this country. 

Though it is stated by Arkwright that Hargreaves died in comparativeobscurity and poverty, others say that this is not so; though he was notwealthy the evidence is sufficiently good to believe that he died inmoderate circumstances. 

The register of St. Mary's Parish, Nottingham, contains the followingentry:--"1778, April 22, James Hargraves. "

CHAPTER VIII. 

FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS--ARKWRIGHT AND CROMPTON. 

Whatever may be said in favour of other spinning machinery inventors, itis quite certain that when we put the whole of them together, two standout in greater prominence than any of the rest, viz. , Arkwright andCrompton. 

Probably the former did more than any other Englishman to establish whatis known as the Modern Factory System. He was not what one might call abrilliant man or great inventor, but he had the happy knack ofappreciating and seizing upon what he knew was a good thing, and setabout instantly to get all out of it that he could, and there are thosewho strongly affirm that he often got much more than he was entitled to. 

However that may be, it can not be denied that he possessed eminentbusiness qualifications, and these, coupled with other of his qualities, helped to make him exceedingly successful. 

He first saw the light of day on December 23rd, 1732, in Preston, Lancashire, twenty-one years before his great rival and contemporary, Samuel Crompton. His parents could not possibly afford to give him anyschooling, he being the youngest of thirteen. Apprenticed to the tradeof barber, he became in time a first-rate man in that business. In 1760, when twenty-eight years of age, he left Preston and settled down inBolton in Lancashire, setting up the business of barber andperuke-maker. The youthful Samuel Crompton would no doubt pay him manyvisits when in Churchgate, and little did he dream that the head he sooften would undoubtedly use his skill upon was the one which wouldevolve by and by a machine which would amaze the then commercial world;but it was so. Another part of Arkwright's business, that of travellingup and down the country buying and selling human hair for wig-making, would put him _au fait_ with almost every new invention and idea. 

Richard's business card proves that he believed in advertising himselfeven as a barber. 

Just about this time there was much excitement, especially inLancashire, about the marvellous invention of Hargreaves, theparticulars of which had now become known to the public. One of thefirst to appreciate the significance of this invention was Arkwrighthimself, so that it may reasonably be supposed that he would in goodtime know all there was to be known of the mechanism used by Hargreavesin his new method of spinning. 

Later on, Arkwright became acquainted with a man named Highs of Leigh, another experimenter in spinning. The circle of his acquaintanceshipalso included Kay, a clockmaker of Warrington, who had assisted Highs onseveral occasions in his investigations. 

At this time Arkwright's all-absorbing hobby was mechanics, and firstone experiment and then another was made in rapid succession. Needlessto say, his business of barbering suffered in the meanwhile. 

From the first he turned his attention to an improvement of spinningcotton by drawing rollers. His efforts were crowned with success, and heultimately blossomed into a knight, and was elected High Sheriff ofDerbyshire. It is rather singular that he should be about the only oneof the cotton-machinery inventors of this age who amassed a fortune;most of the others being but slightly removed from want in their lastdays. 

There were many who claimed that they were the real and originalinventors of this method of spinning by rollers, but there can be nodoubt that to Arkwright alone belongs the credit for bringing theseimprovements to a higher state of perfection than they ever attainedbefore. 

At the present time, roller drawing is the great basis of the operationsof modern spinning, wherever performed. 

Not only is this the case in the final stages of production, but it isespecially true of most of the preparatory processes, whether used forthe production of coarse, medium or fine yarns. 

As is well known, the great principle of drawing rollers is, that thecotton is passed through three or four pairs of rollers in quicksuccession, and attenuated by each pair in turn, each pair being made torevolve more quickly than the preceding pair. This identical process isrepeated in machine after machine, until finally the bulk of cotton isreduced to a fine thread, of which, in some cases, it takes two or threehundred miles to weigh _one pound_. Even in what are termed mediumnumbers or counts of cotton yarn, there are from fifteen to twenty-fivemiles of thread in a pound avoirdupois, and more than _a thousandmillion pounds_ of such yarns are spun annually. 

The year 1767 found Arkwright entirely absorbed in his ideas of rollerdrawing, and he got the clockmaker Kay to journey with him toNottingham, possibly thinking that what had been meted out to otherinventors in Lancashire should not be repeated in his case. He herecollected about him a number of friends, moneyed and otherwise, whohelped in his evolution of spinning machinery. 

A man named John Smalley of Preston found him the wherewithal to carryon his experiments first at Preston and later on at Nottingham. Certainly what he put up at Nottingham gave such promise of practicalutility, that two experienced business men were led to join him inpartnership, and the three of them, Need, Strutt, and Arkwright, verysoon had mills built in Nottingham, Cromford and Matlock. Thefirst-named mill was worked by horses, the two latter by water, hencethe common name of _water frame_, given to the machines of Arkwright. 

The gentlemen taken into partnership were able and qualified to givegood sound advice and help to Arkwright, and about the middle of theyear 1769 he took out a patent for his "_water frame_. "

To use his own words, in his specification he "had, by great study andlong application, invented a new piece of machinery, never before foundout, practised or used, for the making of weft or yarn from cotton, flax, and wool; which would be of great utility to a great manymanufacturers, as well as to His Majesty's subjects in general, byemploying a great many poor people in working the said machinery, and bymaking the said weft or yarn much superior in quality to any heretoforemanufactured or made. "

No useful purpose could be served by reproducing Arkwright's descriptionof the machine in question, but a picture of the actual machine isshown in Fig. 22. 

Image: FIG. 22. --Arkwright's machine (after Baines). 

The most important feature of the invention, of course, was the drawingout or attenuating of the cotton by rollers revolving at differentspeeds. But it was also essential that proper mechanism should beprovided by which twist would be put into the yarn to make itsufficiently strong; and furthermore, it was necessary to arrange forthe attenuated and twisted cotton to be automatically guided and coiledup or wound up into a convenient form. As we have seen, the drawing outof the cotton finer he accomplished by the Drawing Rollers originallyinvented by Lewis Paul, while for the latter purpose he successfullyadapted the principle already existing in the Saxony wheel, used in thelinen manufacture, with which he probably became acquainted during hisresidence at Preston. 

It should not be forgotten that Hargreaves had introduced into thecommercial world his Jenny, a few years anterior to Arkwright's waterframe becoming so successful. These two machines were more or less inrivalry, but not perhaps to that extent which many would suppose. Fromthe very first it was found that the frame of Arkwright's was much moresuitable for warp or twist yarns, _i. E. _, the longitudinal threads of acloth, whereas Hargreaves' machine was more adapted for the productionof weft yarns, _i. E. _, the transverse threads of a cloth. Now it cannotbe too strongly remarked that, at the present time, after the lapse of acentury, the same state of things practically obtain in the improvedmachines of to-day; Hargreaves' machine being represented by the systemof intermittent spinning upon the improved self-actor mule, whileArkwright's water frame is represented by the system of continuousspinning upon the modern Ring Spinning frame. While weft yarn is nowalmost entirely produced on the mule, warp yarns are in many cases nowobtained from the Ring Frames, this latter system at the present timebeing greatly on the increase and daily becoming more popular. 

The Carding Engine was greatly improved by Arkwright's many usefulimprovements, especially that of the Doffer comb, being entirely hisown. The effect of this comb is fully described in the chapter dealingwith manipulation of the cotton by the Carding Engine. 

Paul was probably the first, in 1748, to invent the Carding Machine. Hisinventions seemed to hang fire until introduced into Lancashire, whenthey were adopted by a Mr. Peel, Arkwright and others. The chiefdefects, perhaps, of this machine was the absence of proper means forputting the cotton on the revolving cylinder and having it stripped whensufficiently carded. Hence the great value of Arkwright's strippingcomb. 

Some old Carding Engines which were used at this time are still inexistence, though only used for museum purposes. As will have beengathered in a former chapter dealing with the manipulation of the cottonin the mill, between the Carding Engine and the final process ofspinning there are other and important stages of preparation, and inthese it is seen how in one respect Arkwright's method of drawing outcotton by revolving rollers was immeasurably superior to the travellingcarriage of Hargreaves. 

The strength of a rope is represented by its weakest parts, and the samemay be said of yarn. There can be no doubt that one of Arkwright'sgreatest difficulties was to give an uniform yarn, and though hesuccessfully launched his new machines he felt there was still much tobe done in the direction of remedying yarn which was irregular inthickness and strength. In order to do this, he finally adapted hisdrawing rollers to what is now the modern drawing frame--a machine quiteas largely used, and quite as necessary in present-day spinning, as itwas a hundred years ago. 

It was sought to make this machine do two things. (1) Several sliversof cotton from the Card were put up together at the back, and by meansof four pairs of drawing rollers, were reduced to the thickness of onesliver (see the description in chapter vi. ). It will be sufficient tosay here that this method of doubling and drawing equalises the sliverof cotton by the combination of the thick places with the thin. 

Doubling is now the reason of the uniformity of the yarns that areproduced in such large quantities. 

(2) The Carding Engine did not by any means lay the fibres of cottonsufficiently parallel to each other, and this process of parallelisationwas fully accomplished by the front ends of the fibres being drawnforward more rapidly than their back ends by the drawing rollersrevolving at different velocities. Mr. Baines says it was common toperform this operation until the finished sliver contained portions from_several thousand_ carding slivers, but we think he would have beennearer the mark if he had said several hundred; although the highernumber may be occasionally reached. 

Yet again, in order to obtain a thread or yarn of sufficient fineness, it was found necessary to perform some of the attenuation of thecotton sliver as it left the drawing frame and before it reached thefinal spinning process. To this end, Arkwright adopted the Roving frame, in which the leading feature was again the celebrated drawing rollers. This machine made a soft and moderately twisted strand or roving, and ifmuch twist had been put in, it would have refused to draw out finer atthe spinning machine. Hence the means provided by Arkwright for thetwisting and winding-on of the attenuated cotton on his spinning framewere utterly inadequate to cope with the soft loose roving, and as amatter of fact Arkwright never did see this problem satisfactorilysolved. 

He allowed, in his machine, the roving to fall into a rapidly revolvingcan which stood upright; the revolution imparting twist to the cotton. When this can was filled, it was carried to a winding frame, by whichthe roving was wound upon bobbins suitable for the spinning frame. 

That Arkwright was unscrupulous in some of his dealings will soon begathered if the various trials which he instituted to defend hisso-called patents be carefully read, though it must be admitted that hepossessed a most wonderful business capacity, and that he worked earlyand late, in pushing his ideas with the most tireless energy anddetermined perseverance. A glimpse of the nature of his early strugglesis obtained when it is recorded that on one occasion his wife broke someof his first rude models, under the impression that he would starve hisfamily by neglect of his legitimate business of barber. So incensed ather for this was he, that he ceased to live with her. Such were thedefects of his early education and such his determination to learn, thatat fifty he did not think he was too old to begin English grammar, writing and arithmetic. 

That he succeeded in getting together a large fortune is now history. Hedied at the age of sixty on the 3rd August, 1792, at Cromford inDerbyshire. 

=Samuel Crompton. =--Perhaps the greatest of the cotton-spinning machineryinventors was Samuel Crompton, who was born a few miles away from Boltonin a delightfully secluded and sylvan spot, "Firwood Fold, " on the 3rdDecember, 1753. No story of the Cotton plant would be complete withoutmention of this individual, for wherever fine spinning machinery ispractised there is a monument to the ingenuity, the skill and brilliantgenius of Samuel Crompton. At a very early age he, along with hisparents, removed into a much larger house still in existence and knownas "The Hall ith Wood. " This ancient mansion stands on a piece of highrocky ground and is distant from Bolton about 1-1/2 miles. It was inthis house that he invented his celebrated machine which he called "AMule. " At the present time one looks in vain for the Wood, but in theearly days of Crompton's tenancy it was surrounded by a great number ofvery fine trees, hence the name "The Hall in the Wood" or "Hall ithWood. "

For some reason the Hall is being allowed to fall into decay, and at thepresent time is in great danger of collapsing. Several attempts havebeen made to buy the place and reclaim as much of it as possible andconvert it into a museum, but as yet nothing has been done. It was builtat two different periods: one portion of it, that of the "post andplaster work, " being built probably in the 15th century, while the neweror later portion of stone was erected about 1648, for that date isinscribed on the porch. 

The inside does not appear to have received much care or improvement. Originally the windows were much larger than at present. Pitt's windowtax, long since repealed, was the direct cause for the reducing of thewindows from their former proportions. 

The illustration gives an excellent idea of its present-day appearance. The building is always an object of extreme interest to visitors to thelocality, presenting even now a very picturesque appearance. 

Image: FIG. 23. --The Hall ith Wood, where the spinning mule was invented. 

Very soon after the removal of the family to the Hall ith Wood, Samuel'sfather died. His mother, however, one of the best of women, filled theduties of head of the house with much success, and followed thelaborious occupation of farming, and in her leisure moments, did whatmany housewives of her class did--carded, spun, and wove, in order toprovide her family and herself with a decent livelihood. 

She managed to give what might be termed under the circumstances a mostexcellent and practical education to her son Samuel; and it may be hereremarked, that in many respects he was the exact opposite of hispredecessor Arkwright. The latter was certainly a bustling, pushing manof business, while Crompton was a born inventor and recluse, and be itsaid also, as big a failure, as a business man, as could be wellconceived. Of course Arkwright, as is well known, was the opposite ofthis. 

The early youth of Crompton was identified with the great progress inthe cotton industry of England, and, at fifteen or sixteen years of age, he was to be found assisting his mother during the daytime, while in theevenings he attended night-classes in Bolton, where he made greatprogress in mathematics. He was so good at the latter subject that hewas called "a witch at figures. "

It may be taken as perfectly natural that a man of the character, training and early associations of Crompton should turn to invention inconnection with the cotton industry, especially since the beginning ofhis association with the trade there had always been a scarcity of weftfor the loom which he and his mother operated. 

The continual efforts of English weavers of that period to produce finecotton goods to compete with those at that time largely imported fromIndia, led to a great demand for fine yarns, and these the comparativelyclumsy fingers of English spinners could not produce in a manner at allequal to the delicate filaments produced by the Hindoos. 

Kay's invention of the fly shuttle, and the introduction by his son ofthe drop-box in the loom, had vastly increased the output of the loom, thus increasing the demand for weft and warp to feed it. 

The inventions of Arkwright, Paul and others had certainly done muchtoward supplying this demand, but in Crompton's youth and early manhoodthe need of suitable weft was greater than ever. Mrs. Crompton was notlong in hearing about the Jenny of Hargreaves, and determined she wouldget one for her son to work upon. This she did, and Crompton very soonbecame familiar with it and produced upon it sufficient weft for theirown use. This he continued to do for seven or eight years, although heconstantly had the truth forced upon him, that the yarn he was producingwas neither as suitable for warps as that from Arkwright's water frame, nor at all adapted for the fine muslins then very much in requisitionfor ladies' dresses. 

The manufacture of these muslins and of cotton quiltings was commencedin Bolton, Lancashire, by Joseph Shaw, when Crompton was about ten yearsof age; and from that time up to the present, no town in the worldenjoys the same reputation for this class of goods as does Bolton. 

With so contemplative and reflective a mind as Crompton's, and the manyyears of constant and, to a great extent, solitary occupation onHargreaves' Jenny, it is not to be wondered at that Crompton's ingeniousbrain led him to devise some mechanism for improving the jenny on whichhe worked. 

In 1774, therefore, he began those experiments which, after five yearslabour, resulted in the invention of the "New Wheel, " or "Muslin Wheel, "or "Hall ith Wood Wheel, " as it was variously designated. The term"Mule" was of later application, owing to its comprising the essentialfeatures of both Arkwright's and Hargreaves' inventions. Because it wasa cross or combination of the two it received the name of Mule, by whichit is known to-day. 

At the very time Crompton perfected his machine sufficiently to give ita practical test, the Blackburn spinners and weavers were goingriotously about, smashing to pieces every jenny with more than twentyspindles, that could be found for miles around the locality, so thatCrompton took elaborate pains to conceal the various parts of his newmachine in the ceiling of his work-room at the Hall ith Wood in order toprevent their destruction. 

Crompton's hopes and prospects were very bright at this time, as he hada watch costing five guineas expressly made for him, and just after thecompletion of his invention, he married one Mary Pimlott, at BoltonParish Church, 16th February 1780. He was then but twenty-seven years ofage, and his great invention, destined to revolutionise the cottontrade, was already an accomplished fact although practically a secret tothe world at large. 

When married, he and his wife set themselves assiduously to produce thefinest strong yarn which his machine was so eminently adapted to spin. It did not take long for the good news to travel that fine yarn suitablefor the production of muslins was being made at the Hall ith Wood. Hundreds of manufacturers visited Samuel to purchase, but many more cameout of curiosity, if by any means they could see this wonderful machine. One individual is said to have hidden himself five days in the cockloftand, having bored a hole through the ceiling, feasted one eye at leastby a sight of the marvellous mechanism which Crompton had invented. 

Ballantyne records that as much as 14s. Per pound was obtained for 40'syarn; 25s. For 60's, and for a small quantity of 80's, 42s. Per lb. 

At the time of writing the market prices for these are respectively, 7-3/4d. , 9-3/4d. , and 1s. 3d. Per lb. 

Crompton, however, was not permitted to enjoy his prosperity andmonopoly very long, and here again may be noted the difference betweenhim and Arkwright. While the latter extorted the full business profitfrom his inventions, the former suffered his ingenious machine to getout of his hands by promises not worth the paper on which they werewritten. His invention was not at all adequately protected by patentrights, and a number of manufacturers were allowed to use the Mule ontheir simple written promise to give him some remuneration. Longafterwards he wrote:

"At last I consented, in hope of a generous and liberal subscription. The consequence was, that from many subscribers, who would not pay thesums they had set opposite their names, when I applied to them for it, Igot nothing but abusive language given to me to drive me from them, which was easily done, for I never till then could think it possiblethat any man (in such situation and circumstances) could pretend onething and act the direct opposite. I then found it was possible, havinghad proof positive. "

Another side of Crompton's character may be seen when it is stated hewas an enthusiastic musician, and earned 1s. 6d. A night by playing theviolin at the Bolton Theatre. Four or five years after the invention wasknown, he removed to the township of Sharples, where he occupied afarm-house called "The Oldhams, " being probably induced to take thisstep in order to secure greater privacy. 

A few words may very profitably be expended at this point in describingthe main features of the machine shown in Fig. 24. 

Image: FIG. 24. --Crompton's spinning mule. 

It has been remarked that Arkwright had already attained great successin the production of yarn by the extensive application of the principleof pulling out the cotton by drawing rollers. Hargreaves had also shownhow to produce a thread by attenuating the cotton by means of atravelling carriage. 

Crompton, however, laid the foundation of the present system of mulespinning by combining the essential features of the two machines andblending them into one. 

He applied the principle of roller drawing in order to first attenuatethe cotton, and he utilised the travelling carriage as a reserve powerwith which to improve the quality of the thread and draw it out finer. 

It must not be supposed that his travelling carriage was identical withthat of Hargreaves. On the contrary, it was a vast improvement upon it. Crompton put the twisting spindles into the travelling carriage and theroving bobbins he transferred to a fixed creel, and these conditions areinvariably to be found in the self-actor spinning mule of to-day. 

In Hargreaves' machine the rovings were placed on the travellingcarriage, and the twisting spindles in the fixed frame behind, aposition which has never been acceptable since that time forcotton-spinning mules. Here, however, a word may be said in favour ofHargreaves' disposition of the parts mentioned. The Jenny did notcontain any heavy drawing rollers and roller beams, and it was probablybest in his machine to have his crude roving creel to traverse and thetwisting spindles to be in a fixed frame. 

This disposition of the parts is even now to be found in most TwinerMules, that is, mules used to double two or more single threads togetherwithout any process of drawing being applied to the cotton. 

When Crompton applied the principle of drawing rollers, his ingeniousmind saw that it would be best to let the rollers, roller beam, androving creel be in a fixed framework on account of their combined weightand size, making it very difficult to move them about. 

Crompton's great idea seems to have been to produce a better thread byhis machine than could be given by other machines, and in this headmirably succeeded. 

The mule being set in motion, the rollers first attenuated and thendelivered the cotton to the spindle carriage. The latter, by the actionof the hand and knee, was made to recede from the rollers just about asfast as the cotton was delivered to the spindles, or possibly at arather quicker rate. Then, while the thread was still in a soft state, the rollers could be stopped and the threads pulled still finer by thecontinued recession of the spindle carriage from the rollers. Afterwards, when that length of thread was fully made, it wound on thespindles, and the carriage at the same time returned to the roller beam. 

Thus each portion of thread was first subjected to the action of drawingrollers, as in Arkwright's machine, and then drawn still finer by thewithdrawal of the travelling carriage, as in Hargreaves' Jenny. 

Shortly after Crompton's invention was given to the public, it began tobe improved in various ways. Henry Stones, a mechanic of Horwich, nearBolton, substituted metal drawing rollers for Crompton's crude woodenrollers, doubtless copying the idea from Arkwright's water frame. 

All the mules employed at first were necessarily short; by that is meantthey contained but few spindles, often 40 or 50 spindles. The biggestmule in Bolton in 1786 was said to contain 100 spindles. The preparationof the rovings for the mule about this time occupied the attention ofCrompton, and he invented a Carding Engine which, however, did notattain very much success. Indeed it is said that one day so incensed wasCrompton at the way he had been treated on account of his mule, that hetook an axe and smashed his engine to pieces. 

In 1791 Crompton established a small manufactory in King Street, offDeansgate, in Bolton. 

In 1800 a subscription, promoted mainly by Manchester gentlemen, resulted in £500 being handed over to Crompton, one of the contributorsfor thirty guineas being the son of Sir R. Arkwright. With this money hewas enabled to enlarge his business somewhat--one of his new mulescontaining upwards of 360 spindles and another 220 spindles. The muleswere worked for many years, in fact, up to the sixties, when they passedinto the hands of Messrs. Dobson & Barlow, the eminent cotton machinistsof Bolton. One of the mules made by Crompton is shown in Fig. 24. 

In the early part of 1812 an agitation for a government grant inrecognition of Crompton's work made great progress. Mr. Perceval, thethen Prime Minister, was proceeding to the House of Commons to move thata grant of £20, 000 be made to Crompton, when he was shot by an assassinnamed Bellingham. There is no doubt, had this disastrous affair neverhappened and Perceval made his proposal, a grant much larger than wasactually voted (£5000) would have been made. 

There is no doubt that this grant was altogether inadequate, seeing thatlarger sums had been voted to other investigators and inventors aboutthis time. 

Owing to his lack of business ability, and to ill fortune combined, poorCrompton did not get out of this money what he might have done. Severalventures turned out altogether very differently than he expected. Hebecame poorer and poorer, and was only protected from absolute want bysubscriptions and assistance provided by his true friends in the trade, notably Mr. Kennedy, a Manchester manufacturer. 

Image: FIG. 25. --Portrait of Samuel Crompton. (_By the kind permission of W. Agnew & Son, Manchester. _)

At the age of 74 he died, 26th June, 1827. He was interred in BoltonParish Churchyard, where a plain granite tomb sets forth thefollowing:--"Samuel Crompton of Hall ith Wood, Inventor of the Mule, born 3rd December, 1753, died 26th June, 1827. "

A noble monument of him is to be found standing on Nelson Square, Bolton, in front of the General Post Office. 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE MODERN SPINNING MULE. 

=The Self-Actor Mule. =--In the preceding chapter there has been detailedthe particulars of the invention of the "Mule" by Samuel Crompton. Sincethat event the mule has been the object of over a century of constantand uninterrupted improvement and development, especially in the detailsof greater or less importance. 

The Self-Actor Mule of to-day represents and embodies the inventions ofhundreds of the most intelligent men ever connected with any industry inthe world's history. It is universally acknowledged to be one of themost wonderful and useful machines ever used. The actual operations ofmaking a thread are however practically as left by Samuel Crompton overa hundred years ago. It is only in details of mechanism involved inmaking the various operations more perfectly automatic, and of greatersize and productiveness, that the long line of inventors sinceCrompton's first mule was made, has been engaged. 

To-day, such is the great size and wonderfully perfect automatic actionof these machines, that they are found 120 feet long, while in width, over all, they may be 9 or 10 feet. Such a mule of this length wouldcontain over 1300 spindles, each spinning and winding 64 inches ofthread in about 15 seconds, and one man with two youths would besufficient to give all the attention such a machine required. 

Independently of a vast number of inventors of smaller importance, thereare several names which stand out in greater prominence in the historyof the developments of the mule. Among these names must certainly beplaced, ahead of any others that might be named, that of Richard Robertsof Manchester, who succeeded in 1830, after about five years'application, in making the mule self-acting. 

A good number of ingenious individuals had contributed more or less tothis result between the dates of Crompton's and Roberts' inventions, anddoubtless the results of the labours of these would be of great serviceto Roberts in his great task. 

Indeed, several inventors had previously brought out what might betermed self-action mules, but it remained for Roberts to endow it withthat constant and automatic motion which obtains to-day in practicallythe same form as left by him. 

The special portion of mechanism with which his name is more especiallyidentified, is what is denominated the "Quadrant. " This is practicallythe fourth part of a large wheel, which is so arranged and connectedthat it performs almost exactly the same functions on a mule thatHoldsworth's differential motion performs on the bobbin and fly frames. 

To look at it, one would imagine it to be--what it really is--one of thesimplest pieces of mechanism possible, yet the actions performed by itare complex and beautiful in the extreme. Later on, these actions ofthe Quadrant will be carefully examined. 

Image: FIG. 26. --Mule head showing quadrant. 

The self-actor mule is an intermittent spinning machine, _i. E. _, it isnot continuous in action, as are most machines used in the making ofthread or yarn from the fibrous product of the Cotton plant. Take forinstance the Carding Engine, and the bobbin and fly frames, aspreviously described. So long as these machines are working, practicallyall of the acting parts of the mechanism have a continuous forwardmotion. 

This is by no means the case with the machine now under consideration, as many of the more important and principal parts move alternately inopposite directions, while other of the less important may revolve atone time, and be stationary at another. 

What are called the medium counts of yarn contain say from 30 to 50hanks in one pound avoirdupois; a cotton hank being equal to 840 yards, so that one pound of 40's yarn will contain no less than 40 × 840 yardsor 33, 600. 

For such yarns as these, a modern self-actor mule would probably gothrough its cycle of movements four times per minute. For coarser orthicker yarns this speed might be increased, while for finer and betterqualities of yarn the speed would be diminished. 

Now as each succeeding "stretch" marks a complete cycle of movements andis a repetition of others, it will probably suffice if a briefnon-technical description of one of these "stretches" or "draws, " asthey are termed in mill parlance, be given. 

As in the bobbin and fly frames, the bobbins containing the rovings ofcotton to be operated upon, are placed behind the mules on skewersfitted in a suitable framework of wood and iron called "creels, " so asto allow the cotton to be easily pulled off and unwound withoutbreaking. These rovings are guided to and drawn through three pairs ofdrawing rollers (see Fig. 27), which shows this very fully. 

The chief difference between these rollers and those of the previouslydescribed machines being in the lessened diameters of the mule rollers, and consequently attenuating the cotton to a much greater extent. Itis a truism well understood by those in the trade, that the finer therovings are the better the raw cotton must be, and the more drawing-outthey will stand in any one machine. One inch of roving put up behind therollers of a mule spinning medium numbers would probably be drawn outinto 9 inches. 

Image: FIG. 27. --Mules showing "stretch" of cotton yarn. 

Nothing more need be said here about the action of the drawing rollers. 

As the attenuated rovings leave the roller at the front, each one isconducted down to a spindle revolving at a high rate of speed; soquickly indeed, that there is no other body used in spinning whichapproaches it for speed. 

It is quite a usual practice to have them making about 8000 revolutionsper minute, and sometimes a speed of 10, 000 is attained by them. 

Assuming that a "Cop" of yarn (see Fig. 27), showing the cops on thespindles, has been partly made upon each spindle, the roving or threadfrom the rollers would extend down to the cop and be coiled round thespindle upwards up to the apex. The spindle would probably twist thethread for 40's counts twenty-three or twenty-four times for each inchthat issued from the rollers, there being a well-recognised scale of"twists per inch" for various sorts and degrees of fineness of yarn. 

Unlike the bobbin and fly frames, the roving or yarn is not wound on itscop or spindle as it is delivered, but a certain definite and regulatedlength of cotton is given out to each spindle, and fully twisted andattenuated before it is wound into a suitable shape for transit and forsubsequent treatment. 

To keep each thread in tension, therefore, as it is delivered from therollers, the carriage containing the twisting spindles is made to recedequickly away from the rollers, a common distance for such movement being64 inches. All the time the spindles are quickly revolving and puttingtwist into the rovings, thus imparting strength to them to a far greaterdegree than at any previous stage. Often the carriage is made to recedefrom the rollers a little quicker than the latter, the difference in thesurface speeds between the two being technically known as "_gain_. " Theobject of this carriage "gain" is to improve the "evenness" of the yarnby drawing out any thick soft places there may be in the length ofthread between each spindle and the roller, a distance of 64 inches. Itis a property of the twist that it will run much more readily into thethinner portions of thread than the thicker, thus leaving the lattercapable of stretching out without breaking. 

Arrived at the limit of 64 inches stretch (see Fig. 27), certain rods, levers, wheels and springs are so actuated that the parts which draw outthe carriage and cause the rollers to revolve are disconnected, so thatboth are brought to a standstill for the moment. 

In many cases the spindles at this stage are kept on revolving in orderto put in any twist that may be lacking in any portion of the stretch. 

Twisting being finished, the important operation of "backing off"commences. 

It maybe at once explained that "backing off" means the reversing of thespindles; the uncoiling of a portion of the yarn from the spindles; andgenerally putting all the requisite apparatus into position ready forwinding or coiling the attenuated and twisted rovings upon the spindles. 

Here come now into action those most beautiful and ingeniousapplications of mechanical principles, the working out of which entailedso many years of arduous effort, and which rendered the mule practicallyself-acting and automatic. 

By a most wonderful, intricate and clever combination of levers, wheels, pulleys and springs, aided by what is called a "friction clutch, " theinstant the spindles have ceased twisting the yarn, they are reversed indirection of revolution. 

This reversal only occupies two or three seconds, and as the motionimparted to the spindles is very slow at this stage, the practicaleffect is, that a small portion of yarn is "_uncoiled_" from eachspindle, sufficient to allow of two "guide wires" to assume proper andnecessary positions for winding the attenuated threads upon thespindles. 

These two wires are termed "faller wires, " and while one is controlledby the cop-shaping mechanism and termed the "winding faller wire" theother simply keeps the threads in the requisite state of tension during"winding on" and is termed the "counter" or "tension faller wire. " Boththese wires can be seen in Fig. 28. During backing off, the "windingfaller wire" has a descending motion, while the "counter faller" has anascending motion, these being necessary for them to attain their properpositions for "winding on. "

Image: FIG. 28. --Mule showing action of faller wires. 

The movement of these faller wires into proper position, and theuncoiling of a small portion of yarn from each spindle, are both broughtabout by the "backing off" motion, which formed an important part ofRoberts' Mule. It may be remarked, however, that certain of thepredecessors of Roberts had made great efforts in this direction, thusmaking the way much easier for his applications, which were entirelysuccessful. When "backing off" is completed, all the necessary parts arein position for winding the 64 inches of thread just given out upon eachspindle. 

This practically involves three primary and most important operations. (1) The drawing-in of the carriage back to its original position. (2)The revolution of the spindles at a speed suitable for winding thethreads upon the spindles as the carriage moves inwards. (3) The guidingof the threads upon the spindles in such a manner that a cop of yarnwill eventually be formed upon each spindle, of such dimensions andshape as to be quite suitable for any subsequent processes or handling. 

Taking these three important divisions in the order given, it may besaid that the drawing-in of the carriage is effected through the mediumof the "scroll" bands, which are attached to the carriage at one end, and to certain spiral scrolls or fusees at the other end. The scrollsbeing revolved, wind the cords or bands round them, so pulling in thecarriage. There are usually two back scroll bands and one front band, the latter being a sort of check band upon the action of the other two. What is termed the "rim band" revolves the spindles during the outwardtraverse of the carriage. 

The drawing-in of the carriage in a sense causes the other twooperations to be performed. With respect to the second of these, viz. , revolving the spindles and thus winding the threads upon them, it may besaid this action causes what is termed the "Winding Chain" to pull off asmall drum of six inches diameter, thus rotating the latter and therebythe spindles. Here, however, comes in now the action of the verybeautiful and effective piece of mechanism, "Roberts' quadrant" (seeFig. 26). The winding chain just mentioned is attached to one extremityto the arm of the quadrant, and the peculiar manner in which thequadrant moves in relation to the winding drum gives the variable motionto the spindles that is required. 

When commencing a new set of cops it may take about eighty revolutionsof the spindles to wind on the 64 inches of thread to each spindle, representing one stretch. The bare spindle may be about a quarter of aninch in diameter, but it may finally attain a diameter of an inch and aquarter (_i. E. _, the cop upon the spindle). This cop will only requireabout twenty revolutions to wind on the 64 inches, which are onlyone-fourth of the revolutions necessary for the empty spindles. It isthe action of the quadrant which gives this variation in speed to thespindles during winding-on. 

But as has been pointed out previously, the quadrant imparts a"differential winding" motion to the spindles in two distinct anddifferent ways, and the second motion is even more important than thefirst. 

It is necessary for practical purposes that the cop of yarn should bebuilt up of a conical shape in the upper part, as shown in theillustration. Now it must be obvious to the least technical of thereaders of this story, that to wind a given portion of yarn upon thethin apex of a cone, will require a greater number of revolutions thanwould be necessary to wind the same length of yarn upon the base of thesame cop. All the way between the apex and the base of the cone are alsoother varying diameters, and during each return movement of the mulecarriage the thread is wound upon all the varying diameters of the conein succession. 

This implies the necessity for the revolutions of the spindles to avarying quantity all the time of the return or inward movement of thespindle carriage. 

The quadrant gives this varying speed in a manner which is all butmathematically correct, any slight deviation from any such mathematicalcorrectness being easily compensated for in other ways. 

For the specific manner in which this quadrant works, the reader isreferred to any of the recent text-books on cotton spinning. 

The third primary and important operation, which takes place during eachreturn movement of the carriage, is the guiding of the thread upon thespindles in a correct manner. This operation is closely associated, however, with the action of the quadrant. 

That portion of a "self-actor mule" which guides the faller wires istermed the "shaper" or "copping motion. " It consists of an inclined ironrail upon the upper smooth surface of which slides the "copping bowl, "this being a portion of the mechanism which connects the rail with thefaller wires. The rail rests upon suitable inclines termed "coppingplates, " whose duty it is to regulate the movement of the rail so as toallow for the ever-increasing dimensions of the cop during the buildingprocess. When the carriage again reaches its initial position, suitablemechanism causes all the parts to return in the position required forspinning. 

Such is the complete cycle of movements of the "mule, " each succeedingcycle being simply a repetition of the preceding. It will probably takesuch a mule as the one described about six hours to make a "set ofcops, " _i. E. _, one on each spindle, each cop being 1-1/4 inches indiameter and 7-1/2 inches long. Every fifteen seconds, while the mule ismaking a cycle of its movements, may be divided up approximately asfollows: nine seconds for the drawing-out and twisting; two seconds forbacking-off; four seconds for winding-on and resuming initial position. 

A multitude of minor motions and details might be easily expanded intoseveral chapters; in fact, more can be said about the mule than aboutany other spinning machine, but such detailed description would be outof place in this story. 

All the motions just named are centred in what is termed the "HeadStock, " this being placed midway in the length of the mule. 

This head stock receives all the power to drive the various motions, from the shafting and gearing, and distributes it in a suitable mannerto various parts of the machine. 

It will have been observed by this time, that, as in the case of thebobbin and fly frames, the intricate and wonderful mechanism of theself-actor mule is not devoted to the formation of threads, but to theeffective and economical placing of the threads of yarn, in the form ofcops, after it has been spun. 

Image: FIG. 29. --Mule head showing "copping rail. "

The spinning processes take place during the outward traverse of themule carriage, the mechanism involved in this motion being comparativelysimple. The really complicated and difficult motions being"backing-off, " revolving the spindles "during winding-on, " and theguiding of the spun threads upon the spindles during the winding-onprocess. It was the addition of these three motions by the laterinventors which gave the mule the title of "Self-Acting. "

CHAPTER X. 

OTHER PROCESSES IN COTTON SPINNING. 

=The Ring Spinning Machine. =--In a former chapter it was shown how withinthe space of two decades the three rival spinning machines ofHargreaves, Arkwright and Crompton were introduced, also it was pointedout, that Crompton's machines contained the best points of both of hispredecessors. The mule did not immediately become the sole spinningmachine. From the outset there was a close contest between thecontinuous spinning machine of Arkwright and the intermittent spinningmachine of Crompton. It was not long, however, before the mule assertedits superiority over the water frame for fine muslin yarns, and for weftyarns. Eventually the water frame was relegated to the production ofstrong warp yarns, and later still it has come to be largely utilisedas a doubling machine. As a matter of fact, it is contended by expertsof the present day, that no machine ever made a rounder and more solidthread than the water frame, or flyer-throstle, as it has been called inits improved form. 

Image: FIG. 30. --Ring spinning frame. 

During the last thirty years, a revolution practically in cottonspinning has been gradually brought about, and even to-day activedevelopments are to be seen. The continuous system of spinning, whichfor a time had to take a second place, now appears to be again forgingahead, and looks as though it would supersede its more ponderous rival. Especially in countries outside England is this the case, for it isfound that the method of ring spinning preponderates, and even inEngland the number of spindles devoted to continuous spinning isconstantly increasing. 

This change has chiefly been brought about by what may be termed arevolution in the winding and twisting mechanism of the continuousspinning machine itself. 

Arkwright's flyer and spindle, after improvement by subsequentinventors, could not be revolved at anything like the speed of thespindle of the mule, and, in addition to this, the yarn had to be woundalways upon the bobbin, very much after the style of the bobbin and flyframes previously described. 

Experiments, however, were repeatedly made in the direction ofdispensing with the flyer altogether, and some thirty years ago theseunique spinning frames had attained very general adoption in the UnitedStates of America, where the comparative dearth of skilled mule spinnershad furnished an impetus to improvement of the simple machine ofArkwright. 

About this time, the attention of certain English makers being directedto the success of the new spinning frames in America, led to theirintroduction into England. But little time elapsed before they receiveda fair amount of adoption, but for many years they had a restricted use, viz. , for doubling, that is, the twisting of two or more spun threadstogether, to form a stronger finished thread. 

In this way, they were, strictly speaking, rivals of the throstledoubling frame more than the spinning mule. 

By and by, however, the time came when the new frames began to beadopted as spinning machines, and to-day there are many English andforeign mills containing nothing else in spinning machines on thecontinuous system except these. In not a few mills in differentcountries, both types are found running. 

A careful glance at the picture of this rival of the mule, will help inthe following description of it:--

The flyer which is to be seen on the old Saxony wheel, and which wasperpetuated in the celebrated machine of Arkwright, is entirelydispensed with, and all its functions efficiently performed byapparatus, simple in itself; it is yet capable of high speed and heavyproduction. 

First of all, there is a vastly improved and cleverly constructed formof spindle, by which, in the latest and best makes, any speed can beattained which is likely to be required for spinning purposes. 

Perhaps the apparatus which plays the most important part in performingthe duties of the displaced flyer, is a tiny "traveller" revolvinground a specially made steel ring about 2 inches in diameter. 

The use of these two latter gives the distinctive names of"Ring-spinning" to the new system and "Ring Frame" to the machineitself. 

In describing this system of spinning the creel of rovings to beoperated upon, and the drawing rollers being practically identical withmachines already described, little here is required to be said of them, but there is, however, a modification in the arrangement of the rollerswhich is referred to later on. 

After leaving the rollers, a thread of yarn is conducted downwards andpassed through the "travellers, " which may be seen in the illustration, and then attached to the bobbin. The "traveller" is a tiny ring made offinely tempered steel. It is sprung upon the edge of the ring shown inthe frame, and which is specially shaped to receive the tiny ring ortraveller referred to. 

The bobbin in this case is practically fast to the spindle--unlike anyother case in cotton-spinning machinery--and it is therefore carriedround by the spindle at the same rate of speed. 

As the spindle and bobbin revolve, they pull the traveller round by theyarn which passes through it, being connected at one end to the bobbinand the rollers above forming another point of attachment. If the readerwill look carefully at the illustration he will see how twist is put inthe yarn. The joint action, then, of bobbin, traveller and fixed ring, is to put the necessary twist in the yarn which gives it its properdegree of strength. If no fresh roving from the rollers were issuing forthe moment, the small portion of thread reaching from the rollers tothe bobbins would simply be twisted without any "winding-on" takingplace. As a matter of fact, the roving always is issuing from therollers, and "winding-on" of the twisted roving is performed by thetraveller lagging behind the bobbin in speed, to a degree equal to thedelivery of roving by the rollers. It will be remembered that in the oldflyer-throstle "winding-on" was performed by the bobbin lagging behindthe spindle, a procedure which is impossible on the ring frame. 

There is also an arrangement of the mechanism for guiding and shapingthe yarn upon the bobbins in suitable form, the action being as nearlyas possible an imitation of the mule. 

For a number of years after the introduction of these frames, it wasfound that the threads often broke down owing to the twist not extendingthrough the roving to the point where it issued from the rollers. Thiswas eventually remedied by placing the drawing rollers in a differentposition, thus causing the thread running from the rollers to thetraveller to approach more to the vertical; this constituting themodification which has just been referred to previously. 

Another difficulty was experienced in the fact that during spinning thethreads would sometimes fly outwards to such an extent that adjacentthreads came in contact with each other, causing excessive breakage. This was technically termed "ballooning, " and has been verysatisfactorily restricted by the invention of special apparatus. 

At the present time, therefore, a contest between the two rival systemsof continuous spinning which were in bitter antagonism over a centuryago, is waging a more fiercely contested fight than at any previoustime. 

As the case stands to-day, the mule is retained for nearly all the bestand finest yarns as yet found; the most suitable for them, just as itwas when Crompton got 25s. Per pound for spinning fine muslin yarns onhis first mule. 

In many cases, also, yarn is specially required to be spun upon the barespindle as on a mule, as for instance when used as weft and put into theshuttle of a loom. It is probably the very greatest defect of the ringframe that it can only, with great difficulty, be made to form a goodcop of yarn on the bare spindle, although thousands of pounds have beenspent on experimenting in that direction. How soon it may beaccomplished with commercial success cannot be known, as a great numberof individuals are constantly working in that direction. If it does comeabout, there can be no doubt that the ring frame will receive a stillfurther impetus. 

Even now, for medium counts of yarn it is much more productive than themule, owing to its being a continuous spinner. Another vast advantagethat it possesses is the extreme simplicity of its parts and work ascompared with the mule. Because of this, women and girls are invariablyemployed on the ring frames, whereas it requires skilled and well-paidworkmen for the mules. 

=The Combing Machine. =--As compared with the Scutcher, the Carding Engineand Mule, the Comber is a much more modern machine. Combing may bedefined as being the most highly perfected application of the cardingprinciple. 

The chief objects aimed at by the comber are:--To extract all fibresbelow a certain length; to make the fibres parallel; and to extract anyfine impurities that may have escaped the scutching and cardingprocesses. 

It is worthy of note that although nearly all the great inventionsrelating to cotton-spinning have been brought out by Englishmen, thecombing machine is a notable exception. It was invented a few yearsprior to 1851 by Joshua Heilman, who was born at Mulhouse, the principalseat of the Alsace cotton manufacture, in 1796. 

Like Samuel Crompton--the inventor of the mule--Joshua Heilman appearsto have possessed the inventive faculty in a high degree, and hereceived an excellent training in mathematics, mechanical drawing, practical mechanics, and other subjects calculated to assist him in hiscareer as an inventor. 

Heilman was the inventor of several useful improvements in connectionwith spinning and weaving machinery, but the invention of the comber wasundoubtedly his greatest achievement. 

He was brought up in comparatively easy circumstances, and married awife possessing a considerable amount of money; but all that both ofthem possessed was swallowed up by Heilman's expenses in connection withhis inventions, and he himself was only raised from poverty again by thesuccess of the comber shortly before his death, his wife having died inthe midst of their poverty many years previously. 

After Heilman became possessed of the idea of inventing a combingmachine, he laboured incessantly at the project for several years, first in his native country and subsequently in England. The firm ofSharpe & Roberts, formerly so famous in connection with the self-actormule, made him a model, which, however, did not perform what Heilmanrequired. 

Afterwards he returned again to his native Alsace still possessed withthe idea, and finally it is said that the successful inspiration came tohim whilst watching his daughters comb out their long hair. The ultimateresult was that he invented a machine which was shown at the greatexhibition of London in 1851 and immediately attracted the attention ofthe textile manufacturers of Lancashire and Yorkshire. 

Large sums of money were paid him by certain of the Lancashire cottonspinners for its exclusive use in the cotton trade. Certain of thewoollen masters of Yorkshire did the same, for its exclusive applicationto their trade, and it was also adopted for other textiles, althoughHeilman himself only lived a short time after his great success. 

It must be understood that the comber is only used by a comparativelysmall proportion of the cotton spinners of the world. For all ordinarypurposes a sufficiently good quality of yarn can be made without thecomber, and no other machine in cotton spinning adds half as much as thecomber to the expense of producing cotton yarn from the raw material. 

To show this point with greater force, it may be mentioned that thecomber may make about 17 per cent. Of waste, which is approximately asmuch as all the other machines in the mill put together would make. 

Its use, however, is indispensable in the production of the finestyarns, since no other machine can extract short fibre like the comber. It is seldom used for counts of yarn below 60's and often as fine yarnsas 100's or more are made without the comber. In England its use ischiefly centred in the localities of Bolton, Manchester, and Bollington, although there is a little combing in Preston, Ashton under Lyne, andother places. 

Perhaps its greatest value consists in the fact that its use enablesfine yarns to be made out of cotton otherwise much too poor in qualityfor the work; this being rendered possible chiefly by the special virtuepossessed by the comber of extracting all fibres of cotton below acertain length. This of course has led to the increased production andconsequently reduced price of the better qualities of yarn. 

Reverting now to the Heilman Comber as it stands to-day, an excellentidea of the machine as a whole will be gathered from the photograph inFig. 31. 

There are usually six small laps being operated upon simultaneously inone comber. Each small lap being from 7-1/2 inches to 10-1/2 incheswide, being placed on fluted wooden rollers behind the machine, isslowly unwound by frictional contact therewith, and the sheet of cottonthus unwound is passed down a highly polished convex guide-plate to apair of small fluted steel rollers. 

Both the wooden and the steel rollers have an intermittent motion, asindeed have also all the chief parts of the machine concerned in theactual combing of the cotton. The rollers, during each intermittentmovement, may project forward about 3/8 of an inch length of thin cottonlap. 

By this forward movement the cotton fibres are passed between a pairof nippers which has been for the instant opened on purpose to allow ofthis action. Immediately the cotton has passed between the nippers, thefeed rollers stop for an instant and the jaws of the nippers shut andhold the longer of the cotton fibres in a very firm manner. 

Image: FIG. 31. --Combing machine. 

The shorter fibres, however, are not held so firmly, and are now combedaway from the main body of the fibres by fine needles being passedthrough them. The needles are fixed in a revolving cylinder and aregraduated in fineness and in closeness of setting, so that while thefirst rows of needles may be about 20 to the inch, the last rows maycontain as many as 80 to the inch, there being from 15 to 17 rows ofneedles in an ordinary comber. 

The short fibres being combed out by the needles are stripped therefrom, and passed by suitable mechanism to the back of the machine to beafterwards used in the production of lower counts of yarn. 

The needles of the revolving cylinder having passed through the fibres, the nippers open again and at the same time another row of comb teeth orneedles, termed the top comb, descends into the fibres. The fibres nowbeing liberated, certain detaching and attaching mechanism; as it istermed, is brought into action, and the long fibres are taken forward, being pulled through the top comb during this operation. Thus the frontends of the fibres are first combed and immediately afterwards the backends of the same fibres are combed. During the actual operation ofcombing each small portion of cotton, the latter is quite separated fromthe portion previously combed, and it is part of the work of thedetaching and attaching mechanism to lay the newly combed portion uponthat previously combed. From a mechanical point of view, the detachingand attaching mechanism is more difficult to understand than any otherportion of the comber, and it is no part of the purpose of this "storyof the Cotton plant" to enter into a description of this intricatemechanism. 

Sufficient be it to say that the combed cotton leaves the detachingrollers in a thin silky-looking fleece which is at once gathered up intoa round sliver or strand and conducted down a long guide-plate towardsthe end of the machine. This guide-plate is clearly shown in thephotograph of the comber, where also it will be seen that the sliversfrom the six laps which have been operated upon simultaneously are nowlaid side by side. 

In this form the cotton passes through the "draw-box" at the end of thecomber, and being here reduced practically to the dimensions of onesliver it passes through a narrow funnel and is placed in a can inconvenient form for the next process. 

When the combing is adopted, it precedes the drawing frame, which haspreviously been described, and the cans of sliver from the comber aretaken directly to the draw-frame. 

For intricacy and multiplicity of parts of mechanism, the comber issecond only in cotton-spinning machinery to the self-acting mule, and isprobably less understood, since its use is confined to a section of thetrade. The latest development is the duplex comber, which makes theextraordinarily large number of one hundred and twenty nips per minute, as compared with about eighty-five nips per minute for the modernsingle nip comber. All this is the result of improvement in detail, asthe principle of Heilman's Comber remains the same as he left it. Itought to be added that other types of comber have been adopted on thecontinent with some show of success. 

Image: FIG. 32. --Sliver lap machine. 

=Sliver Lap Machine. =--Combing succeeds carding and is practically acontinuation of the carding principle to a much finer degree than ispossible on the card. The Carding Engine, however, makes slivers orstrands of cotton, while the comber requires the cotton to be presentedto it in the form of thin sheets. It therefore becomes requisite toemploy apparatus for converting a number of the card slivers into anarrow lap for the comber. 

The machine universally employed is termed "The Sliver Lap Machine, " or, in some cases, "The Derby Doubler, " and a modern machine is shown in thephotograph forming Fig. 32. 

In this case, eighteen cans are placed behind the machines, and thesliver from each can is conducted through an aperture in the backguide-plate designed to prevent entanglements of sliver from passingforward. Next each sliver passes over a spoon lever forming part of amotion for automatically stopping the machine when an end breaks. Theeighteen slivers now pass side by side through three pairs of drawingrollers with a slight draft, and between calender rollers to a wooden"core" or roller. Upon this roller the slivers are wound in the form ofa lap, being assimilated to one another by the action of the drawing andcalender rollers. 

=Special Drawing Frame. =--In order to have the fibres of cotton in thebest possible condition for obtaining the maximum efficiency out of thecombing action, it is the common practice to employ a special drawingframe between the card and the sliver lap machine. 

As described elsewhere in this little story, the use of the drawingframe is to make the fibres of cotton more parallel to each other by thedrawing action of the rollers, and to produce uniformity in the sliversof cotton by doubling about six of them together and reducing the sixdown to the dimensions of one. In the case under discussion the sliversfrom the card are taken to the special drawing frame and treated by it, and then passed along to the sliver lap machine as just described. 

Image: FIG. 33. --Ribbon lap machine. 

=Ribbon Machine. =--Quite recently a machine has come slightly into usedesigned to supersede this special drawing frame. This new machine istermed the "Ribbon Lap Machine, " and it may be described as a variationof the principle of the machine it is designed to supersede. Thedifference is this, that, whereas the drawing frame doubles andattenuates slivers of cotton, the Ribbon Machine operates upon smalllaps formed of ribbons or narrow sheets of cotton. By this treatment, the evening and parallelising benefits of the drawing frame are secured, with the addition of a third advantage, which may be briefly explained. The slivers, which in the sliver lap machine are laid side by side so asto form a lap, have a tendency to show an individuality so as to presenta more or less thick and thin sheet to the action of the nippers of thecomber. The latter, therefore, hold the cotton somewhat feebly at thethin places, thus allowing the needles of the revolving cylinder to combout a portion of good cotton. When the Ribbon Lap Machine is employed, the slivers from the card are taken directly to the Sliver Lap Machineand the laps made by this machine are passed through the Ribbon Machine. Six laps being operated upon simultaneously by the rollers, are laid oneupon another at the front so that thick and thin places amalgamate toproduce a sheet of uniform thickness. The use of the Ribbon Machine islimited at present owing to its possessing certain disadvantages. 

CHAPTER XI. 

DESTINATION OF THE SPUN YARN. 

Having initiated our readers into all the processes incidental to theproduction of the long fine threads of yarn from the ponderous andweighty bales of cotton as received at the mill, it remains for us tobriefly indicate the more common uses to which the spun yarn is applied. 

A very large quantity of yarn is consumed in the weaving mills for theproduction of grey cloth without further treatment in the spinning mill, except that the cops of yarn are packed in ships, boxes, or casks, inconvenient form for transit purposes. 

If for weft, the cops are forthwith taken to the loom, ready for theshuttle. 

If for warp, then the yarn passes through a number of processesnecessary for its conversion, from the mule cop or ring bobbin form, into the sheet form, consisting of many hundreds of threads, which arethen wound on a beam. 

Briefly enumerated, these processes are as follows:--

(_a_) The winding frame, in which the threads from the cops or spoolsare wound upon flanged wooden bobbins, suitable for the creel of thenext machine. 

(_b_) The beam warping frame, in which perhaps 400 threads are pulledfrom the bobbins made at the winding frame, and wound side by side upona large wooden beam. 

(_c_) The "slasher sizing frame, " in which the threads from perhaps fiveof the beams made at the warping machine are unwound and laid upon oneanother, so as to form a much denser warp of perhaps 2000 threads, andwrapped on a beam in a suitable form for fitting in the loom as the warpor "woof" of the woven fabric. In addition to this, the sizing machinecontains mechanism by which the threads are made to pass through amixing of "size" or paste, which strengthens the threads. 

In some cases this "size" is laid on the yarn very thickly, in order tomake the cloth weigh heavier. 

(_d_) After sizing comes the subsidiary process of "drawing in" or"twisting in, " by which all the threads are passed in a suitable mannerthrough "healds" and "reeds, " so as to allow of their propermanipulation by the mechanism of the loom, to which they are immediatelyafterwards transferred. 

In the production of cloths of a more or less "fancy" description, it isoften required that the spun yarns shall be bleached and dyed beforeusing, and to perform one or both of these operations efficiently, it isusual to reduce the yarn into proper condition by the processes of"reeling" and "bundling, " although in comparatively few instances yarnis dyed in the cop form, while in a few other cases the raw cotton isdyed before being subjected to the processes of cotton spinning. 

"Reeling" and "Bundling" are operations which are frequently necessaryfor other purposes besides those above alluded to, and may therefore bemore fully described, as they often form part of the equipment of aspinning mill, and yarn is frequently sent away from the spinning millin bundle form. 

=Reeling. =--This is a simple but very extensively adopted process, inwhich yarn is wound from cops, bobbins or spools into hanks. It may beexplained here that a cotton hank consists of 840 yards, and is made upof 7 leas of 120 yards each, while on a reel each lea is made up of 80threads, a thread being 54 inches and equalling the circumference of thereel. Perhaps the most common size of reel contains at one time 40spindles, and is capable therefore of winding 40 hanks of yarnsimultaneously. The photograph in Fig. 34 shows a number of reels fittedfor winding hanks from cops formed upon the mule. 

The cops being put on the skewers, the end of yarn from each is attachedto the reel or "swift" ready for starting. These reels may be arrangedso as to be operated from shafting by mechanical power, or by the handof the attendants. 

Image: FIG. 34. --Reeling machine. 

Reeling is performed by women, and in our photo the attendant is seen inthe actual operation of reeling. 

A hank of yarn having been taken from each cop, the reel is stopped andclosed up so as to allow of the ready withdrawal of the hanks. 

=Bundling Machine. =--The Bundling press is solely intended to assist inthe making up of the hanks of yarn into a form suitable for ready andconvenient transit. In order to exercise a sufficient pressure upon theyarn to make a compact bundle, it is necessary for the framing to be ofa very strong character, as will be especially noticed in Fig. 35. 

Image: FIG. 35. --Bundling machine. 

The bundles of yarn made up on the bundling machine are usually 5 to 10pounds weight, the latter being by far the more common size. The bundleshown in the yarn-box of our illustration is 10 pounds in weight and ispractically ready for removal. 

Before placing the yarn in the machine, several hanks are twistedtogether to form a knot, and these "knots" comprise the individualmembers of the bundle shown in the illustration. 

In the sides of the yarn-box there are four divisions, through whichare threaded as many strings, upon which may be placed cardboard backs. Then the knots of yarn are neatly placed upon the strings, and thecardboard and the strong top bars of the press securely fastened down. Certain cams and levers are then set in motion, by which the yarn tableis slowly and powerfully raised so as to press the yarn with great forceagainst the top bars. A sufficient pressure having been exerted, thebundle is tied up and withdrawn from the press, only requiring to beneatly wrapped in stout paper to be quite ready for transit purposes. 

=Sewing Thread. =--A very large quantity of spun yarn is subsequently madeinto sewing thread. It is a fact well known to practical men that wehave no means in cotton spinning by which a thread can be spun directlyof sufficient strength to be used as sewing thread. For instance, suppose we wanted a 12's sewing thread, _i. E. _, a thread containing 12hanks in one pound of yarn; it would be practically impossible to spin athread sufficiently good to meet the requirements of the case. Themethod generally adopted is to spin a much finer yarn and to make thefinished thread by doubling several of the fine spun yarns together inorder to form the thicker final thread. For instance, to produce a 12'sthread it is probable that 4 threads of single 48's would be doubledtogether, or say 4 threads of 50's, to allow for the slight contractionof the yarn brought about by twisting the single threads round oneanother. 

In order to perform this doubling operation in an efficient manner forthe production of thread, it is usual to employ two machines. 

The first of these is shown in the illustration, and is termed the quicktraverse winding machine. Here the cops from the mule, or the bobbinsfrom the ring frame, are fitted in a suitable creel, as shown clearly atthe front and lower part of our illustration. Each thread of yarn isconducted over a flannel-covered board which cleans the yarn and keepsit tight. Then each thread passes through the eye of a small detectorwire which is held up by the thread and forms part of an automatic stopmotion which stops the rotation of any particular bobbin or "cheese"when an end or thread belonging to that "cheese" fails or breaks, leaving the needles or detector wires. All the threads--from two to sixin number--belonging to one "cheese" are combined to form one loose ropeor thicker thread. 

Image: FIG. 36. --Quick traverse winding frame. 

It ought to be explained that the term cheese is applied to the kind ofbobbin of yarn which is formed upon this particular machine, one or twobeing placed as shown on the frame work. 

=Doubling Machine. =--The machine just described does not put any twistinto the thread, although twisting is a process which is absolutelyindispensable for the proper combination of the several single threadsso as to produce a strong doubled thread. 

The twisting operation is therefore performed on the machine illustratedin Fig. 37, and termed the "Ring doubling machine. "

In the creel of this machine are placed the cheeses formed on thewinding machine, and the threads are conducted downward and usuallyunder a glass rod in trough containing water, as the addition of waterhelps to solidify the single threads better into one doubled thread. From the water trough the threads are conducted between a pair ofrevolving brass rollers which draw the threads from the cheeses and passthem forward to the front of the machine. Here each doubled threadextends downwards and passes through a "traveller" upon the bobbin. 

This machine is a modification of the ring spinning frame previouslydescribed and therefore does not call for detailed treatment at ourhands. 

The two machines are practically identical in principle, the chiefdifference being that in the doubler there are no drawing rollers, asthe cotton is not attenuated in any degree at this stage. 

Other differences consist in having larger "travellers" and "rings" and"spindles, " and in a different kind of bobbin being formed. 

Image: FIG. 37. --Ring doubling machine. 

At the doubling mill these threads are submitted to finishing processes, by which they may be polished and cleared and finally wound upon smallbobbins or spools ready for the market, as seen in Fig. 2. 

A fair proportion of the very best yarns are utilised in the manufactureof lace and to imitate silk. Such yarns are usually passed through whatis termed a "gassing" machine. In this process each thread is passedrapidly several times through a gas flame usually emanating from aburner of the Bunsen type. The passage of the thread through the flameis too rapid to allow of the burning down of the threads, but is not tooquickly to prevent the loose oozy fibres, present more or less on thesurface of all cotton yarns, to be burned away. This process is somewhatexpensive, as it burns away perhaps 6 pounds weight of yarn in every 100pounds. This, however, is obtained back again by the increased price ofthe yarn. It is a property of the cotton fibre that it can be made toimitate more or less either woollen, linen or silk goods, and sincecotton is the cheapest fibre of the lot it follows that a considerableamount of cotton yarn is used in combination with these other fibres, inorder to produce cheaper fabrics. Embroidery, crocheting and knittingcottons, and the hosiery trade absorb a large amount of the spun cottonyarn; the latter being doubled in most cases in order to fit it for thespecial work it is designed to do. 

In a modern spinning mill the ground floor usually contains the openers, scutchers, drawing frames, carding engines and bobbin and fly-frames. The upper floors are usually covered by mules and other spinningframes. 

Image: FIG. 38. --Engine house, showing driving to various storeys. 

In the last illustration (Fig. 38) is shown one of the latest enginesbuilt for special work such as is required in a cotton mill. The hugedrum, on which rest the ropes and which can be clearly seen in thepicture, is divided into grooves. A certain number of these is set apartfor the special rooms. The strength of the rope is known and itstransmitting power is also known. When the power required to drive saythe first storey or second storey is calculated, it becomes an easymatter to distribute the ropes on the drum as required. This engine isnow at work in the Bee-Hive Spinning Mill, Bolton. 

INDEX. 

A. 

Abbasi Cotton, 62. 

_Alethia argillacea_, 35. 

_Anthonomus grundis_, 38. 

_Aphis gossypia_, 38. 

Arkwright, Richard, 102, 105, 113, 118, 123, 126, 160. 

Ashmouni Cotton, 62. 

_Ataxia crypta_, 38. 

B. 

Backing off, 152. 

Bale Breaker, 83, 86. 

Bales, cylindrical, 80; varieties of, 80. 

Baling, 76, 79. 

Ballooning, 165. 

Bamia Cotton, 62. 

Bedding of cotton plants, 44. 

Bobbin and Fly Frames, 84, 105. 

Bobbins, 110. 

Botany of cotton, 19. 

Bourbon Cotton, 25. 

Bran, cotton seed, 33. 

Brazil, cultivation of cotton in, 47. 

Breyn, 14. 

Broach Cotton, 55. 

Bundling, 178, 179. 

C. 

Cæra Cotton, 30. 

Carding, 83, 93, 116, 131, 132, 143, 166. 

Central America, cultivation of cotton in, 18. 

Chemistry of cotton plant, 31. 

China, cultivation of cotton in, 59. 

Civil War, American, effect on production, 43, 57. 

Climate, 21. 

_Cocæcia rosaceana_, 38. 

Columbus, voyages of, 17. 

Combing, 85, 166. 

Cone drums, 112. 

Congo River as a cotton district, 63. 

Cop, 151, 156. 

Copping motion, 157. 

Coral polyp, 11. 

Corea, cultivation of cotton in, 59. 

Cortes, Hernando, 18. 

Cotton Boll-Caterpillar, 35, 37. 

Cotton-Boll Weevil, 38. 

Cotton Caterpillar, 35. 

Cotton Cutworm, 38. 

Cotton lice, 38. 

Cotton Puller, 83, 86. 

Crioulo Cotton, 29. 

Crompton, Samuel, 113, 126, 134, 160. 

Cultivation in various countries, 39. 

D. 

Dacca cotton, 28, 54. 

Da Gama, Vasco, 18. 

Deo Cotton, 28. 

Differential motion, 111, 147. 

Differential winding, 156. 

Diseases of cotton plant, 34, 38. 

Distaff, 115. 

Doffer and comb, 98, 131. 

Doubling machines, 163, 183. 

Draining, 44. 

Drawing, 84, 100, 104, 105, 132. 

Drop-box, 137. 

Dyeing, 17, 68. 

E. 

Egypt, production of cotton in, 15, 19, 61. 

F. 

Faller wires, 153. 

_Feltia malefida_, 38. 

Fertilisers, value of artificial, 43. 

Fibres, strength of, 30. 

Flyer, 110. 

Flying shuttle, 120, 137. 

Friction clutch, 153. 

Fungi affecting cotton plant, 39. 

G. 

Gallini Cotton, 25, 62. 

Gassing, 185. 

Ginning, 74. 

Gin, Macarthy, 77; saw, 78. 

_Gossypium_, 20; _Acuminatum_, 29; _Arboreum_, 27; _Barbadense_, 23, 28; _Herbaceum_, 25; _Hirsutum_, 27; _Neglectum_, 28; _Peruvianum_, 29; _Religiosum_, 27. 

Greece, cultivation of cotton in, 63. 

H. 

Hall ith Wood, 135. 

Hargreaves, James, 105, 113, 122, 127, 160. 

Hauling, 45. 

Heilman, Joshua, 167. 

_Heliothis armiger_, 35, 37. 

Herodotus, description of cotton, 15. 

Highs, Thomas, 113, 123, 127. 

Hingunghat Cotton, 52. 

History, cotton plant in, 10. 

Holdsworth, 111, 147. 

I. 

India, cultivation of cotton in, 15, 16, 39, 50. 

Insects, injurious, 34. 

J. 

Japan, cultivation of cotton in, 59. 

Java, cultivation of cotton in, 63. 

K. 

Kay, John, 113, 120, 127. 

Kidney Cotton, 29. 

Kircher of Avignon, 14. 

L. 

Lap, the, 83, 92, 93, 173, 175. 

Leaf-roller, 38. 

Lee, Henry, "Vegetable Lamb of Tartary, " 12. 

Levant Cotton, 63. 

Liberia, cultivation of cotton in, 63. 

Lint, 25. 

Linting machines, 76. 

M. 

Macarthy gin, 77. 

Mako Jumel cotton, 62. 

Mallow, 20. 

Mananams Cotton, 29. 

Mandeville, Sir John, 13. 

Maranhâo Cotton, 29. 

Meal, cotton seed, 33. 

Measurement of fibres, 68. 

Mexico, cultivation of cotton in, 18, 48. 

Microscopic examination of fibre, 64. 

Mitafifi Cotton, 62. 

Mixing, 83, 85. 

Monsoons, 50. 

Mule, the, 84; Crompton's, 135; self-actor, 131, 146. 

Myths about cotton plant, 12. 

N. 

Nankeen Cotton, 26. 

Nearchus, 16. 

O. 

Odoricus, 14. 

Oil, cotton seed, 33. 

Oomrawattee Cotton, 52. 

Opening, 83, 88. 

P. 

Paul Lewis, 113, 121, 123, 132. 

Pernan Cotton, 30. 

Peru, cultivation of cotton in, 18, 49. 

Picking cotton, 72. 

Pizarro, 18, 49. 

Plantation life, 72. 

Press, cotton, 79. 

Production, Brazil, 47; China, 60; Corea, 60; Egypt, 19, 39, 61; India, 39, 50; Japan, 59; Mexico, 48; Peru, 49; Russia in Asia, 57; United States, 39, 40. 

Q. 

Quadrant, mule, 147, 156. 

R. 

Red Peruvian Cotton, 30. 

Reeling, 178. 

Ribbon Lap Machine, 85, 175. 

Ring Spinning Frame, 84, 131, 160. 

Roberts, Richard, 147. 

"Rocking Day, " 116. 

Rollers, drawing, 121, 128. 

Roots of cotton plant, 22; medicinal use, 32. 

Roving Frames, 107. 

Rovings, 106, 117. 

Russia in Asia, cotton production in, 57. 

S. 

St. Distaff's Day, 116. 

Santos Cotton, 30. 

Saw gin, 78. 

Scutching, 83, 92, 166. 

Seeds, cotton, 22, 31, 33, 76. 

Seguro, 47. 

Senegambia, 63. 

Shuttle, flying, 120, 137. 

Sind Cotton, 55. 

Sizing, 177. 

Slavery, abolition of, effect on production, 43. 

Sliver Lap Machine, 85, 173. 

Sliver, the, 84, 94, 101. 

Slubbers, 107. 

Soil, 21. 

Soils, American cotton, 41. 

Soudan, cotton production in, 63. 

South Africa, cotton production in, 18, 63. 

Species, 21. 

Spindle, the, 110, 114, 122. 

Spinning, early attempts, 112. 

Spinning Jenny, 122, 138. 

Spinning wheels, 116. 

Strength of fibres, 30. 

Sumatra, cotton production in, 63. 

Surat cotton, 26, 55. 

T. 

Theophrastus, description of cotton, 16. 

Thread, sewing, 9, 181. 

Turkestan, cotton production in, 57. 

Turkey, cotton production in, 63. 

Twist in fibre, 66; in rovings, 109. 

U. 

United States, cotton production of the, 39, 40. 

Unripe cotton, 68, 84. 

V. 

"Vegetable Lamb of Tartary, " 12. 

Vine Cotton, 26. 

W. 

Wadding, cotton, 77. 

Warping machine, 177. 

Water Frame, 131, 162. 

West Indies, cotton production in, 18, 63. 

Whitney, Eli. 78. 

Winding, 111. 

Winding Chain, 156. 

Winding frame, 182. 

Wyatt, John, 113, 121. 

Z. 

Zahn, Johannes, 13. 

THE END. 

Transcriber's Notes:

 Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_. 

 Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. 

 The following misprints have been corrected: "a" added (page 10; orignial text reads: "... Thread ready alike for the sewing machine or the needle of seamstress. " "aecording" corrected to "according" (page 36) "produed" corrected to "produced" (page 52) "qnantities" corrected to "quantities" (page 63) "reamains" corrected to "remains" (page 121) "rapily" corrected to "rapidly" (page 125) "to to" corrected to "to" (page 133) "correet" corrected to "correct" (page 157)

 Additional spacing is intentional to indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph or to represent a section break as presented in the original text.