TOMATO CULTURE A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE TOMATO, ITS HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS, PLANTING, FERTILIZATION, CULTIVATION IN FIELD, GARDEN, AND GREENHOUSE, HARVESTING, PACKING, STORING, MARKETING, INSECT ENEMIES AND DISEASES, WITH METHODS OF CONTROL AND REMEDIES, ETC. , ETC. By WILL W. TRACY _Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture_ _ILLUSTRATED_ NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1907 To Dr. F. M. Hexamer IN HONOR OF HIS LIFELONG EFFORTS FOR THE BETTERMENT OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL PRACTICE Copyright, 1907, by ORANGE JUDD COMPANY _All rights reserved_ [Illustration: WHERE NEW VARIETIES OF TOMATOES ARE DEVELOPED AND TESTED(By courtesy _American Agriculturist_. Photo by Prof. W. G. Johnson)] PREFACE This little book has been written in fulfilment of a promise made manyyears ago. Again and again I have undertaken the work, only to lay itaside because I felt the need of greater experience and wider knowledge. I do not now feel that this deficiency has been by any means fullysupplied, but in some directions it has been removed through thekindness of Dr. F. H. Chittenden of the Bureau of Entomology, who wrotethe chapter on insect enemies, and of W. A. Orton of the Bureau of PlantIndustry, United States Department of Agriculture, who wrote the chapteron diseases of tomatoes. I have made free use of, without special credit, and am largely indebtedto, the writings of Doctor Sturtevant and Professor Goff, ProfessorMunson of Maine, Professor Halsted of New Jersey, Professor Corbett ofWashington, Professor Rolfs of Florida, Professor Bailey of New York, Professor Green of Ohio, and many others. I have also found a vastamount of valuable information in the agricultural press of this countryin general. I am also indebted to L. B. Coulter and Prof. W. G. Johnsonfor many photographs. My thanks are also due B. F. Williamson, who madethe excellent drawings for this book under Professor Johnson'sdirection. Tomatoes are among the most generally used and popular vegetables. Theyare grown not only in gardens, but in large areas in every state fromMaine to California and Washington to Florida, and under very differentconditions of climate, soil and cultural facilities, as well as ofrequirements as to character of fruit. The methods which will give thebest results under one set of conditions are entirely unsuited toothers. I have tried to give the nature and requirements of the plant and theeffect of conditions as seen in my own experience, a knowledge of whichmay enable the reader to follow the methods most suited to his ownconditions and requirements, rather than to recommend the exact methodswhich have given me the best results. WILL W. TRACY. _Washington, April, 1907. _ CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE v CHAPTER I BOTANY OF THE TOMATO 1 CHAPTER II HISTORY 14 CHAPTER III GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLANT 20 CHAPTER IV ESSENTIALS FOR DEVELOPMENT 28 CHAPTER V SELECTION OF SOIL FOR MAXIMUM CROP 33 CHAPTER VI EXPOSURE AND LOCATION 38 CHAPTER VII FERTILIZERS 43 CHAPTER VIII PREPARATION OF THE SOIL 46 CHAPTER IX HOTBEDS AND COLD-FRAMES 51 CHAPTER X STARTING PLANTS 59 CHAPTER XI PROPER DISTANCE FOR PLANTING 68 CHAPTER XII CULTIVATION 76 CHAPTER XIII STAKING, TRAINING AND PRUNING 79 CHAPTER XIV RIPENING, GATHERING, HANDLING AND MARKETING 90 THE FRUIT CHAPTER XV ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES 97 CHAPTER XVI SEED BREEDING AND GROWING 112 CHAPTER XVII PRODUCTION FOR CANNING 117 CHAPTER XVIII COST OF PRODUCTION 121 CHAPTER XIX INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE TOMATO 123 CHAPTER XX TOMATO DISEASES 131 INDEX 148 ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 1. Where new varieties of tomatoes are developed and tested _Frontispiece_ 2. Tomato flowers 2 3. Two-celled tomato 3 4. Three-celled tomato 3 5. Currant tomato and characteristic clusters 5 6. Red cherry tomato 6 7. Pear-shaped tomato 8 8. Yellow plum tomato 9 9. One of the first illustrations of the tomato 11 10. An early illustration of the tomato 12 11. Typical bunch of modern tomatoes 27 12. Tomatoes trained to stakes in the South 35 13. Three-sash hotbed 52 14. Cross-section of hotbed 53 15. Cold-frames on hill-side 54 16. Transplanting tomatoes under cloth-covered frames 56 17. Spotting-board for use in cold-frames 61 18. Spotting-board for use on flat 62 19. Tomatoes sown and allowed to grow in hotbeds 69 20. Planting tomatoes on a Delaware farm 75 21. Training tomatoes in Florida to single stake 81 22. Tomato plant trained to single stake 82 23. Method of training to three stems in forcing-house and out of doors 83 24. Training on line in greenhouse 84 25. Ready to transplant in greenhouse 85 26. Training young tomatoes in greenhouse at New York experiment station 86 27. Tomatoes in greenhouse at the Ohio experiment station 87 28. Forcing tomatoes in greenhouse at New Hampshire experiment station 88 29. Florida tomatoes properly wrapped for long shipment 93 30. Greenhouse tomatoes packed for market 95 31. Buckeye State, showing long nodes and distance between fruit clusters 98 32. Stone, and characteristic foliage 99 33. Atlantic Prize, and its normal foliage 101 34. Dwarf Champion 103 35. A cutworm and parent moth 124 36. Flea-beetle 125 37. Margined blister beetle 125 38. Tomato worm 126 39. Tomato stalk-borer 127 40. Characteristic work of the tomato fruit worm 128 41. Adult moth, or parent of tomato fruit worm 129 42. Proper way to make Bordeaux 137 43. Point-rot disease of the tomato 140 TOMATO CULTURE CHAPTER I Botany of the Tomato =The common tomato= of our gardens belongs to the natural order_Solanaceae_ and the genus _Lycopersicum_. The name from _lykos_, awolf, and _persica_, a peach, is given it because of the supposedaphrodisiacal qualities, and the beauty of the fruit. The genuscomprises a few species of South American annual or short-livedperennial, herbaceous, rank-smelling plants in which the many branchesare spreading, procumbent, or feebly ascendent and commonly 2 to 6 feetin length, though under some conditions, particularly in the South andin California, they grow much longer. They are covered with resinousviscid secretions and are round, soft, brittle and hairy, when young, but become furrowed, angular, hard and almost woody with enlargedjoints, when old. The leaves are irregularly alternate, 5 to 15 incheslong, petioled, odd pinnate, with seven to nine short-stemmed leaflets, often with much smaller and stemless ones between them. The largerleaflets are sometimes entire, but more generally notched, cut, or evendivided, particularly at the base. [Illustration: FIG. 2--TOMATO FLOWERS ENLARGED ABOUT 2-1/2 TIMES. SECTION OF FLOWER SHOWN AT RIGHT (Drawn from a photograph by courtesy ofProf. L. C. Corbett)] =The flowers= are pendant and borne in more or less branched clusters, located on the stem on the opposite side and usually a little below theleaves; the first cluster on the sixth to twelfth internode from theground, with one on each second to sixth succeeding one. The flowers(Fig. 2) are small, consisting of a yellow, deeply five-cleft, wheel-shaped corolla, with a very short tube and broadly lanceolate, recurving petals. The calyx consists of five long linear or lanceolatesepals, which are shorter than the petals at first, but are persistent, and increase in size as the fruits mature. The stamens, five in number, are borne on the throat of the corolla, and consist of long, largeanthers, borne on short filaments, loosely joined into a tube andopening by a longitudinal slit on the inside, and this is the chiefbotanical distinction between this genus and _Solanum_ to which thepotato, pepper, night shade and tobacco belong. The anthers in thelatter genus open at the tip only. The two genera, however, are closelyrelated and plants belonging to them are readily united by grafting. ThePhysalis, Husk tomato or Ground cherry is quite distinct, botanically. The pistils of the true tomato are short at first, but the styleelongates so as to push the capitate stigma through the tube formed bythe anthers, this usually occurring before the anthers open for thedischarge of the pollen. The fruit is a two to many-celled berry withcentral fleshy placenta and many small kidney-shaped seeds which aredensely covered with short, stiff hairs, as seen in Figs. 3 and 4. [Illustration: FIG. 3--TWO-CELLED TOMATO] [Illustration: FIG. 4--THREE-CELLED TOMATO] It is comparatively easy to define the genus with which the tomatoshould be classed botanically, but it is by no means so easy to classifyour cultivated varieties into botanical species. We have in cultivationvarieties which are known to have originated in gardens and from thesame parentage, but which differ from each other so much in habit ofgrowth, character of leaf and fruit and other respects, that if they hadbeen found growing wild they would unhesitatingly be pronounceddifferent species, and botanists are not agreed as to how our many andvery different garden varieties should be classified botanically. Somecontend that all of our cultivated sorts are varieties of but twodistinct species, while others think they have originated from several. =Classification. =--The author suggests the following classification, differing somewhat from that sometimes given, as he believes that thelarge, deep-sutured fruit of our cultivated varieties and the distinctpear-shaped sorts come from original species rather than from variationsof _Lycopersicum cerasiforme_: =Currant tomato, Grape tomato, German or Raisin tomato= (_Lycopersicumpimpinellifolium_, _L. Racemiforme_) (Fig. 5). --Universally regarded asa distinct species. Plant strong, growing with many long, slender, weakbranches which are not so hairy, viscid, or ill-smelling, and neverbecome so hard or woody as those of the other species. The numerousleaves are very bright green in color, leaflets small, nearly entire, with many small stemless ones between the others. Fruit producedcontinuously and in great quantity on long racemes like those of thecurrant, though they are often branched. They continue to elongate andblossom until the fruit at the upper end is fully ripened. Fruit small, less than 1/2 inch in diameter, spherical, smooth and of a particularlybright, beautiful red color which contrasts well with the bright greenleaves, and this abundance of beautifully colored and gracefully poisedfruit makes the plant worthy of more general cultivation as an ornament, though the fruit is of little value for culinary use. This species, whenpure, has not varied under cultivation, but it readily crosses withother species and with our garden varieties, and many of these owe theirbright red color to the influence of crosses with the above species. [Illustration: FIG. 5--CURRANT TOMATO AND CHARACTERISTIC CLUSTERS] [Illustration: FIG. 6--RED CHERRY TOMATO] =Cherry tomato= (_L. Cerasiforme_) (Fig. 6). --Plant vigorous, with stoutbranches which are distinctly trailing in habit. Leaves flat or butslightly curled. Fruit very abundant, borne in short, branchedclusters, globular, perfectly smooth, with no apparent sutures. From 1/2to 3/4 inch in diameter and either red or yellow in color, two-celledwith numerous comparatively small, kidney-shaped seeds. Many of ourgarden varieties show evidence of crosses with this species, and by manyit is regarded as the original wild form of all of our cultivated sorts. These, when they escape from cultivation and become wild plants, as theyoften do, from New Jersey southward, produce fruit which, in manyrespects, resembles that of this species in size and form; but they aregenerally more flattened, globe-shaped, with more or less distinctsutures on the upper side, and I have never seen any fruit of these wildplants which could not be readily distinguished from that of the trueCherry tomato. Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Director of the Florida experiment station, reportsthat among the millions of volunteer, or wild, tomatoes he has seengrowing in the abandoned tomato fields in Florida, he has never seen aplant with fruit which could not be easily distinguished from that ofthe true Cherry tomato. Again, one can, by selection and cultivation, easily develop from these wild forms plants producing fruit as large andoften practically identical with that of our cultivated varieties, whileI have given a true stock of Cherry tomato most careful cultivation onthe best of soil for 20 consecutive generations without any increase insize or change in character of the fruit. [Illustration: FIG. 7--PEAR-SHAPED TOMATO] [Illustration: FIG. 8--YELLOW PLUM TOMATO, SHOWING MOST USUAL FORM OFCLUSTER] =Pear (not Plum) tomato= (_L. Pyriforme_) (Fig. 7). --Plant exceptionallyvigorous, with comparatively few long, stout stems inclined to ascend. Leaves numerous, broad, flat, with a distinct bluish-green colornoticeable, even in the cotyledons. Fruit abundant, borne in shortbranched or straight clusters of five to ten fruits. It is perfectlysmooth, without sutures, and of the shape of a long, slender-neckedpear, not over an inch in transverse by 1-1/2 inches in longitudinaldiameter. When the stock is pure the fruit retains this form verypersistently. The production of egg-shaped or other forms is a sureindication of impure stock. They are bright red, dark yellow, or lightyellowish white in color, two-celled, with very distinct centralplacenta and comparatively few and large seeds. The fruit is inclined toripen unevenly, the neck remaining green when the rest of the fruit isquite ripe. It is less juicy than that of most of our garden sorts butof a mild and pleasant flavor. This is considered, by many, to besimply a garden variety, but I am inclined to the belief that it is adistinct species and that the contrary view comes from the study of theimpure and crossed stocks resulting from crosses between the true Peartomato and garden sorts which are frequently sold by seedsmen aspear-shaped. Many garden sorts--like the Plum (Fig. 8), the Egg, theGolden Nugget, Vick's Criterion, etc. --are known to have originated fromcrosses of the Pear and I think that most, if not all, the garden sortsin which the longitudinal diameter of the fruit is greater than itstransverse diameter owe this form to crosses with _L. Pyriforme_. =Cultivated varieties= (_L. Esculentum_). --This is commonly used as thebotanical name of our cultivated varieties, rather than as the name of adistinct species. In western South America, however, there is foundgrowing a wild plant of Lycopersicum which differs from the otherrecognized species in being more compact in growth, with fewer branchesand larger leaves, and carrying an immense burden of fruit borne inlarge clusters. The fruit is larger than that of the other species butmuch smaller than that of our cultivated sorts; is very irregular inshape, always with distinct sutures, and often deeply corrugated andbright red in color. The walls are thin; the flesh is soft, with adistinct sharp, acid flavor much less agreeable than that of ourcultivated forms of garden tomatoes. [Illustration: FIG. 9--ONE OF THE FIRST ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE TOMATO_Poma amoris_, (_Pomum aureum_), (_Lycopersicum_), 1581] [Illustration: FIG. 10--AN EARLY ILLUSTRATION OF THE TOMATO (FromMorrison's "Historia Universalis, " 1680)] This has commonly been regarded by botanists as a degenerate form of ourgarden tomatoes, rather than as an original species, but I find that, like _L. Cerasiforme_ and _L. Pyriforme_, it is quite fixed undercultivation, except as crossed with other species or with our gardenvarieties, and I believe it to be the original species from which ourcultured sorts have been developed, by crossing and selection. Suchcrosses probably were made either naturally or by natives before thetomato was discovered by Europeans. The earliest prints we have of thetomato (Figs. 9 and 10) are far more like the fruit of this plant thanthat of _L. Cerasiforme_, and the prints of many of the earliest gardenvarieties and of some sorts which are still cultivated in southernEurope, for use in soups, are like it not only in size and form, but inflavor. These facts make it seem far more probable that our cultivatedsorts have come, by crossing, between this and other species rather thanby simple development from _L. Cerasiforme_. Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin, who has made a most careful study of thetomato, expressed the same opinion, writing that it seemed to him thatour cultivated sorts must have come from the crossing of a small, round, smooth, sutureless type, with a larger, deep-sutured, corrugated fruit, like that of the Mammoth Chihuahua, but smaller. However this may be, Ithink that it is wise to throw all of our cultivated garden sorts, except the Pear, the Cherry, and the Grape--which I regard as distinctspecies--together under the name of _L. Esculentum_, even when we knowthey have originated by direct crosses with the other species; and it iswell to classify the upright growing sorts under the varietal names, _L. Validum_, and the larger, heavier sorts, as _L. Grandifolium_, as hasbeen done by Bailey. (Cyclopedia of Horticulture. ) CHAPTER II History The garden vegetable known in this country as tomato and generally astomate in continental Europe, is also known as Wolf-peach and Love Applein England and America, and Liebesapfel in Germany, Pomme d'Amour inFrance, Pomo d'oro in Italy, Pomidor in Poland. =Origin of name. =--The name tomato is of South American origin, and isderived from the Aztec word _xitomate_, or _zitotomate_, which is giventhe fruit of both the Common tomato and that of the Husk or Strawberrytomato or Physalis. Both vegetables were highly prized and extensivelycultivated by the natives long before the discovery of the country byEuropeans, and there is little doubt that many of the plants first seenand described by Europeans as wild species were really garden varietiesoriginated with the native Americans by the variation or crossing of theoriginal wild species. =Different types now common=, according to Sturtevant, have become knownto, and been described by Europeans in about the following order: 1. Large yellow, described by Matthiolus in 1554 and called Golden apple. 2. Large red, described by Matthiolus in 1554 and called Love apple. 3. Purple red, described by D'el Obel in 1570. 4. White-fleshed, described by Dodoens in 1586. 5. Red cherry, described by Bauhin in 1620. 6. Yellow cherry, described by Bauhin in 1620. 7. Ochre yellow, described by Bauhin in 1651. 8. Striped, blotched or visi-colored, described by Bauhin in 1651. 9. Pale red, described by Tournefort in 1700. 10. Large smooth, or ribless red, described by Tournefort in 1700. 11. Bronzed-leaved, described by Blacknell in 1750. 12. Deep orange, described by Bryant in 1783. 13. Pear-shaped, described by Dunal in 1805. 14. Tree tomato, described by Vilmorin in 1855. 15. Broad-leaved, introduced about 1860. The special description of No. 10 by Tournefort in 1700 would indicatethat large smooth sorts, like Livingston's Stone, were in existencefully 200 years ago, instead of being modern improvements, as issometimes claimed; and a careful study of old descriptions and cuts andcomparing them with the best examples of modern varieties led DoctorSturtevant in 1889 to express the opinion that they had fruit as largeand smooth as those we now grow, before the tomato came into general usein America, and possibly before the fruit was generally known toEuropeans. Even the production of fine fruit under glass is not somodern as many suppose. In transactions of the London HorticulturalSociety for 1820, John Wilmot is reported to have cultivated under glassin 1818 some 600 plants and gathered from his entire plantings underglass and in borders some 130 bushels of ripe fruit. It is stated thatthe growth that year exceeded the demand, and that the fruit obtainedwas of extraordinary size, some exceeding 12 inches in circumference andweighing 12 ounces each. Thomas Meehan states in _Gardeners' Monthly_for February, 1880, that on January 8, of that year, he saw growing inthe greenhouses on Senator Cannon's place near Harrisburg, Pa. , atleast 1 bushel of ripe fruits, none of which were less than 10 inches incircumference, --a showing which compares with the best to be seento-day. Throughout southern Europe the value of the fruit for use in soups andas a salad seems to have been at once recognized, and it came into quitegeneral use, especially in Spain and Italy, during the 17th century; butin northern Europe and England, though the plant was grown in botanicalgardens and in a few private places as a curiosity and for the beauty ofits fruit, this was seldom eaten, being commonly regarded as unhealthyand even poisonous, and on this account, and probably because of itssupposed aphrodisiacal qualities, it did not come into general use inthose northern countries until early in the 19th century. =First mention= in America, I find of its being grown for culinary use, was in Virginia in 1781. In 1788 a Frenchman in Philadelphia made mostearnest efforts to get people to use the fruit, but with little success, and similar efforts by an Italian in Salem, Mass. , in 1802, were no moresuccessful. The first record I can find of the fruit being regularlyquoted in the market was in New Orleans in 1812, and the earliestrecords I have been able to find of the seed being offered by seedsmen, as that of an edible vegetable, was by Gardener and Hipburn in 1818, andby Landreth in 1820. Buist's "Kitchen Gardener" says: "In 1828-9 it (thetomato) was almost detested and commonly considered poisonous. Ten yearslater every variety of pill and panacea was 'extract of tomatoes, ' andnow (1847) almost as much ground is devoted to its culture as to thecabbage. " In 1834 Professor Dunglison, of the University of Virginia, said: "The tomato may be looked upon as one of the most wholesome andvaluable esculents of the garden. " Yet, though the fruit has always received similar commendation frommedical men, there has been constant recurring superstition that it isunhealthy. Only a few years ago there was in general circulation astatement that an eminent physician had discovered that eating tomatoestended to develop cancer. This has been definitely traced to the playfulquestion, asked as a joke by Dr. Dio Lewis, "Didn't you know that eatingbright red tomatoes caused cancer?" In more recent years an equallyunfounded claim has been made that tomato seeds were responsible formany cases of appendicitis and that it was consequently dangerous to eatthe fruit. I give some quotations for tomatoes in Quincy Hall Market, Boston, withsome for other vegetables, for comparison. The records show that duringthe week ending July 22, 1835, tomatoes were quoted at 50 cents perdozen, cabbage at 50 cents per dozen. For the week ending September 22, 1835, tomatoes were quoted at 25 cents per peck, lima beans, 12-1/2cents per quart shelled, with comment that tomatoes are in much demandand a far greater quantity has been sold than in previous years. Duringthe week ending July 22, 1837, tomatoes were quoted at 25 and 50 centsper peck, and the note that they are of good size and were well ripenedand came from gardens in the vicinity would indicate that they had atthat time early maturing varieties and knew how to grow them. From about1835 till the present time the cultivation and use of tomatoes haveconstantly increased both in this country and in Europe, so that nowthey are one of the most largely grown of our garden vegetables. A suggestion as to the extent they are now grown in America is the factthat a single seed grower saved in 1903 over 20, 000 pounds of tomatoseed--an amount sufficient to furnish plants for from 80, 000 to 320, 000acres, according to the care used in raising them, the larger quantitynot requiring more care than the best growers commonly use. A carefulestimate made by the _American Grocer_ shows that in 1903 the packing oftomatoes by canners in the United States amounted to 246, 775, 426three-pound cans. In addition to the canned tomato, between 200, 000 and250, 000 barrels of catsup stock is put up annually, requiring theproduct of at least 20, 000 acres. It is probable that the area required to produce the fruit that is usedfresh at least equals that devoted to the production for preserving, which give us from 400, 000 to 500, 000 acres devoted to this crop eachyear in America alone. The fruit is perhaps in more general use inAmerica than elsewhere, but its cultivation and use have increasedrapidly in other countries, particularly with the English speakingraces. Large quantities are grown in Australia, and immense andconstantly increasing quantities are grown under glass in England andadjacent islands, while _The Gardeners' Chronicle_ states that in 1903between 600, 000 and 800, 000 pounds of fresh fruit were imported intoEngland from other countries. CHAPTER III General Characteristics of the Plant =In the native home= of the tomato, in South America, the conditions ofthe soil, both as regards composition and mechanical condition, of themoisture both in soil and air, and those of temperature and sunlight, are throughout the growing season not only very favorable for rapidgrowth, but are uniformly and constantly so. Under such conditions therehas been developed a plant which, while vigorous, tenacious of life, capable of rapid growth and enormously productive, is not at all hardyin the sense of ability to endure untoward conditions either in thecharacter of soil, of water supply, or of temperature. A check in thedevelopment because of any unfavorable condition is never fullyrecovered from, but will inevitably affect the total quantity andquality of the fruit produced, even if subsequent favorable conditionsresult in the rapid and vigorous growth of the plant. I know of an instance where two adjoining fields belonging to A and Bwere set with tomatoes, using plants started in the same hotbed from thesame lot of seed. The soil was of equal natural fertility and each fieldreceived about the same quantity of manure, though that given A's wasall well decomposed and worked into the soil, while that given B's wasfresh and raw and simply plowed in. A's field was put into the bestpossible tilth before setting the plants, and the management of theplants and their cultivation were such as to secure unchecked growthfrom the time they were pricked out into cold-frames and set in thefield until the crop was matured. As long as the plants would permit, the soil was cultivated every few days and kept in a state of perfecttilth. B's field when the plants were set out was a mass of clods, as it hadbeen plowed, when wet, some time before and never harrowed but once. The plants had been crowded forward as rapidly as possible in thecold-frame, and when set in the field were much higher than A's, but sosoft that they were badly checked in transplanting and a great many ofthem died and had to be reset. The field received but one or twocultivations during the entire season. The growth of the plants in B'sfield was irregular and uneven instead of steady and uniform as in A's, and though some of the fruits were quite as large, they were not asuniform as A's while the yield per acre was not more than half as muchnor the fruit of as good general quality. B had difficulty in disposingof his crop and often had to sell below the market, while A had notrouble in disposing of his at the highest prices for the day. B's cropwas a financial loss, while A's returned a most satisfactory profit. The key to the most successful culture of the tomato is the securing, from the start to finish, of an unchecked uniform growth, though it neednot necessarily be a rapid one. The failure to do this is, in myopinion, the principal reason for the comparatively small yield usuallyobtained, which is very much less than it would be with better culturalmanagement. The tomato under conditions which I have repeatedly found itpracticable to secure, not only in small plantings but in large fields, has proved capable of producing from 1, 000 to 1, 200 or even more bushelsto the acre, and the possible yield per plant is enormous. As early as 1818 the Royal Horticultural Society of London reports theobtaining of over 40 pounds of fruit of marketable character from asingle vine. An acre of such plants would give a yield of over 1, 800bushels of fruit, and many similar yields, and even greater ones, havebeen recorded for single plants. The yield commonly obtained, even infavorable locations, and by men who have grown tomatoes all their lives, is more often less than 200 bushels to the acre than more. The way tosecure a better yield is to study carefully the nature and requirementsof the plants and the adaptation of our cultural practice to them. =Life habit of the plant. =--The tomato could be described as ashort-lived perennial, but its span of life is somewhat variable. Underfavorable conditions it will develop from starting seed to first ripefruit in from 85 to 120 days of full sunshine with a constant daytemperature of from 75 to 90° F. , and with one from 15 to 20° F. Lowerat night. The plants will ordinarily continue in full fruit for about 50to 60 days, after which they generally become so exhausted by excessiveproduction of fruit and the effects of diseases to which they areusually subject that their root action and sap circulation become weakerand weaker until they die from starvation. From Philadelphia southwardgardeners expect that spring set plants will thus exhaust themselves anddie by late summer, and they sow seed in late spring or early summer forplants on which they depend for late summer and fall crops. Under some conditions, particularly in the Gulf states and inCalifornia, tomato plants will not only grow to a much greater size thannormal, but will continue to thrive and bear fruit for a longer time. Such a plant grown in Pasadena, Cal. , was said to have been in constantbearing for over 10 months. Again, sometimes plants that have produced afull crop of fruits will start new sets of roots and leaves and producea second and even a third crop, each, however, being produced on newbranches and as a result of a fresh set of roots, those which producedthe preceding crop having died and disappeared. The period ofdevelopment, 85 to 120 days of full sunshine at a temperature above 75°F. , has been given. The full sunshine and high temperature are essentialto such rapid development, and in so far as there is a lack of sunshinefrom clouds or shade, or the day temperature falls below 75° F. Theperiod will be lengthened, so that in the greater part of the UnitedStates the elapsed time between starting seed to ripened fruit isusually as much as from 120 to 150 days and often even longer. =Characteristics of the root. =--The roots of the tomato plant, whileabundant in number, are short and can only gather food and water from alimited area. A plant of garden bean, for instance, is not more thanhalf the size of one of the tomato, but its roots extend through thesoil to a greater distance, gather plant food from a greater bulk ofsoil, seem better able to search out and gather the particular foodelement which the plant needs than do those of the tomato. Thischaracteristic of the latter plant makes the composition of the soil asto the proportion of easily available food elements of great importance. Tomato roots are also exceedingly tender and incapable of penetrating ahard and compact soil, so that the condition of the soil as to tilth isof greater importance with regard to tomatoes than with most gardenvegetables. Another characteristic of the tomato roots is that the period of theiractive life is short. When young they are capable of transmitting waterand nutritive material very rapidly, but they soon become clogged andinefficient to such an extent as to result in the starvation and deathof the plant. If the branches of such an exhausted plant be bent overand covered with earth they will frequently start new roots and producea fresh crop of fruit, or if plants which have made a crop in thegreenhouse be transplanted to the garden and cut back, a new set ofroots will often develop and the plant will produce a second crop offruit which, in amount, often equals or exceeds the first one. But suchgrowths come only from new roots springing from the stem--never from anextension of the old root system. =Characteristics of the stem and leaves. =--The growth of the stem, andleaves of the young tomato plant is very rapid and, the cellularstructure coarse, loose and open. A young branch is easily broken andwhen this is done it shows scarcely any fibrous structure--simply a massof coarse cellular matter which while capable, when young, oftransmitting nutritive matter rapidly, soon becomes dogged and inert. This structure not only makes the active life of the leaves short, likethat of the roots, but necessitates a fresh growth in order to continuethe fruitfulness of the plant and renders the leaves very susceptible toinjury from bacterial and fungous diseases. The rapid growth alsonecessitates an abundance of sunlight. =Characteristics of the blossom. =--The inflorescence of the tomato isusually abundant and it is rare that a plant does not produce sufficientblooms for a full crop. The flowers are perfect as far as parts areconcerned (Fig. 2) and in bright, sunny weather there is an abundance ofpollen, but sunlight and warmth are essential to its maturing into acondition in which it can easily reach the stigma. The structure anddevelopment of the flower are such that while occasionally, particularlyin healthy plants out of doors, the stigma becomes receptive and takesthe pollen as it is pushed out through the stamen tube by the elongatingstyle, it is more often pushed beyond them before the pollen matures, sothat the pollen has to reach the stigma through some other means. Usually this is accomplished by the wind, either directly or through themotion of the plants. Under glass it is generally necessary to assist the fertilization eitherdirectly by application or by motion of the plant, this latter onlybeing effective in the middle of a bright sunny day. In the open groundin cold, damp weather the flowers often fail of fertilization, in whichcase they drop, and this is often the first indication of a failing ofthe crop on large, strong vines. I have known of many cases where theyield of fruit from large and seemingly very healthy vines was verylight because continual rains prevented the pollenization of theflowers. Such failures, however, do not always come from a want ofpollen but may result from an over or irregular supply of water eitherat the root or in the air, imperfectly balanced food supply, a sappingof the vitality of the plants when young, or from other causes. Insectsrarely visit tomato flowers and are seldom the means of theirfertilization. =Characteristics of the fruit. =--The fruit of the original species fromwhich our cultivated tomatoes have developed was doubtless acomparatively small two to many-celled berry, with comparatively drycentral placenta and thin walls. In some species the cells wereindicated by distinct sutures, forming a rough or corrugated fruit. Ithas improved under cultivation by increase in size, the materialthickening of the cell walls, the development of greater juiciness andricher flavor and a decrease in the size and dryness of the placenta, aswell as the breaking up of the cells by fleshy partitions resulting inthe disappearance of the deep sutures and an improvement in thesmoothness and beauty of the fruit. (Fig. 11. ) The quality of the fruit is largely dependent upon varietal differences, to be spoken of later, but it is also influenced by conditions ofgrowth--such as the proportion of the nutritive elements found in thesoil, the proper supply of moisture, the degree and uniformity oftemperature and, most of all, the amount of sunlight. Sudden changes oftemperature and moisture often result in cracks and fissures in the skinand flesh, which not only injure the appearance but affect the flavor ofthe fruit. [Illustration: FIG. 11--TYPICAL BUNCH OF MODERN TOMATOES Contrast withFigs. 9 and 10] CHAPTER IV Essentials for Development =Sunlight. =--Abundant and unobstructed sunlight is the most essentialcondition for the healthy growth of the tomato. It is a native of thesunny South and will not thrive except in full and abundant sunlight. Ihave never been able to grow good tomatoes in the shade even where it isonly partial. The entire plant needs the sunlight. The blossoms oftenfail to set and the fruit is lacking in flavor because of shade, fromexcessive leaf growth, or other obstruction. The great difficulty in winter forcing tomatoes under glass in the Northcomes from the want of sunlight during the short days of the wintermonths. Were it not for the short winter days of the higher latitudeslimiting the hours of sunshine, tomatoes could be grown under glass inthe northern states to compete in price, when the better quality ofvine-ripened fruits is considered, with those from the Gulf states. Growers are learning that tomatoes can be profitably grown under glassduring the longer spring days, and consumers are beginning to appreciatethe superior quality of fruit ripened on the vine over that picked greenand ripened in transit. At no time is this need of abundance of light ofgreater importance than when the plants are young and, if they fail toreceive it, no subsequent favorable conditions will enable them torecover fully from its ill effects. It is not so much the want of roomfor the roots as of light for the leaves that makes the plants whichhave been crowded in the seed-beds so weak and unprofitable. I once divided 100 young tomato plants, about 2 inches high, into fourlots of 25 each, numbering them 1, 2, 3 and 4. The plants of lots No. 1and 2 were set equal distance apart in box A, and those of lots No. 3and 4 in the same way in box B; both boxes being about 16 inches wide, 40 inches long and 4 inches deep. The two boxes were set together acrossthe side bench of a greenhouse with the outer edge against a board wallsome 2-1/2 feet high, so that the plants at the end of the box near thewall received much less light than those at the other end. They remainedthere about five weeks and then were taken out and the plants set in theopen ground. During the five weeks box A, containing lots No. 1 and 2, was changed, end for end, every day so that those two lots of plantsreceived nearly an equal amount of sunlight, but box B was not changedso that lot No. 3, at one end of the box, was constantly near the walkand in the full light, while lot No. 4, at the other end of the box, wasconstantly near the wall and in partial shade. The effect on the growthof the plants was very marked. The plants of lot No. 4 were nearly twiceas high, but with much softer stems and leaves than those of lot No. 3. The plants received equal care when set side by side in the open groundand at the time the first fruit was gathered seemed of equal size andvigor, but the total yield of fruit of lots No. 1, 2 and 3 was verynearly the same and in each case at the rate of over 100 bushels an acremore than that from lot No. 4. This is but one of the scores ofexperiences which have led me to appreciate, in some degree, thenecessity of plenty of sunlight for the best development of the tomato. =Heat. =--The plant thrives best out of doors in a dry temperature of 75to 85° F. , or even up to 95° F. , if the air is not too dry and is ingentle circulation. The rate of growth diminishes as the temperaturefalls below 75° until at 50° there is practically no growth; the plantis simply living at a poor dying rate and if the growth, particularly inyoung plants, is checked in this way for any considerable time they willnever produce a full crop of fruit, even if the plants reach full sizeand are seemingly vigorous and healthy. The plant is generally killed byexposure for even a short time to freezing temperature, though youngvolunteer plants in the spring are frequently so hardened by exposurethat they will survive a frost that crusts the ground they stand in; butsuch exposure affects the productiveness of the plant, even if itsubsequently makes a seemingly vigorous and healthy growth. Under glass, plants usually do best in a temperature somewhat lower than is mostdesirable out of doors. I think this is due to the inevitableobstruction of the sunlight and the lack of perfect ventilation. =Moisture. =--Although the tomato is not a desert plant and needs aplentiful supply of water, it suffers far more frequently, particularlywhen the plants are young, from an over-supply than from the want ofwater. Good drainage at the root and warm, dry, sunny air, in gentlemotion, are what it delights in. Good drainage is essential not only tothe best growth of the plant but to the production of any fruit of goodquality. So important is this feature that though it can be readilyproved that, other things being equal, the tomato will give larger yieldand better fruit on well drained clay loam than on sandy soil, yet it ismore generally and more successfully planted on sandy lands simplybecause they are usually better drained and on this account give bettercrops. While excess of water in the soil is most injurious to the youngand growing plant, an abundance of it at the time the fruit swells andripens is very essential, and a want of it at that time results in smalland imperfect fruit of poor flavor. Excessive moisture in the air isjust as injurious as at the root. In my personal experience I have knownof more failures in tomato crops, at least in the northern states, tocome from a season of persistent rains and damp atmosphere at the timewhen the plants should be in bloom and setting fruit than from any otherclimatic cause. =Food supply. =--The tomato is not a gross feeder nor is the crop anexhaustive one, but the plant is very particular as to its food supply. It is an epicure among plants and demands that its food shall not onlybe to its taste in quality but that it be well served. In order for theplant to do its best, or even well, it is essential that the foodelements be in the right proportions and readily available. If there isa deficiency of any single element there will be but a meager crop offruit, no matter how abundant the supply of the others. An over-supplyof an element, especially nitrogen, is hardly less injurious and willactually lessen the yield of fruit though it may increase the size ofthe vine. Not only must the food be in right proportions but in suchcondition as to be readily available. Tomato roots have little power towrest plant food from the soil. The use of coarse, unfermented manure iseven more unsatisfactory with this than with other crops. The enormousyields sometimes obtained by English gardeners from plants grown underglass result from a supply of food of the right proportions and insolution, instead of incorporating it in a crude condition with thesoil. =Cultivation. =--The tomato is grown in all parts of the United Statesand under very different conditions, not only as to climate and soil butas to the facilities for growing and handling the crop and the way inwhich it is done. What would be ideal conditions of soil and the mostadvantageous methods under some conditions would not be at all desirablein others. In some cases the largest possible yield an acre, in othersfruit at the lowest cost a bushel, or at the earliest possible date, orin a continuous supply and of the best quality, is the greatestdesideratum. It is impossible to give specific instructions which wouldbe applicable to all these varying conditions and requirements; so Igive general cultural directions for maximum crops with variationssuggested for special conditions and requirements, and then the readermay follow those which seem best suited to his individual conditions. CHAPTER V Selection of Soil for Maximum Crop Large yields of tomatoes have been, and can be, obtained from soils ofvarying composition, from a gumbo prairie, a black marsh muck, or astiff, tenacious clay, to one of light drifting sand, provided otherconditions, such as drainage, tilth and fertility are favorable. TheConnecticut experiment station and others have secured good results fromplants grown under glass in a soil of sifted coal ashes and muck, oreven from coal ashes alone, the requisite plant food being supplied insolution. But a maximum crop could never, and a full one very seldom, beproduced on a soil, no matter what its composition, which could not be, or was not put into and kept in a good state of tilth, or on one whichwas poorly drained, sodden or sour, or which was so leachy that it wasimpossible to retain a fair supply of moisture and of plant food. Of the 10 largest yields of which I have personal knowledge and whichran from 1, 000 to 1, 200 bushels of fruit (acceptable for canning and atleast two-thirds of it of prime market quality) an acre, four were grownon soils classed as clay loam, two on heavy clay--one of which was soheavy that clay for making brick was subsequently taken from the veryspot which yielded the most and best fruit--one on what had been a blackash swamp, one on a sandy muck, two on a sandy loam and one on a lightsand made very rich by heavy, annual manuring for several years. Theywere all perfectly watered and drained, in good heart, liberallyfertilized with manures of proved right proportions for each field, andabove all, the fields were put into and kept in perfect tilth by methodssuited to each case; while the plants used were of good stock and sogrown, set and cultivated that their growth was never stopped or hardlychecked for even a day. These conditions as to soil and culture, together with seasons of exceptionally favorable weather, resulted inuniformly large crops on these widely different soils. [Illustration: FIG. 12--TOMATOES TRAINED TO STAKES ON A GEORGIA FARM] The composition of the soil, then, as to its proportions of sand or clayis of minor importance as regards a maximum yield or as to quality ofthe fruit, except as it affects our ability to put and keep the soil ingood physical condition. The tomato crop, however, particularly when theplants are trimmed and trained to stakes, as is the usual practice inthe South, as seen in Fig. 12, with crops grown for early shipment, necessitates in the trimming and training of the plants and thegathering of the fruit when it is in the right degree of maturity forshipment a great deal of trampling of the surface regardless of whetherit is wet or dry. Consequently if the surface soil has any considerableproportion of clay there is danger of compacting and even puddling it byworking when wet, to the great detriment of the crop. Again, a more orless sandy surface soil can be much more easily worked than one with alarge proportion of clay. For these reasons our choice of a soil for thelowest cost a bushel and probably for a maximum yield should be a richsandy or sandy loam surface soil overlying a well-drained claysub-soil. I would prefer one which was originally covered with a heavygrowth of beech and maple timber, though I should want it to be "oldland" at the time. Tomatoes do not succeed as well on prairie soils, particularly if they are at all heavy, as they do on timbered lands, butone need not despair of a profitable crop of tomatoes on any soil whichwould give a fair crop of corn or of cotton. =For early-ripening fruit. =--Sometimes the profit and satisfaction froma tomato crop depend more largely upon the earliness of ripening thanupon the amount of yield or cost of growing. In such cases a warm, sandyloam, or even a distinctly sandy soil, is to be preferred, as this isapt to be warmer and the fruit will be matured much earlier on it thanon a heavier soil. It is essential, however, that it be well drained andwarm. Often lands classed as sandy are really colder than some of thoseclassed as clay, and such soils should be carefully avoided if earlymaturity is important. =For the home garden. =--Here we seldom have a choice, but no one needdespair and abandon effort, no matter what the soil may be, for it isquite possible to raise an abundant home supply on any soil and that, too, without inordinate cost and labor. Some of the most prolific plantsand the finest fruits I have ever seen were grown in a village lot whichfive years before had been filled in to a depth of 3 to 10 feet withclay, coal ashes and refuse from a brick and coal yard. In anotherinstance magnificent fruit was grown in a garden where the soil wasoriginally made up chiefly of sawdust mixed with sand, drawn on afoundation of sawmill edgings so as to raise it above the water of aswamp. Where one has to contend with such conditions he should make aneffort to create a friable soil with a supply of humus by adding thematerial needed. A very few loads, sometimes even a single load, of clayor sand will greatly change the character of the soil of a sufficientarea to grow the one or two dozen plants necessary for a family supply. In the two cases mentioned, the owner of the first named garden usedboth sand and sawdust to lighten his soil, while the second drew a greatmany loads of clay on his. =Growing under glass. =--I would make up a soil composed of about threeparts rotted sod, two or three parts of well-rotted stable manure (andit is very important that it be well decomposed) and one part either ofcoarse, sharp sand, sandy loam or clay loam, according as the sod soilis light or heavy, the aim being to form a rich, light, open soil ratherthan one which is as heavy and compact as desirable for some plants. Ifsod soil is not available, of course, garden loam can be substituted, but it is very important that the soil be thoroughly mixed, anddesirable that it be prepared sometime before it is to be used. Somegrowers use the same soil for several crops, simply adding some freshmanure; but, if so used, it is important that it be stirred andthoroughly re-mixed and sterilized. CHAPTER VI Exposure and Location In sections where there is danger of the plants being killed by earlyfall frosts before they have ripened their entire crop, exposure of thefield is sometimes of importance in determining the marketable yield. A gentle inclination to the south, with a protection of higher land ortimber on the sides from which frost or high winds are most likely tocome, is the best. A steep descent to the south, shut in by high land tothe east and west, so as to form a hot pocket, is not favorable for amaximum crop although it may give a smaller yield of early ripeningfruit; nor is a small field entirely surrounded by forest desirable. I once knew of a field, of about two acres, sloping to the south andentirely surrounded by heavy timber, on which two or three tomato cropswere failures when other fields on the same farm gave large yields, butafter the timber on the south and east had been cut away this fieldgenerally gave the largest yield in the neighborhood. =Location. =--While exposure is in some cases an important factor indetermining the total yield an acre, and so the cost, the location ofthe field as regards distance from marketing point and the character ofthe roads between them is of far greater importance in determining thecost and profit of crop, but one which is very often disregarded. Themarketable product of an acre of tomatoes weighs from 3 to 30 tons, which is not only more than that of most farm crops, but the product isof such character that its value is easily destroyed by long hauls overordinary roads. It has to be marketed within a day or two of the time itis in prime condition, regardless of the conditions of the roads orweather; so that it is quite deceptive to estimate the cost of deliveryat the same rate a ton, as for potatoes or wheat, for it always costsmore, and sometimes several times more, to deliver tomatoes than itwould to deliver the same weight of less perishable crops. In most casesthe cost of picking and delivery is one of the most important factors indetermining profit and loss, particularly when the crop is grown forcanning factories, where one often has to wait for hours for his team tounload. These conditions make it very important that the field belocated within a short distance of, and connected by good roads with thepoint of delivery. =Early maturing fruit. =--Where early maturity is the great desideratumthe exposure of the field is often very important. It should, first ofall, be such as to secure comparative freedom from spring frosts so asto permit of early setting of the plants and the full benefit of thesunshine as well as protection from cold winds. There is often a greatdifference in these respects between fields quite near each other. Professor Rolfs, of Florida, mentions a case where the tomatoes in afield sloping to the southeast and protected on the north and west by astrip of oak timber were uninjured by a spring frost that killed notonly all the plants in neighboring fields, but those in the same fieldfarther away from the protecting timber. Such spots should be sought outand utilized, as often they can be used to great advantage. Immediateproximity to large bodies of water is sometimes advantageous in theSouth, but in the North it is often disadvantageous for early fruitbecause of the chilling of the air and the increased danger of springfrosts, although affording protection from those of early fall. Here, too, proximity of field to shipping point and distance andtransportation rate to market are very important factors affectingprofit on the crop. =The home garden. =--The south side of buildings or of tight fences andwalls often furnishes a most desirable place for garden tomatoes, butthe plants should be set at least 6 to 10 feet from the protection andnot so as to be trained upon or much shaded by them, as the disadvantageof shutting off the light and circulation of the air, even from thenorth, would more than overbalance anything gained by the protection. =Growing under glass. =--In this country tomatoes are seldom grown underglass except during the darker winter months and the exposure of thehouse; the form of the roof and the method of glazing which will givethe greatest possible light, are of importance, for tomatoes can not beprofitably grown in a dark house. Just how the greatest amount of lightmay be made available in any particular case will depend upon localconditions, but every effort should be made to secure the mostunobstructed sunlight possible and for the greatest number of hours eachday. =Previous crop and condition. =--In field culture tomatoes should notfollow tomatoes or potatoes. Both of these crops make use of largequantities of potash, and although a small part of that used by theplants is taken from the field in the crop, they inevitably reduce theproportion of this element in the soil--that is, in such condition as tobe readily available for the succeeding crop. It is true that thedeficiency in potash may be supplied, but it is not so easy to supply itin a condition in which it is possible for the roots of the tomato totake it in. Unlike potatoes, tomatoes do not do well on new land, whether it be newly cleared timber lands or new breaking of prairie. Clover leaves the land in better condition for tomatoes than any otherof the commonly grown farm crops, while for second choice I prefer oneof peas, beans, corn, or wheat in the order named. One of the most successful tomato growers I know of, whose soil is arich, dark clay loam, prepares for the crop, as follows: Very late inthe fall or early in the spring he gives a clover sod a heavy dressingof manure and plows it under. In the spring he prepares the ground byfrequent cultivation and plants it with early sweet corn or summersquash. At the time of the last cultivation of these crops he sowsclover seed, covering it with a cultivator having many small teeth, andrarely fails to get a good stand and a good growth of young cloverbefore the ground freezes. In the spring he plows this under, runningthe plow as deep as possible and following in the furrow with asub-soiler which stirs, but does not bring the sub-soil to the surface. He then gives the field a heavy dressing with wood ashes and puts itinto the best possible tilth before planting his tomatoes. This grownusually harvests at least 500 bushels to the acre and has made a crop ofover 1, 000 bushels. =Early market. =--In some sections of the South where the soil is lightand the growers depend almost wholly on the use of large quantities ofcommercial fertilizer, they seem to meet with the best success by usingthe same field for several successive crops, but in some places theysucceed best with plantings following a crop of cowpeas or other greensoiling crops plowed under, with a good dressing of lime. CHAPTER VII Fertilizers The experiences and opinions of different gardeners and writers varygreatly as to the amount and kind of fertilizer necessary for theproduction of the maximum crop of tomatoes. If the question were as tothe growth of vine all would agree that the more fertilizer used and thericher the soil, the better. Some growers act as if this were equallytrue as to fruit, while others declare that one can easily use too muchfertilizer and get the ground too rich not only for a maximum but for aprofitable crop of fruit. I find that the amount an acre recommended bysuccessful growers varies from 40 tons of well-rotted stable manure, supplemented by 1, 000 pounds of complete fertilizer and 1, 000 pounds ofunleached ashes, to one of only 300 pounds of potato fertilizer. In my own experience the largest yield that I can recall was produced onwhat would be called rich land, and the application of fertilizer forthe tomato crop was not in excess (unless possibly of potash) of that ofthe usual annual dressing. I think that in preparing a soil fortomatoes, as in selecting social acquaintances, the "new rich" are to beavoided. A soil which is rich because of judicious manuring and carefulcropping for many years can scarcely be too rich, while one that is maderich by a single application of fertilizer, no matter how wellproportioned, may give even a smaller yield of fruit because of itsexcessive use. Again, the proportions of the various food elements varygreatly in different locations. Professor Halstead finds that in his section of New Jersey the liberaluse of nitrate of soda increases the yield and improves the quality, while in some localities of New York, Ohio, and the West, growers findthat the yield of first-class fruit was actually lessened by its use. Insome sections of the South liberality in the use of phosphatesdetermines the amount and the quality of the crop, while at other pointsit seems to be of little value. In my own experience the liberalapplication of potash, particularly in the form of wood ashes, has moreoften given good results than the application of any other specialfertilizer. If called upon to name the exact quantity and kind of manure fortomatoes, without any knowledge of the soil or its previous condition, Iwould say 8 to 10 tons of good stable manure worked into the soil aslate as possible in the fall or during the winter and early spring and300 to 600 pounds of commercial fertilizer, of such composition as tofurnish 2 per cent. Nitrogen, 6 per cent. Phosphoric acid and 8 percent. Potash scattered and worked into the row about the time that theplants are set. The use of a large proportion of nitrogen tends to rankgrowth of vine and soft, watery fruit. The use of a large proportion ofphosphoric acid tends to produce soft fruit with less distinctly acidflavor; of potash, to smaller growth of vine and firm but more acidfruit. I think that even more than with most crops it will be well for thefarmer to experiment to determine the best and most economicalfertilizer for his soil, setting aside five to ten plots of 1 to 4square rods each and apply nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, wood, ashes, and phosphate alone and in different combinations. The resultswill suggest the combination which he can use to best advantage. In themajority of cases, however, where the soil is reasonably rich, expenditures for putting the ground in the best possible state of tilthwill give larger returns than those for manures in excess of that whichthe land has usually received in the regular rotation for ordinary farmcrops. =For the home garden. =--Usually a dressing of wood ashes up to a rate of1 bushel to the square rod, well worked into the soil before the plantsare set, and occasionally watering with liquid manure, will generallygive the best returns of any special fertilization, it being assumedthat the garden has been well enriched with stable manure. =Tomatoes under glass. =--Some growers recommend frequent waterings withliquid manure; others a surface dressing of sheep manure; still others amulch of moderately well decayed stable manure. Plants growing underglass, particularly in pots or boxes, seem to be benefitted by so heavya dressing that if applied to plants growing outside it would be likelyto give excessive growth of vine with but little fruit. CHAPTER VIII Preparation of the Soil The proper preparation of the soil before setting the plants is one ofthe most essential points in successful tomato culture. The soil shouldbe put into the best possible physical condition and to the greatestpracticable depth. How this can be best accomplished will vary greatlywith different soils and the facilities at the command of the planter. My practice on a heavy, dry soil is to plow shallow as early in thespring as the ground is fit to work, and then work and re-work thesurface so as to make it as fine as possible. If I am to use any manure which is at all coarse, it is well worked inat this time. A week or 10 days before I expect to set the plants Iagain plow, and to as great a depth as practicable, without turning upmuch of the sub-soil, and if this has not been done within two years, follow in the furrows with a sub-soil plow which loosens, but does notbring the sub-soil to the surface. Then I work and re-work the surface, at the same time working in any dressing of well-rotted manure, ashes orcommercial fertilizer that I want to use. I never regret going over thefield again, if by so doing I can improve its condition in the least. Ona lighter soil it might be better to compact rather than loosen as muchas would give the best results with clay, but always and everywhere thesoil should be made fine, friable and uniform in condition, to thegreatest depth possible. One of the most successful growers has said that if he could afford tospend but two days' time on a patch of tomatoes he would use a day and ahalf of the two days in fitting the ground before he set the plants. Itis my opinion that any working of the ground that serves to get it intobetter mechanical condition, if done economically, will not onlyincrease the yield, but to such an extent as to lower the cost a bushel. T. B. Terry's teaching of the necessity for working and re-working thesoil, if one would have the largest crops of potatoes of the bestquality, is even more applicable to the culture of tomatoes. =Home garden. =--Here there is no excuse for setting plants in hard, lumpy soil. It should be worked and re-worked, not simply once or twice, but once or twice after it has been thoroughly worked. In short, thetomato bed should be made as friable as it is possible to make it and toas great a depth as the character of the sub-soil will permit. =Under glass. =--I would strongly advise that soil for tomatoes, whetherit is to be used in solid beds or in pots or boxes, be thoroughlysterilized by piling it not over 15 inches deep or wide over iron pipesperforated with two lines of holes about one-sixteenth inch in diameterand 2 inches apart and filled with steam for at least a half hour. Itcan be sterilized, but far less effectively, by thorough wetting withboiling water. It should always be well stirred and aired before theplants are set in it. =Starting plants. =--From about the latitude of New York city southward, it is possible to secure large yields from plants grown from seed sownin place in the field, and one often sees volunteer plants which havesprung up as weeds carrying as much or more fruit than most carefullygrown transplanted ones beside them. In many sections tomatoes are grownin large areas for canning factories, and as a farm rather than a marketgarden crop, individual farmers planting from 10 to 100 acres; and tostart and transplant to the field the 25, 000 to 30, 000 plants necessaryfor a ten-acre field seems a great undertaking. Tomato plants, however, when young, are of rather weak and tender growth, and need more carefulculture than can be readily given in the open field; and, again, thedemand of the market, even at the canning factories, is for delivery ofthe crop earlier than it can be produced by sowing the seed in thefield. For these reasons it is almost the universal custom of successfulgrowers to use plants started under glass or in seed-beds whereconditions of heat and moisture can be somewhat under control. Ibelieve, however, that the failure to secure a maximum yield is moreoften due to defective methods of starting, handling and setting theplants than to any other single cause. In sections where tomatoes arelargely grown there are usually men who make a business of startingplants and offering them for sale at prices running from $1 or even aslow as 40 cents, up to $8 and $10 a 1, 000, according to their age andthe way they are grown; but generally, it will be found moreadvantageous for the planter to start his plants on or near the fieldwhere they are to be grown. =Tomato plants from cuttings= may be easily grown, but such plants, whenplanted in the open ground, do not yield as much fruit as seedlings noris this apt to be of so good quality; so that, in practice, seedlingsonly are used for outside crops. Under glass, plants from cuttings dorelatively better and some growers prefer them, as they commence tofruit earlier and do not make so rank a growth. Seedlings can be most easily started and grown, at least up to the timeof pricking out, in light, well-ventilated greenhouses, and many largegrowers have them for this specific purpose. Houses for starting tomatoplants should be so situated as to be fully exposed to the sun and notshaded in any way; be provided with heating apparatus by which a nighttemperature of 60 and up to one of 80° F. In the day can be maintainedeven in the coldest weather and darkest days likely to occur for 60 to90 days before the plants can be safely set out in the open field; andthe houses should be well glazed and ventilated. Houses well suited for this purpose are often built of hotbed sash withno frame but a simple ridge-board and sides 1 or 2 feet high, head roombeing gained by a central sunken path and the sash so fastened in placethat they may be easily lifted to give ventilation or entirely removedto give full exposure to sunshine, or for storing when the house is notneeded. Hotbed sash 3×6 feet with side-bars projecting at the ends tofacilitate fastening them in place are usually kept by dealers, whooffer them at from $1. 50 to $3 each, according to the quality of thematerial used. A hot water heating apparatus is the best, but often one can use abrick furnace or an iron heating stove, connected with a flue of seweror drain-pipe that will answer very well and cost much less. It requiresbut 6 to 10 square feet of bench to start plants enough for an acre, anda house costing only from $25 to $50 will enable one to grow plantsenough for 20 acres up to the stage when they can be pricked out intosash or cloth-covered cold-frames in which they can be grown on to thesize best suited for setting in the field. When a grower plants lessthan 5 acres it is often better for him to sow his seed in flats orshallow boxes and arrange to have these cared for in some neighboringgreenhouse for the 10 to 20 days before they can be pricked out. CHAPTER IX Hotbeds and Cold-frames Plants can be advantageously started and even grown on to the size forsetting in open ground in hotbeds. In building these of manure it isimportant to select a spot where there is no danger of standing water, even after the heaviest rains, and it is well to remove the soil to adepth of 6 inches or 1 foot from a space about 2 feet larger each waythan the bed and to build the manure up squarely to a hight of 2 to 3feet. It is also very important that the bed of manure be of uniformcomposition as regards mixture of straw and also as to age, density andmoisture, so as to secure uniformity in heating. This can beaccomplished by shaking out and evenly spreading each forkful andrepeatedly and evenly tramping down as the bed is built up. Unless thiswork is well and carefully done the bed will heat and settle unevenly, making it impossible to secure uniformity of growth in different parts. Hotbed frames should be of a size to carry four to six 3×6-foot sash, and made of lumber so fastened together that they can be easily knockedapart and stored when not in use. They should be about 10 inches high infront and 16 or 18 inches at the back, care being taken that if the backis made of two boards one of them be narrow and at the bottom so thatthe crack between them can be covered by banking up with manure orearth. In placing them on the manure short pieces of board should belaid under the corners to prevent their settling in the manure unevenly. I prefer to sow the seed in flats or shallow boxes filled with rich butsandy and very friable soil, and set these on a layer of sifted coalashes covering the manure and made perfectly level, but many growers sowon soil resting directly on the manure; if this is done the soil shouldbe light and friable and made perfectly level. A perspective view of athree-sash hotbed is given in Fig. 13, and of a cross-section in Fig. 14. [Illustration: FIG. 13--THREE-SASH HOTBED] In some sections, particularly in the South, it is not always easy toprocure suitable manure for making hotbeds, so these are built to bewarmed by flues under ground, but I think it much better where a fire isto be used that the sash be built into the form of a house. A hotbed ofmanure is preferred to a house by some because of its supplying uniformand moist bottom heat--and one can easily give abundant air; but thesash can be built into the form of a house at but little more expense, and it has the great advantage of enabling one to work among the plantsin any weather, while, if properly built, any desired degree of heat andventilation can be easily secured. Except when very early ripening fruitis the desideratum, plants started with heat but pricked out and grownin cold-frames without it, but where they can be protected during coldnights and storms, will give better results than those grown to fullsize for the field in artificial heat. [Illustration: FIG. 14--CROSS-SECTION OF HOTBED] [Illustration: FIG. 15--COLD-FRAMES ON HILL-SIDE] =Cold-frames. =--In locations where tomatoes are much grown large areasare devoted to cold-frames covered either by sash or cloth curtains. Sash give much better protection from cold and on this account are moredesirable, particularly where very early fruiting is wanted, but theirfirst cost is much greater and the labor of attending to beds covered bythem is much more than where cloth is used. Sash-covered beds should beof single width and run east and west, but if the beds are covered withcloth it is better that they be double width (12 feet) and run north andsouth. The front of the single and the sides of the double width bedsshould be 8 to 10 inches high, held firmly erect by stakes and perfectlyparallel, both horizontally and vertically, with the back or with thecentral support. This should be 6 inches higher than the front. Thecross strips, when sash are used, should be made of a 3-inch horizontaland a 1-1/2-inch vertical strip of 1-inch lumber nailed together veryfirmly in the form of an inverted T, the vertical pieces projecting 1inch at each end and resting on the front and back of the bed andforming supports and guides for the sash. Some growers use verticalstrips as heavy as 2×3 or 4 inches for stepping across the beds. Whenthe plants are to be taken to the field, the sash and guides can beeasily removed. (Fig. 15. ) Ground to be covered with cold-frames should be made very friable andrich by repeated plowing and working in of a liberal dressing ofwell-rotted stable manure and wood ashes. In southwestern New Jersey, where immense areas of early tomatoes are grown, the soil of the bedsfor a depth of about 6 inches is removed and a layer 3 to 5 inches deepof well-rotted stable manure is placed in. That made of a mixture ofmanure from horses, cattle and hogs is preferred. It is important thatthe manure be so well rotted that it will not heat, and so dry that itwill not become pasty when tramped into a firm, level layer. On thisthey place a layer of nearly 3 inches deep of rich, friable, moderatelycompact soil and prick out the plants into this. The roots soon bind themanure and soil together and by cutting through the manure so as to formblocks one can carry the plants to the fields with but very littledisturbance of the root. =Cloth covers for beds= should be made of heavy, unbleached sheeting orlight duck, and it is better that the selvage run up and down the bedrather than lengthwise. The cloth is torn into lengths of about 13 feetand then sewn together with a narrow double-stitched flat seam so as toform a sheet 13 feet wide and about 8 inches longer than the bed. Theedges are tacked every foot to the strips about 2 inches wide by 7/8inch thick with beveled outside edges and laid perfectly in line. Asecond line of strips is then nailed to the first so as to break jointswith it and so that the two will form a continuous roller about a footlonger than the bed with the edge of the curtain firmly fastened in itscenter. The center of the curtain is secured to the central ridge of thebed by strips of lath. When rolled up, the rollers are held in place byloops of rope around their ends and when they are down they are held bysimilar loops to the notched tent-pins driven into the ground or towooden buttons fastened to the sides and ends of the frame as shown inFig. 16. [Illustration: FIG. 16--TRANSPLANTING TOMATOES UNDER CLOTH-COVEREDFRAMES (Photo by Prof. W. G. Johnson)] Cloth covers are sometimes dressed with oil, but this is not to berecommended, though it is an advantage to have them wet occasionallywith a weak solution of copper sulphate or with sea water as apreservative and to prevent mildew. Such covers, well cared for, maylast five years or be of little use after the first, depending upon thecare given them. They can be made from 50 to 200 feet long and two mencan roll them up or down very quickly. When cloth covers are used the supporting cross-strips should not beover 3 inches wide nor more than 3 feet apart; sometimes the strips aremade to bind the sideboard and ridge together by means of short piecesof hoop iron or of barrel hoop. These are so placed and nailed as tohold the upper edge of sideboards and of the central ridge flush withthe cross-strips, thus forming a smooth surface for cloth to rest on andenabling one easily to "knock down" and remove the frames to facilitatethe taking of the plants from the bed to the field and the storing ofthe frames for another season. =Flats for starting seeds. =--Any shallow box may be used or the plantssown directly in the beds without them, but flats of a uniform size areto be preferred--these will pack well on the greenhouse shelves; or inthe hotbed we make them with 7/8 inch thick ends and 1/2 inch thicksides and bottom, the latter if of a single board having four half-inchholes for drainage and in any case having two narrow strips about 1/4inch thick nailed across their bottoms so as to allow drainage water toescape freely when the boxes are set on hard, cool floors. Two or threesuch boxes, 35-1/2 inches long, 12 inches wide and 3 inches deep, willbe sufficient to start plants enough for an acre. I like to use similarboxes only 4 inches deep for growing the plants after they are prickedout, particularly if this is to be done in a greenhouse, as by turningthem we can equalize exposure to light and thus distribute the plants inthe field where they are to be set with the least possible disturbance. One would need nearly 60 such boxes for plants enough for an acre. Onaccount of the lessened necessity for watering when plants are set inbeds rather than in boxes, many growers prefer to grow their plants inthat way. CHAPTER X Starting Plants This has been the subject of a vast amount of horticultural writing, andthe practice of different growers, and in different sections, variesgreatly. I give the methods I have used successfully, together withreasons for following them, but it may be well for the reader to modifythem to suit his own conditions and requirements. =Largest yield. =--Some 45 to 50 days before plants can be safely set inthe open field the flats in which the seed is to be sown should befilled with light, rich, friable soil, it being important that itssurface be made perfectly level, and that it be compact and quite moist, but not so wet as to pack under pressure. Sow the seed in drills 3/8inch deep and 2 to 3 inches apart at the rate of 10 to 20 to the inch;press the soil evenly over them, water and place in the shade in an eventemperature of 80 to 90° F. As soon as the seeds begin to break soil, which they should do in three to four days, place in full light andtemperature of 75 to 80°, keeping the air rather close so as to avoidnecessity of watering. After a few days reduce the temperature to about65° and give as much air as possible. Some growers press a short pieceof 2-inch joist into the soil of the benches, so as to form trenches 2inches wide and about 3/8 inch deep, and so spaced as to be under thecenter of each row of glass, their sash being mostly made of five-inchglass. In this, by using a little tin box with holes in the top, likethose of a pepper-box, they scatter seeds so that they will be nearly1/8 to 1/4 inch apart, over the bottom of the 2-inch wide trench, andthen cover. This has the advantage of evenly spacing the plants and solocating the rows that the plants will be little liable to injury fromdrip. Young tomato plants are very sensitive to over-supply of water and someof the most successful growers do not water at all until the plants arequite large and then only when necessary to prevent wilting. In 10 to 15days, or as soon as the central bud is well started, the plants shouldbe pricked out, setting them 3 to 6 inches apart, according to the sizewe expect them to reach before they go into the field; 5 inches is themost common distance used. I think it better to set the full distanceapart at first, not to transplant a second time. It is very importantthat this pricking out should be done when the plants are young andsmall, though many successful growers wait until they are larger. Thesoil in which they are set, whether it be in boxes or beds, should becomposed of about three parts garden loam, two parts well-rotted stablemanure and one part of an equal mixture of sand and leaf mold, thoughthe proportion of sand used should be increased if the garden loam isclayey. The soil in the seed-boxes or in the beds, when the seedlingsare taken up, should be in such condition, and the plants be handled insuch a way that nearly all the roots, carrying with them many particlesof soil, are saved. The plants should be set a little, and but a little, deeper than they stood in the seed-box and the soil so pressed aboutthe roots, particularly at their lower end, that the plants can not beeasily pulled out. [Illustration: FIG. 17--SPOTTING-BOARD FOR USE IN COLD-FRAMES] Where plants are set in beds the work can be facilitated by the use of a"spotting-board" (Fig. 17). This should be about 1 foot in width, andhave pegs about 3 inches long, 3/4 inch in diameter at the base andtapering to a point, fastened into the board the distance apart theplants are to be set. It should also have narrow projections carrying asingle peg nailed to the top of board at each end, so that when thesepegs are placed in the end holes of the last row the first row of pegsin the "spotting board" will be the right distance from the last row ofholes or plants. By standing on this, while setting plants in one set ofholes, holes for another set are formed. If the conditions of soil, airand plants are right and the work is well done, the plants will showlittle tendency to wilt, and it is better to prevent their doing so byshading, rather than by watering, though the latter should be resortedto if necessary. When plants are set in beds, some growers remove thesoil to a depth of about 6 inches and put in a layer of about 2 inchesof sifted coal ashes, made perfectly level, and then replace the soil. This confines the roots to the surface and enables one to secure nearlyall of them when transplanting. The plants should be well establishedin 24 hours and after this the more light and air that can be given, without the temperature falling below 40° F. Or subjecting the plants tocold, dry wind, the better. [Illustration: FIG. 18--SPOTTING-BOARD FOR USE ON FLAT (From W. G. Johnson)] One can hardly overstate the importance to the healthy growth of theyoung tomato plant of abundant sunshine, a uniform day temperature offrom 60 to 80° F. , or of the ill effects of a variable temperature, particularly if it be the result of cold, dry winds, or of a wet, soggysoil, the effect of over-watering. These points should be kept in mindin caring for the plants, and every effort made to secure, as far aspossible, the first named conditions and to avoid the latter. Theframes, whether they be covered with sash or cloth, but moreparticularly if with sash in sunshine and with curtains in dull days, should be opened so as to prevent their becoming too hot, and so as toadmit air. And in a greenhouse full ventilation should be givenwhenever it is possible to do so without exposure to too low atemperature. If the plants are in boxes and on greenhouse shelves, it isimportant that these be turned end for end every few days to equalizeexposure to light and give full exposure to the sun. The plants shouldbe watered only when necessary to prevent wilting, and the beds shouldbe covered during heavy rains. A "spotting-board" for use on flats isseen in Fig. 18. The most unfavorable weather conditions are bright sun combined with acold wind, and cold storms of drizzling rain and frosty nights. Lossfrom the latter cause may often be prevented by covering the beds withcoarse straw, which should always be provided for use in an emergency. Many growers provide a second curtain--an old one answers very well--tothrow over the straw-covered beds. Beds so covered will protect theplants from frost in quite severe weather. Watering should especially beavoided for nearly three days before setting in fields; but six totwelve hours before it is well to water thoroughly, though not so as tomake the soil at all muddy. About five days after pricking out and againabout five days before the plants are to go into the field and five daysafter they are set, they should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. =Early ripening fruit. =--Here the aim is to secure, by the time they canbe set in the field, plants which have come by an unchecked butcomparatively slow rate of growth to the greatest size and maturityconsistent with the transplanting to the field without too serious acheck. The methods by which this is accomplished vary greatly andgenerally differ materially from those given above. The seed is plantedmuch earlier and 60 to 90 days before it is at all safe to set plants inthe open field; while a steady rate of growth is desirable, it should beslow and the plants kept small by a second and even third and fourthtransplanting, and especial care taken to avoid the soft and irregulargrowth resulting from over-watering or over-heating. Any side shootswhich may appear should be pinched out and a full pollination of thefirst cluster of the blossoms secured, either by direct application ofpollen or by staking or jarring the plants on bright days; and finally, special efforts made to set the plants in the field as early and with aslittle check as possible. Growers are often willing to run considerablerisk of frost for the sake of early setting. When one has sandy land a very profitable crop can sometimes be securedby sowing the seed very early, and growing the plants on in beds untilthe first cluster of fruit is set, then heeling them in, much as nurserytrees are, but so close that they can be quickly covered in case offrost. As soon as it is at all safe to do so, they are set in the openground, very closely, on the south side of ridges, so that only theupper one-third of the plant is exposed, the remainder being laid nearlylevel and covered with earth. So treated the plants will ripen the upper one or two clusters veryearly but will yield little more until late in the season, and it isgenerally more profitable to plow them up and put in some other crop assoon as the first clusters of fruit have ripened. Others pinch out thecentral bud as soon as it is well formed, usually within 10 days fromthe sowing of the seed. When this is done a great proportion of theplants will start branches from the axils of the cotyledons; theseusually develop blossoms in the third to the fifth node and producefruit much lower than in a normal plant. It is questionable if there isany gain in time from seed to fruit by this method, but it enables oneto get older plants of a size which it is practicable to transplant tothe field. In most cases it will be found more profitable and satisfactory so togrow the plants that by the time they can be safely set out of doorsthey will be in vigorous condition, about 6 to 10 inches tall, stout, healthy and well hardened off. Such plants will ripen fruit nearly, andoften quite as early as older ones and will produce a constantsuccession of fruit, instead of ripening a single cluster or two andthen no more until they have made a new growth. =For late summer and early fall. =--It is generally true in the South andoften equally so in the North, that there is a more eager local demandfor tomatoes in the late summer and fall months, after most of thespring set plants have ceased bearing, than in early summer. In MichiganI have often been able to get more for choice fruit in late October andin November than the best Floridas were sold for in May or early June, and certainly in the South the home use of fresh tomatoes should not beconfined to spring set plants. For the fall crop in the South seed maybe sown in late spring or up to the middle of July, in beds shaded withframes, covered with lath nailed 3 to 4 inches apart and the plants setin the field about 40 days from sowing, the same care being taken toput the ground into good condition as is recommended for the springplanted crop. A second plan, which has sometimes given most excellent results, is tocut back spring set plants which have ripened some fruit but which arenot completely exhausted, to mere stubs, and spade up the ground aboutthem so as to cut most of the roots, water thoroughly and cover theground with a mulch of straw. Most of the plants so treated will start anew and vigorous growth and give most satisfactory returns. =Fruit at least expenditure of labor. =--When this is the greatdesideratum, many growers omit the hotbed and even the pricking out, sowing the seed as early as they judge the plants will be safe fromfrost, and broadcast, either in cold-frames or in uncovered beds, at therate of 50 to 150 to the square foot and transplanting directly to thefield. Or they may be advantageously sown in broad drills either by theuse of the pepper-box arrangement suggested on page 60, or a gardendrill adjusted to sow a broad row. In Maryland and the adjoining states, as well as in some places in the West, most of the plants for crops forthe canners are grown in this way and at a cost of 40 cents or even lessa 1, 000. The seed should be sown so that it will be from 1/4 to 1/2 inchapart and the plants thinned as soon as they are up so that they will beat least 1/2 inch apart. Where seed is sown early with no provision forprotection from the frost it is always well to make other sowings assoon as the last begins to break ground in order to furnish reserveplants, if the earlier sown lots be destroyed by frost. Others even sowthe seed in place in the field, thinning out to a single one in a hillwhen the plants are about 2 inches high. Some of the largest yields Ihave ever known have been raised in this way, but the fruit is late inmaturing and generally the method is not so satisfactory as starting theplants where they can be given some protection, and transplanting themto the field. =Plants for the home garden. =--These may be grown in pots or boxes setin the sunniest spot available and treated as has been described. Inthis way plants, equal to any, may be grown without the aid of eitherhotbed or greenhouse. It will generally be more satisfactory, however, to secure the dozen or two plants needed from some one who has grownthem in quantity than to grow so small a lot by themselves. In selectingplants, take those which are short, stiff, hard, and dark green incolor with some purple color on the lower part of the stem rather thanthose which are softer and of a brighter green, or those in which thefoliage is of a yellowish green; but in selection it must be rememberedthat varieties differ as to the color of foliage, so that there may be adifference in shade which is not due to conditions. =Plants under glass. =--If to be grown in pots or boxes, "prick out, "when small, into three-inch pots and as they grow re-pot several timesso that when set in the pots or beds in which they are to fruit, theyare stout plants 12 to 16 inches high. Plants propagated from cuttingsgive much better returns relatively under glass than out of doors. CHAPTER XI Proper Distance for Planting The best distance apart for the plants to be set in the field variesgreatly with the soil, the variety, the methods of cultivation and otherconditions. Plants set as close in rich clay soil as would give the bestresults in a warm, sandy one, or those of a strong growing sort, likeBuckeye State, set as close as would be desirable for sorts, likeAtlantic Prize or Dwarf Champion, would give little but leaves andinferior fruit. In field culture I like to space the plants so as tofacilitate gathering the fruit, and recommend the following arrangement:Set the plants according to soil and the variety 2-1/2 to 4 feet apartin the row, omitting two or three in every 75 or 100 plants so as toform driveways across the rows. Set the first and second and the thirdand fourth rows, etc. , 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 and the second and third and thefourth and fifth rows 5-1/2 to 6 feet apart. As the plants grow, thoseof the first and second and those of the third and fourth rows, etc. , are thrown together and in many cases it will pay to have a pair ofnarrow horizontal strips or wires nearly 18 inches from the ground uponwhich they can be thrown. This arrangement of the plants allows us to continue to cultivate thewider spaces between the second and third and fourth and fifth, etc. , rows, much longer, and tends to confine the necessary tramping andpacking of the soil when gathering the fruit chiefly to these rows--animportant point in case the soil is wet. The rows can be marked out theday before, but it is better to set the plants in the cross-rows andthat these be marked out just ahead of the setters. In this arrangementthe distances are equivalent to from 2-1/2×4 feet, requiring 4, 300plants to the acre, to 4×5 feet, requiring but about 2, 100 plants. Thelatter distance is that most commonly used by New Jersey growers. [Illustration: FIG. 19--TOMATOES SOWN AND ALLOWED TO GROW IN HOTBEDS] =In the home garden. =--It will usually be more satisfactory to give eachplant plenty of space, setting them 5 or 6 feet apart each way, exceptin the case of the dwarf sorts, which should be from 3-1/2 to 3 feetapart. A few plants at these distances will usually be much moresatisfactory than more set nearer together, but the larger growingsorts should have at least 3 feet and the dwarf sorts 2 feet. When onehas a hotbed or cold-frame it is often an advantage to set a row oftomato plants nearly 18 inches apart at the back end much earlier thanthey could be safely set in the open ground, and if these are allowed togrow on in place, as shown in Fig. 19, being pruned and tied to stakes, they will give some very early fruit. =In the greenhouse. =--Experience and practice differ as to the mostdesirable distance apart for plants under glass. But 2 feet apart, wherequality is the main consideration, and 18 inches when quantity, if fair, is of more importance than extra quality. =Setting plants in the field. =--The economical and successful setting ofplants in the field is an important element of successful tomato cultureand is very dependent upon soil and weather conditions. It is assumedthat the soil of the field has been put into the best possible conditionof tilth, but its condition as to moisture is also very important. Theworst condition is when it is wet and muddy, especially if it is at allclayey--not only is the cost of setting greatly increased, but plantsset in such soil can seldom, by any amount of care, be made to do well, especially if a heavy beating rain or dry windy weather followsimmediately; the condition is less unfavorable if a warm gentle rain orstill moist weather follows. A dry cold wind, even if the day is cloudyand the soil in good condition, is also unfavorable, particularly if theroots of the plants are exposed. Wet soil, cold, dry air and wind are the conditions to be avoided. Moist, not wet, soil and still, warm air are to be desired; whether theday is sunny or not is less important. There is a certain definite time, which does not usually extend beyond a few days, when any lot of plantsis in the best condition for setting in the field. It is hardly possibleto describe this condition more than to say it is when the plants are aslarge as they can be without crowding and are in a state where they canbest stand the shock of removal. It will always be a matter of judgment as to how long it is best to holdplants, which are in condition for setting, for favorable weatherconditions. They can sometimes be held a few days, by scant watering andfull exposure, or in some cases by taking from the bed and heeling in, as nurserymen do trees; but it is better to set when the weather isunfavorable or to run some risk from frost rather than to hold them inthis way too long. The wise selection of time for setting is animportant factor in securing a good and profitable crop. The South Jersey growers, to whom early ripening fruit is the greatdesideratum and who have a very warm soil, and grow plants so they arequite hardy and can be transplanted with little check, set them in thefield very early, some seasons by the last of April; and if the plantscan be got out so as to have two or three days of favorable weather toget established before it comes, they seem to be little hurt even by aquite severe frost. The first essential to successful transplanting isto have well-grown, healthy, hardy plants; the second is that they be ingood condition for setting, which can be secured by giving them, for afew days before planting, a scant supply of water and fullest possibleexposure to air and sun, and then a thorough wetting a few hours beforethey are to be set. The South Jersey plan of growing and setting plants gets them into thefield in the best condition of any method I know. Two to five daysbefore they expect to plant, the growers go over the beds and, by meansof a hoe that has been straightened and sharpened to form a sort ofspade, they cut through the soil and manure so as to divide the plantsinto blocks of six. A few hours before they are to plant, they saturatethe bed with water. By means of a flattened shovel they can take up theblocks of plants and place them in a cart or low wagon so the soil isscarcely disturbed at all, the roots in the manure serving to bind thewhole together. In the meantime furrows are opened along the rows andthe cart driven to the field; the plants in the blocks are cut apartwith a butcher knife placed in the furrow and the earth drawn aboutthem. Plants set in this way often do not wilt at all, even in hot sunshine. When plants are grown in boxes these can be taken to the field andplants taken from them in much the same way and so that they will bedisturbed but little. In setting the plants it should always be borne inmind that while sunshine on the leaves of a plant rarely does anyinjury, it is very injurious to the roots, and the exposure of the rootsto the sun or to cold, dry wind, should be avoided in every practicableway, such as by carrying the plants to the field laid on the sides of abox, which is then carried with its bottom toward the sun so as to havethe plants in the shade, always handling the plant in the shade of one'sbody, etc. It is well worth while to walk to the end of the row tocommence work in order to secure this. It is attention to such detailsthat distinguishes one whose plants nearly always do well from one wholoses a large proportion of those he handles. =Fruit at the least expenditure of labor. =--The plants are prepared forsetting by scant watering, and are taken up so as to secure as much rootas possible with little soil adhering to them. Great care should betaken in taking the plants from the bed, and in handling them, _to avoidtwisting the stems_, as to do so very seriously injures the plants, often to such an extent that they will fail to grow, no matter howcarefully set out. Some growers dip the roots in a very thin clay mud, hardly thicker than thin cream, but I have not found this of advantageexcept, sometimes, when the roots are to be exposed for a longer periodthan usual and I do not recommend it for general use. In setting, holesare made either with a long dibble, in the hands of the one whodistributes the plants, or by a short one, in the hands of the setter;the plants are dropped into them a little deeper than they had stood inthe bed, the earth closed about the roots, by pressure from the side. Especial care should be taken that this is well done, particularly atthe bottom; the earth should be so firmly pressed to the root that theplant cannot be easily pulled from the soil. In some sectionstransplanting machines (Fig. 20) are used and liked, but most plantersprefer to set by hand and the additional cost is not great. An expertwith one or two boys to assist in handling the plants can put out asmany as 5, 000 plants in a day. A machine requiring more help to run itcan set from 15, 000 to 20, 000. =In the home garden=, when but a few plants are to be set, it will bebetter to put them in after 4 P. M. And use water in setting, but thewet soil should be covered with some dry earth to prevent its caking. =In the greenhouse. =--Plants are better set in the places where they areto fruit just before their first blossoms open and should be set inaccordance with the suggestions given for transplanting to the field. [Illustration: FIG. 20--PLANTING TOMATOES ON A DELAWARE FARM (Photo bycourtesy of _American Agriculturist_)] CHAPTER XII Cultivation =For maximum crop. =--As soon as plants are set the ground should be wellcultivated to the greatest depth practicable. We should remember thatthe tomato needs for its best development a very friable soil, while thetramping necessary in setting out the plants and gathering the fruittends to compact and harden the soil. Often transplanting has to be donewhen the soil is wet, and we need to counteract the injury from trampingby immediate cultivation; but, at the same time, we must avoid thedisturbing of the plants any more than is necessary, and all of ourcultivation should be done with these points in mind. Just how it can bedone best will vary not only with the location and the facilitiesavailable, but with the weather conditions, so that it is not well toattempt to give explicit directions any further than that one can hardlycultivate too deeply for the first seven days nor too often for thefirst 30 days after the plants are set, provided he avoids turning thesoil when it is too wet. Even walking through the field when the soil iswet is injurious and should be avoided, in proportion as the soil is aclayey one. =At least expenditure of labor. =--I hardly need add to or change thesuggestions given above for tomatoes at least cost, for any cultivationwisely given will probably do as much to reduce cost per bushel byincreasing the yield per acre as any other expenditure. _In the garden_it is advisable that from the time the plants are set until the fruitripens, the surface soil about them be stirred every evening when it isnot actually wet. =In the greenhouse. =--The surface of the soil should be kept open byfrequent stirring or, as is the practice of some successful growers, itmay be covered with a mulch of partially rotted manure. The plantsshould be watered only as needed to prevent wilt, and special painstaken to guard against too much moisture either in the soil or in theair, particularly on dark days. The night temperature should beuniformly about 60° F. While in the day it should be 75°, and if it bebright and sunny it may go to 90° or even higher. Air should be givenfreely whenever feasible to do so without too greatly reducingtemperature. A moderate degree of moisture should be maintained in theair, care being taken that it does not become too moist, especiallyduring dark days. There is more danger from the air becoming too moistthan from its becoming too dry, though either extreme is injurious. =Pollinating. =--The structure and relations of the parts of the tomatoflower are such that while perfect pollination is possible, and inplants grown in the open air usually takes place without artificialassistance, it is not so likely to occur when plants are grown underglass, particularly in the winter months, and it is usually necessary tosecure it by artificial means. With vigorous, healthy plants and onlight, sunny days, it can be accomplished by jarring the plants nearmidday. This generally throws enough pollen into the air so that anabundance of it reaches each receptive stigma. With less vigorous plantsand on dark days it is necessary to hand pollinate the flowers. This isdone by gathering the pollen by means of jarring the plants, so that itfalls into a watch crystal or other receptacle secured at the end of awand, and then pressing the projecting pistils of other flowers into itso that they may become covered with the pollen. Some growers transfer the pollen with a camel's-hair-brush; others bypulling off the corolla and adhering anthers and rubbing them over thestigma of other flowers. Fruit rarely follows flowers that are notpollinated, and if it is incomplete the fruit will be unsymmetrical andimperfectly developed. As tomato flowers secrete but very little, ifany, honey and are not attractive to insects, it is of no advantage toconfine a hive of bees in the tomato house in the way which is so usefulin one where cucumbers or melons are growing. CHAPTER XIII Staking, Training and Pruning Under favorable conditions of soil and climate, plants of most varietiesof tomatoes will, in field culture, yield as much fruit if allowed togrow naturally and unpruned as if trained and pruned. This is especiallytrue of the sorts of the Earliana type and on warm, sandy soils, whileit may not be true of the stronger growing sorts, or on rich clay landsor where the fertilizer used contains an excess of nitrogen. In any casemore fruit can be grown to the acre on pruned and staked plants becausemore of them can be gotten on an acre; and it is an advantage to growthem in that way because it enables us, by later cultivation, to keepthe ground in good tilth longer; also it facilitates the gathering ofthe fruit; and last, but not least, it generally enables us to producebetter ripened and flavored fruit. Staking and pruning used to be the almost universal practice in theSouth, but in many sections growers have abandoned it, claiming thatthey get as good or better results without it. In the North it is rarelyused in field culture, though often used in private gardens and by somemarket gardeners, and both staking or tying up and pruning are essentialto the profitable growing of tomatoes under glass. In the South, stoutstakes from 1 to 2 inches in diameter and 4 to 5 feet long are driveninto the ground so that they can be depended upon to hold the plantserect through the heaviest storms, as seen in Fig. 21. This is generallyand wisely done as soon as the plant is set, though some growers delaydoing so until the fruit is well set, claiming that the disturbance ofstaking, tying and pruning tends to hasten the ripening of the fruit. The plant is then tied up, the tying material being wrapped once aboutthe stake and then looped about the plant so as to prevent slipping onthe stake or choking the stem of the plant as it enlarges. Raffia islargely used and is one of the best tying materials, but short pieces ofany soft, cheap string can be used. The tying up will need to berepeated as the stem elongates, which it will do very rapidly. In pruning the tomato we should allow the central shoot of the youngplant to grow, and remove all of the side shoots which spring from theaxils of the leaves and sometimes even from the fruit clusters, as seenin Fig. 22. It is very desirable that this be done when the branches aresmall, as there is then less danger of seriously disturbing the balanceof the growing forces of the plant, and also because there is lessdanger of careless workmen cutting off the main shoot in place of alateral, which would seriously check the ripening of the fruit. It isespecially important that any shoots springing from the fruit cluster beremoved as early as possible. For these reasons it is important that, ifthe plants are to be pruned at all, the field be gone over every fewdays. If the pruning is not well done it is a disadvantage rather than ahelp. [Illustration: FIG. 21--TRAINING TOMATOES IN FLORIDA TO SINGLE STAKE(Photo by courtesy of Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Director Florida ExperimentStation)] [Illustration: FIG. 22--TOMATO PLANT TRAINED TO SINGLE STAKE] [Illustration: FIG. 23--METHOD OF TRAINING TO THREE STEMS INFORCING-HOUSE AND OUT OF DOORS] Some growers allow two or three (Fig. 23) instead of one shoot to grow, selecting for the second the most vigorous of the shoots starting frombelow the first cluster of fruit. In some locations they stop or pinchout the main shoot just above the first leaf above the third or fourthcluster; in some soils it is an advantage and in others rather adisadvantage to do this. I have seldom practiced it. When fruit at thelowest cost a bushel is the desideratum, neither pruning nor staking isdesirable. [Illustration: FIG. 24--METHOD OF TRAINING ON LINE IN GREENHOUSE] [Illustration: FIG. 25--READY TO TRANSPLANT IN GREENHOUSE (Redrawn fromphoto by New York Experiment Station)] [Illustration: FIG. 26--TRAINING YOUNG TOMATOES IN GREENHOUSE AT NEWYORK EXPERIMENT STATION (Photo by courtesy Prof. U. P. Hedrick)] =For home gardens. =--In the home garden trellising and pruning are oftenvery desirable, as they enable us not only to produce more fruit in agiven area but of better quality. Many forms of trellis, have beenrecommended. Where the plants are to be pruned as well as supported, asthey should always be in gardens, there is nothing better than thesingle stake, as described above. For a trellis without pruning, oneto three stout hoops supported by three stakes so as to surround theplant which is allowed to grow through and fall over them, or two ormore parallel strips supported about a foot from the ground on each sideof a row of plants answer the purpose, which is simply to keep the plantup from the ground and facilitate the free circulation of the air amongleaves and fruit. [Illustration: FIG. 27--TOMATOES IN GREENHOUSE AT OHIO EXPERIMENTSTATION (Photo by courtesy of C. W. Waid)] I have seen tomatoes grown very successfully by the side of an openfence. Two stakes were driven into the ground about 6 inches from thefence and the plant, but slanting outward and away from each other. Thetops of the stakes were fastened to the fence by wooden braces, and thenheavy strings fastened to the fence around the stakes and back to thefence, the whole with the fence forming a sort of inverted pyramidalvase about 3 feet across at the top. In this the plant was allowed togrow, but it would be essential to success that the fence be an openone. [Illustration: FIG. 28--FORCING TOMATOES IN GREENHOUSE AT NEW HAMPSHIREEXPERIMENT STATION. NOTE CHARACTER OF BED ON THE GROUND FLOOR. (Photo bycourtesy of Prof. H. F. Hall)] =In the greenhouse. =--Here pruning and training are essential. Theplants may be supported by wires or strings (a coarse wool twine willanswer), twisting the string about the plant as it grows. The growth isusually confined to a single shoot, though some growers allow two (Fig. 24); the method of pruning does not differ from that given for fieldculture, but it is more important that the plants be gone over oftenand the branches removed when small. If allowed to do so, branches wouldspring from the axil of each leaf and the plant would become a perfectthicket of slender branches and leaves and produce but little fruit. Themain stem is sometimes pinched out after three or four clusters of fruitare set and the branch from the axil of the first leaf above is allowedto take its place. This tends to hasten the maturing of the fruitclusters already set. After several clusters have matured, or the mainstem reaches the top of the house, some growers allow a shoot from thebottom to grow and as soon as fruit sets on it the first stem is cutaway and this takes its place. Others prefer to remove the old plantentirely and set in young ones. A plant ready for transplanting is shownin Fig. 25. In figures 26, 27 and 28 are shown interior views ofgreenhouses at the New York station at Geneva, the Ohio station atWooster, and the New Hampshire station at Durham. Note the strong, vigorous plants in Fig. 26; the method of utilizing tile for watering inFig. 27; and the ground-floor bedding in Fig. 28. CHAPTER XIV Ripening, Gathering, Handling and Marketing the Fruit Tomatoes ripen and color from within outward and they will acquire fulland often superior color, particularly about the stems, if, as soon asthey have acquired full size and the ripening process has fairlycommenced, they are picked and spread out in the sunshine. The point ofripeness when they can be safely picked is indicated by the surfacecolor changing from a dark green to one of distinctly lighter shade witha very light tinge of pink. Fruit picked in this stage of maturity maybe wrapped in paper and shipped 1, 000 or 2, 000 miles and when unwrappedafter two or ten days' journey will be found to have acquired abeautiful color, often even more brilliant than that of a companionfruit left on the vine. Enclosing the fruit while on the vine and abouthalf grown in paper bags has been recommended, and it often results indeeper and more even coloring and prevents injury from cracking, but thefruit so ripened, while more beautiful, is not so well flavored as thatripened in the sun. But Americans are said to taste with their eyes, sothat in this country, fruit of this beautiful color will often out-sellthat which is of better flavor though of duller color. The tomato never acquires its full and most perfect flavor except whenripened on the vine and in full sunlight. Vine and sun-ripenedtomatoes, like tree-ripened peaches, are vastly better flavored thanthose artificially ripened. This is the chief reason why tomatoes grownin hothouses in the vicinity are so much superior to those shipped infrom farther south. After it has come to its most perfect condition onthe plant the fruit deteriorates steadily, whether gathered or allowedto remain on the vine, and the more rapidly in proportion as the air ishot and moist. That it be fresh is hardly less essential to the firstquality in a tomato than it is to such things as lettuce and cucumbers. =Gathering. =--As is the case with most horticultural products, the bestmethods of gathering, handling and marketing the fruit vary greatly withthe conditions under which the fruit was grown and how it is to be used, and it requires the best of judgment to gather it in the stage ofmaturity in which it will give the best satisfaction, under theconditions and for the purposes for which it is to be used. It isimpossible to give exact rules for determining when the fruit is in thebest condition. This can only be learned by experience, guided by aknowledge of the ripening habit of the fruit, which not only variessomewhat in different localities, but with different varieties. In theextreme South, fruit is picked for shipment before it shows more thanthe slightest tint of color at the blossom end; the depth of color whichis considered as indicating shipping condition deepens as we go northand nearer market. Generally the fruit should be left on the vine no longer than willpermit of its becoming fully ripe by the time it reaches itsdestination and is exposed for sale. When the fruit is to be shipped anydistance the field should be gone over frequently, as often as everysecond or third day or even every day in the hight of the season, andcare taken to pick every fruit as soon as it is in proper condition. When it is to be sold in nearby markets or to a cannery the exact stageof maturity, when picked, is not so important, although it is always anadvantage not to gather until the fruit is well colored and before itbegins to soften. Some growers for canneries make but three or fourpickings, but in this case it is well to gather the ripest fruitseparately. In picking and handling great care should be taken not to mar or bruisethe fruit, and the stems should be removed as the fruit is picked toprevent bruising in handling. A bruise or mar may not be as conspicuousin a tomato as in a peach, but it is quite as injurious. It is a greatdeal better for pickers to use light pails rather than baskets, theflexibility of the latter often resulting in bruises. It is an advantageto have enough of these so that the sorting can be from the pail, but ifthis is not practical the fruit should be carefully emptied on a sortingtable for grading. It should first of all be separated with regard toits maturity. A single fruit which is a little riper or greener than theremainder may make the entire package unsalable. It should also begraded as to freedom from blemishes or cracks, and as to size, form andcolor. It is assumed that the fruit for each package is to be of thesame variety, but often there is quite a variation in different fruitsfrom even the same vine; the more uniform in all respects the fruit ina package is the more attractive and salable it becomes. There is nofruit where careful grading and packing have more influence on the priceit will command. [Illustration: FIG. 29--FLORIDA TOMATOES PROPERLY WRAPPED FOR LONGSHIPMENT (Photo by courtesy of _American Agriculturist_)] I know of a certain noted peach-grower in northern Michigan who grew, each year, some 2 to 5 acres of tomatoes for the Chicago market. It washis custom to pick out about one-tenth of the best of the fruit, puttingit into small and attractively labeled packages; the remainder of thecrop was sorted over and from one-tenth to one-fifth of it rejected andfed to stock or sold to a local cannery. The remainder was sent toChicago with his selects, but as common stock, and usually brought morethan his neighbors received for unsorted fruit; but the check hereceived for his selects was usually as large as that for his commons, thus giving him about 33-1/3 per cent. More for his crop than hisneighbors received for their equally good, but unsorted, fruit--to saynothing of what he received for the rejected fruit and the saving offreight which, he said, was usually enough to pay the actual cost ofsorting. Tomatoes are usually classed as vegetables but, when ripe, they requireas careful handling as the most delicate fruits and are as easily andseriously injured by bruising and jarring. Just how this can be avoidedand the fruit gotten from the vine to the possibly distant consumer inthe best condition will vary in different cases. Tomatoes from the South(Fig. 29) are generally marketed in carriers which, though varyingsomewhat, are essentially alike and consist of an open basket or boxesof veneer holding about 10 pounds of fruit. When shipped, two, four orsix of these are packed in crates made of thin boards, so as to protectthe fruits but give them plenty of air. =Packing. =--Most of the fruit sent to New York and Philadelphia marketsfrom New Jersey and other northern states is in boxes or crates holdingabout 5/8 of a bushel and so made as to facilitate ventilation whenpiled in cars or warehouses. Fruit for the canneries is usually pickedand handled in bushel crates of lath. These various packages are usuallysold in the flat and the grower puts them together as is convenientbefore the crop comes on; but in many sections where there are largeshipments they are often put together by the package dealers. Fig. 30shows tomatoes as packed by the Ohio experiment station. [Illustration: FIG. 30--GREENHOUSE TOMATOES PACKED FOR MARKET (Bycourtesy Ohio Experiment Station)] =Fruits after frost. =--Sometimes when there is a great quantity ofpartially ripe and full grown green fruit on the vines which is liableto be spoiled by an early fall frost, it can be saved by pulling thevines and placing them in windrows and covering them with straw. Ofcourse the vines should be handled carefully to shake off as littlefruit as possible. If the freeze is followed by a spell of warm, dryweather the fruit will ripen up so as to be quite equal to that shippedin from a distance. A second plan is to pull the vines and hang them upin a dry cellar or out-house, or lay them on the ground in an opengrove of trees, or beneath the trees of an adjoining orchard. Still another plan is to gather the green fruit and spread it not morethan two to four fruits deep in hotbed frames, which are then coveredwith sash. Local grocers are usually glad to pay good prices for thislate fruit, and in seasons of scarcity I have known canners to buythousands of bushels so ripened at better prices than they paid for themain crop. CHAPTER XV Adaptation of Varieties Whatever may be their botanical origin, the modern varieties ofcultivated tomatoes vary greatly in many respects, and while thesedifferences are always of importance their relative importance differswith conditions. When the great desideratum is the largest possibleyield of salable fruit at the least expenditure of labor, the qualitiesof the vine may be the most important ones to be considered, while inprivate gardens and for a critical home market and where closerattention and better cultivation can be given, they may be of far lessimportance than qualities of fruit. =Habits of growth. =--Whether it be standard or dwarf, compact orspreading, is sometimes of great importance as fitting the sorts forcertain soils and methods of culture. On heavy, moist, rich land, wherestaking and pruning are essential to the production of fruit of the bestquality, it is of importance that we use sorts whose habits of growthfit them for it; while on warm, sandy, well-drained land, staking andpruning may be of little value, and a different habit of growth moredesirable. We have sorts in which the vine is relatively strong growingwith few branches, upright, with long nodes and small fruit clusterswell scattered over the vine. They are usually very productive through along season but generally late in maturing. Stocks of this type aresometimes sold, I think improperly, as giant climbing, or Tree tomato. The Buckeye State is a good type of these sorts. (Fig. 31. ) [Illustration: FIG. 31--BUCKEYE STATE, SHOWING LONG NODES AND DISTANCEBETWEEN FRUIT CLUSTERS] Other varieties make a stout and vigorous but shorter growth, with moreand heavier branches, shorter nodes and many small medium-sized clustersof fruit well distributed over the plant and which mature through afairly long season. These sorts are usually very productive and our mostpopular varieties generally belong to this type, of which the Stone(Fig. 32) is a good representative of the more compact and the Beauty ofthe more open growing. [Illustration: FIG. 32--STONE, AND CHARACTERISTIC FOLIAGE] Other varieties form many short, weak, sprawling branches, withusually large and sometimes very large clusters of fruit producedchiefly near the center of the plant and which mature early and alltogether. Plants of this type will often mature their entire crop anddie by the time those of the first type have come into full crop. TheAtlantic Prize (Fig. 33) and Sparks Earliana are examples of this type. In sharp contrast with the above is the tomato De Laye, often calledTree tomato. This originated about 1862 in a garden at Chateau de Laye, France. In this the plant rarely exceeds 18 inches in hight, issingle-stemmed or with few very short branches, the nodes very short, the fruit clusters few and small. From this, by crossing with othertypes, there has been developed a distinct class of dwarf tomatoes whichare of intermediate form and character and are well represented by theDwarf Champion (Fig. 34). Early maturity is sometimes the most importantconsideration of all, though, because of increasing facilities forshipping from the South, it is less commonly so than formerly. Forshipping and canning it is generally, though not always, desirable thatthe crop mature as nearly together as possible, that it may be gatheredwith the fewest number of pickings and advantage taken of a favorablemarket; while for the home garden and market a longer season isdesirable. [Illustration: FIG. 33--ATLANTIC PRIZE, AND ITS NORMAL FOLIAGE] =Foliage. =--Abundant, broad and close, or scanty cut and open foliage issometimes of importance, according to whether the location, season andother conditions make it desirable that the foliage protect the fruitfrom the sun or admit the sunlight, with as little obstruction aspossible, to the center of the plant. In different sorts, we havegradations from those in which the leaves are so deeply cut as to have afern-like appearance, to those like the Magnus, or potato-leaved, inwhich the margin of each leaflet is entire, and from those in which theleaflets are so few and small as to scarcely shut out the light at allto those in which they are so numerous that the light can hardlypenetrate to the center of the plant. The Atlantic Prize is anillustration of the scanty foliaged sorts, and the Royal Red or BuckeyeState of those in which it is more abundant. As to color, the foliagevaries from the dark blue-green of the Buckeye State to the light, distinctly yellowish-green of the Honor Bright. =Varietal differences as to fruit. =--These are often more important thanthose of vine. For canning, for forcing, and some other uses and forcertain markets, a medium and uniform size is a very important quality, while in other cases uniformity is not important and the larger theindividual fruits, provided they be well formed, the better. We havedifferent sorts in which the size of the fruit varies from that of theCurrant, which is scarcely 1 inch in circumference, to that ofPonderosa, of which well-formed specimens over 20 inches incircumference have been grown. [Illustration: FIG. 34--DWARF CHAMPION. NOTE CHARACTER OF FOLIAGE] =Shape. =--It is always desirable that the outline of the verticalsection shall be a flowing line with a broad and shallow, or nodepression at the stem end and as little as possible at the oppositepoint; but the relative importance of this, or whether the generaloutline shall be round or oval, either vertically or horizontally, forming a round, long or flat fruit, is largely determined by how thefruit is to be used, and by individual taste. A round fruit is bestfor canning; a long one is the most economical for slicing, though someprefer a flat one for this purpose. It is always desirable that theoutline of the horizontal section shall be smooth, flowing andsymmetrical, and if there be any distinct sutures that they shall beshallow and broad; but the relative importance of this, and whether theoutline be round or oval, is wholly a matter of individual taste. Somepeople and markets prefer one shape and others a very different one. Size and smoothness of fruit are the factors which control price in somemarkets, while in others these points are quite secondary to color andcharacter of flesh. We have sorts which vary from the perfectly spherical ones of the grapeand cherry, to those in which the vertical diameter is less than a thirdof that of the horizontal section; and the pear-shaped in which thevertical diameter is twice or thrice that of the longest horizontalsection, and from those in which the outline of both the vertical andhorizontal sections is smooth and flowing to those in which the verticalsection has a deep indentation at both the stem and opposite ends, andthose in which the horizontal section is broken by deep indentures andsutures often disposed with great irregularity. For shipping long distances, for the rough handling, and for the easypreparation for the fruit for canning, a thick, tough skin is desirable, while for home use it is objectionable. Freedom from blemish or skincrack is also often an important quality, and we have sorts which varygreatly in these respects. The color of the skin, whether purple, red, yellow or white, is a matter of taste. In some markets the choice isgiven to purple fruit, like the Beauty, while in others it can only besold at a reduced price. There are few who would care to use eitheryellow or white fruit for canning or cooking in any way, but many preferthem for slicing, or like to use them with the red for this purpose; wehave sorts showing every gradation from white or light yellow in colorthrough shades of red to dark purple-red, and still others which showdistinct colors in splashings and shadings. =Character of flesh. =--Many consider that the greater the number of cellsand the larger the proportion of flesh to that of pulp and seed thebetter. This may be true of itself, but the fruit-like acid tomatoflavor which most people value is found chiefly in the pulp, and thefruit which has not a due proportion of pulp and flesh seems to beinsipid and tasteless. Again, the division into many small cells isoften connected with a large and pithy placenta and unevenness inmaturity and coloring, which faults often more than overbalance anyadvantage from small cells and thick flesh. The size and character ofthe placenta are important qualities. In some sorts it is large, dry, pithy and hard, extending far into thefruit even to below the center; and sometimes seems to divide intosecondary or branch placentas or masses of hard cellular matter, whilein other varieties it is small and so soft and juicy as scarcely to bedistinguished from the flesh. Usually, but not invariably, the large andpithy placenta is correlated with large-sized fruit having many cells;where this is the case it practically necessitates the cutting away andwasting of a large proportion of the fruit in preparing it for canning, so that the canners usually prefer round, medium-sized fruits. The character of the interior of the fruit varies greatly in differentvarieties. Both the exterior and divisional walls vary in thickness andin consistency. In some varieties they are comparatively thin, hard anddry; in others, thicker, softer and more juicy. In some cases there isbut little interior wall, the fruit being divided into but few--even buttwo--cells of even size and shape, while in others there are many cellsof varying size and shape. Varieties also differ greatly as to theamount, consistency and flavor of the pulp and the number of seeds. Itrequires from 300 to 500 pounds of ripe fruit to furnish a pound of seedof Ponderosa, while with some of the smaller, earlier sorts one can geta pound of seed from 100 to 200 pounds of fruit. =Coloring and ripening. =--Uniformity and evenness in coloring andripening are an important quality. Tomatoes generally color and ripenfrom within outward, and from the point opposite the stem upward, butvarieties differ in the evenness and rapidity with which this takesplace. It is always desirable that the ripening be as even as possibleand that there be no green and hard spots either at the surface or inthe flesh, but often perfection in this respect is correlated with suchlack of size and solidity as to counterbalance it. Rapidity in ripening, in a general way, is desirable for fruit to be used at home, andundesirable in that which is to be shipped. The time a tomato fruit will remain in usable condition and the amountof rough handling it will endure without becoming unsalable are mostimportant commercial qualities depending largely upon the combinedeffects of the form and structure of the fruit, solidity and firmness ofthe flesh and ripening habit. In all these respects we have varietieswhich differ greatly, from the Honor Bright, which requires as much timeto ripen, and when ripe is firm-fleshed and will remain usable as longas a peach, to those which 24 hours after reaching their full size arefully colored and ripe, and in 24 hours more are so over-ripe and softthat they will break open of their own weight. These are only some of the varietal differences of the tomato. Are suchdifferences of practical importance? I think they are, and that a wiseselection of the type best suited to one's own particular conditions andrequirements is one of the most essential requisites of satisfactorytomato culture. How important it seems to practical tomato growers maybe illustrated by an actual case. In a certain section of New Jersey the money-making crop is earlytomatoes, and they are grown to such an extent that from an area with aradius of not exceeding 5 miles they have shipped as much as 15, 000bushels in one day, and the shipments will often average 8, 000 bushelsfor days together. They have tried a great number of sorts, but havesettled upon a certain type of a well-known variety as that best suitedto their conditions and needs. Seeds of this variety which are supposedto produce plants of the exact type wanted can be bought from seedsmenfor 10 cents an ounce and at much lower rates for larger quantities, but when one of the most successful growers of that locality, because ofchange of occupation, offered seed selected by him for his own use forsale at auction, it brought $3 an ounce. This price was paid because ofthe confidence of the bidders that the seed could be depended upon toproduce plants of the exact type wanted for their conditions; and I wasassured that the use of this high-priced seed actually added verylargely to the profits from every field in that vicinity in which it wasused, but the use of some of the same lot of seed by planters in Floridaresulted in financial loss because the type of plant produced was notsuited to their conditions and requirements. A wise answer can only be given after a study of each case, and no onecan do this so well as the planter himself. He should know, as no oneelse can know, his own conditions and requirements, and should be ableto form very exact ideas of just what he wants, and the doing so is, inmy opinion, one of the most important requisites for satisfactory tomatogrowing. I also believe that it is as impossible for a man to answeroffhand the question, "What is the best variety of tomato?" as for awise physician to answer the question, "What is the best medicine?" =Varietal names= and descriptions mean something quite different in thecase of plants like the tomato, which are propagated by seed, from whatthey do with plants like the apple and strawberry, which are propagatedby division. In the latter case all the plants of the variety are butparts of the primal origination, and so are alike. A description issimply a more or less complete and accurate definition of what acertain immutable thing really is, but in the case of plants propagatedby seed the variety is made up of all the plants which accord with acertain ideal. Bailey says, "Of all those which have more points ofresemblance than of difference, " and a description of the variety is ofthat ideal which in common practice is not fixed, but may and generallydoes vary not only with different people but from time to time. The onlyfoundation for varietal names in plants of this class is an agreement asto the ideal the name shall stand for. Under modern horticulturalpractice when anyone has been able to secure seed most of which he isreasonably sure will develop into plants of a distinct type differentfrom that of any sort known to him, he has a distinct variety, so thatit is not surprising that we should find that American seedsmen offertomato seed under more than 300 different names, and those of Europeunder more than 200 additional, so that we have more than 500 varietalnames, each claiming to stand for a distinct sort. Now it is quitepossible--indeed, it is certain--that we might have 500 tomato plantseach different in some respect, either of vine, leaf, habit of growth, or character of fruit, from any of the others and that these differencesmight make plants of one type better suited to certain conditions anduses than any other; but it is very certain that these 500 names do notstand for such differences. It is doubtless true that a portion--thoughI think but a small portion--of these different sorts exist simply as amatter of commercial expediency; but by far a greater part of them existbecause one has found that plants of a certain character were bettersuited to some set of conditions and requirements than any sort withwhich he was acquainted, and having secured seed which he thought wouldproduce plants of that character, has offered it as of a distinct sort. It is probable that a better acquaintance with sorts already incultivation would have prevented the naming of many of these stocks asdistinct varieties. What is of far more practical importance, the samename does not always stand for precisely the same type with differentseedsmen, or even with the same seedsmen in different years; nor are theseedsmen's published descriptions such as would enable any one to learnfrom them just what type he will receive under any particular name, orwhich sort he should buy in order to get plants of any desired type. Seedsmen's catalogs are published and distributed gratuitously at greatexpense, and are issued, primarily, for the sake of selling the seedsthey offer. They answer the purpose for which they are designed, inproportion as they secure orders for seeds. Will this be measured by theaccuracy and completeness of their descriptions? I think that it needsbut slight acquaintance with the actual results of advertising to answerin the negative, and whatever your answer may be, the answer given bythe catalogs themselves is an emphatic no. In a recent case I looked very carefully through the catalogs of 125American seedsmen who listed a certain variety which is very markedlydeficient in a certain desirable quality, and found that but 37 of the125 mentioned the quality in connection with the variety at all and ofthese but 7 admitted the deficiency, while 30 told the opposite of thetruth. Even if a complete, exact and reliable description of a varietywas published by disinterested persons, one could not be sure of gettingseed from seedsmen which would produce plants of that exact type, sincethere is no agreement or uniformity among them as to the exact type anyvarietal name shall stand for. One way of getting seed of the exact type wanted is to do as the SouthJersey growers did: go to work and breed up a stock which is uniformlyof the type wanted; but this involves more painstaking care than manyare willing to give, though I think not more than it would be mostprofitable for them to expend for the sake of getting seed just suitedto their needs. A second and easier way is to secure samples of the most promising sortsand from the most reliable sources and grow them on one's own farm;select the stock which seems best for him and buy enough of that exactstock for several years' planting, and in the meantime be looking for astill better one. Tomato seed stored in a cool, dry place will retainits vitality for from three to seven years. CHAPTER XVI Seed Breeding and Growing The potentialities of every plant and its limitations are inherent, fixed and immutable in the seed from which it is developed and are madeup of the balanced sum of the different tendencies it receives invarying degree from each of its ancestors back for an indefinite numberof generations. A very slight difference in the character or the degreeof any one of the tendencies which go to make up this sum may make amost material difference in the balance and so in the resultingcharacter of the plant produced. Different plants, even of the sameancestry, vary greatly in prepotency or in the relative dominance of theinfluence they have over descendants raised from seed produced by them. In some cases all the plants raised from seed produced by a certainplant will be essentially alike and closely resemble the seed-bearingplant, while seed from another plant of the same parentage will developinto plants differing from each other and seemingly more influenced bysome distant ancestor or by varying combinations of such influences thanof those of the plant which actually produced the seed from which theywere developed. Successful seed breeding can only be accomplished bytaking advantage of these principles of heredity and variation, and by awise use of them it is possible to produce seed which can be dependedupon to produce plants of any type possible to the species. =The first essential for breeding= is to have a clear and exactconception of precisely what, in all respects, the type shall be andthen the securing of seed which has come from plants of that exactcharacter for the greatest possible number of generations, carefullyavoiding the introduction by cross-pollination of tendencies from plantsdiffering in any degree from the desired type. Secondly, seed should beused from plants which have been proven to produce seed, which willdevelop into plants like themselves or are strongly prepotent. Apractical way to accomplish this in the tomato is as follows: By experiment and observation form a very clear conception of preciselythe type of plant and fruits which is best suited to your needs. Thismay be done by the study of available descriptions of sorts, byconference with those who have had experience in your own or similarclimatic and soil conditions and in raising fruit for the same purposesand, best of all, by trials of samples of different sorts and stocks onyour own grounds. Having formed such a conception, write out theclearest possible description of exactly what you want and the idealplant you are aiming at, stating as fully and minutely as possible everydesirable quality and also those to be avoided. I consider not only theformation of an exact ideal, but the writing out of a most minute andexact description of precisely what in every particular the ideal plantshould be and the rigid adherence to that exact ideal in selection, asthe most important elements of successful seed breeding. Without it oneis certain to vary from year to year in the type selected and in just sofar as he does this, even if it be toward what might be calledimprovements or in regard to an unimportant quality, he undermines allhis work and makes it impossible to establish a strain which can berelied upon to produce an exact type. With this description in hand, search out one or more plants which seemthe nearest to the ideal. In doing this it should be kept in mind thatthe character of the seed is determined by the plant rather than by theindividual fruit. Therefore, a plant whose fruit is most uniformly ofthe desired type should be chosen over one having a small proportion ofits fruits of very perfect type, the others being different andvariable. Save seed from one or more fruits from each of the selectedplants, keeping that from each fruit, or at least each plant, separate. Give it a number and make a record of how nearly, in each particular, the plant and fruit of each number come to the desired ideal. I regardthe saving of each lot separately and recording its characters as veryimportant, even when all have been selected to and come equally close toprecisely the same ideal. Quite often the seed of one plant will produceplants precisely like it, while that of another, equal or superior, willproduce plants of which no two are alike and none like that whichproduced the seed, so that often the mixing of seed from differentplants of the same general type, and seemingly of equal quality, prevents the establishment of a uniform type. The next year from 10 to 100 plants raised from each lot are set inblocks and labeled. As they develop the blocks are studied and comparedwith the original description of the desired type and that of each plantfrom which seed was saved, and the block selected in which all theplants come the nearest to the desired type, and which show the leastvariation. From it plants are selected in the same way and to the sametype as the previous year. It is better to make selections from such ablock than to take the most superior plants from all of the blocks, orfrom one which produced but one or but a few superlative ones, the restbeing variable. It is also well to consider the relative importance of differentqualities in connection with the degree to which the different lotsapproach the ideal in these respects. Such a course of selectionintelligently and carefully carried out will give, in from three to fiveyears, strains of seed greatly superior and better adapted to one's ownconditions than any which it is possible to purchase. A single or but avery few selections may be made each year, and the superior value of theseed of the remainder of the seed blocks for use in the field will befar more than the cost of the whole work. =Growing and saving commercial seed. =--The ideal way is for the seedsmanto grow and select seed as described above and give this stock seed tofarmers who plant in fields and cultivate it, much as is recommended forcanning, and save seed from the entire crop, the pulp being thrown away. Only a few pickings are necessary and the seed is separated by machinesworked by horse power at small cost, often not exceeding 10 cents apound. They secure from 75 to 250 pounds per acre, according to thevariety and crop, and the seedsmen pay them 40 cents to $1 a pound forit. Some of our more careful seedsmen produce all the seed they use inthis way; others buy of professional seed growers, who use more or lesscarefully grown stock seed. In other cases when the fruit is fully ripeit is gathered, and the seeds, pulp and skins, are separated bymachinery; the seed is sold to seedsmen, the pulp made into catsup, andonly the skins are thrown away. Still others get their supply by washingout and saving the seed from the waste of canneries. Such seed is justas good as seed saved _from the same grade of tomatoes_ in any otherway, but the fruit used by the canneries is, usually, a mixture ofdifferent crops and grades, and even of different varieties, andconsequently the seed is mixed and entirely lacking in uniformity anddistinctness of type. Generally from 5 to 20 per cent. Of the plants produced by seed ascommonly grown either by the farmer himself or the seedsmen, though theymay be alike in more conspicuous characteristics, will show varietaldifferences of such importance as to affect more or less materially thevalue of the plant for the conditions and the purposes for which it isgrown. In a book like this it is useless to attempt to give longvarietal descriptions even of the sorts commonly listed by seedsmen, since such descriptions would be more a statement of what the writerthought seed of that variety should be rather than of what one would belikely to receive under that name. CHAPTER XVII Production for Canning =Growing for canning= has many advantages over growing for market. Someof these are that it is not necessary to start the plants so early, thatthey can be grown at less cost, and set in the field when smaller andwith less check, and on this latter account are apt to give a largeyield. It is not necessary to gather the fruit so often, nor to handleit so carefully, while practically all of it is saleable. For thesereasons the cost of production is lower and it is less variable thanwith crops grown for market. Still farmers and writers do not agree atall as to the actual cost. It is claimed by some that where the factoryis within easy reach of the field the cost of growing, gathering anddelivering a full yield of tomatoes need not exceed $12 to $18 an acre, while others declare they cannot be grown for less than $40. Nearlyone-third of this cost is for picking and delivering, and varies morewith the facilities for doing this easily and promptly and with theyield than with crops grown for market. A large proportion of the cropsgrown for canning are poorly cultivated and unwisely handled, so thatthe average yield throughout the entire country is very low, hardlyexceeding 100 bushels an acre. But where weather and other conditionsare favorable, and with judicious cultivation, a yield of 300 to 800bushels an acre can be expected. I have known of many larger ones. A large proportion of the tomatoes grown for canning are planted undercontract, by which the farmer agrees to deliver the entire yield offruit fit for canning, which may be produced on a given area, at thecontract price per bushel or ton. The canner is to judge what fruit isfit for canning and this often results in great dissatisfaction. To thegrower it seems in many cases as though the quantity of acceptable fruitpaid for was determined quite as much by the abundance or scarcity ofthe general crop as by the weight hauled to the factory. The prices paidby the factories for the past 10 years run from 10 to 25 cents a bushel, while canning tomatoes in the open market for the same period havebrought from 8 to 50 cents a bushel, which, however, are exceptionalprices. In all but two of the past 10 years uncontracted tomatoes couldgenerally be sold, in most sections, for more than was paid on contract. I have given the price a bushel, though canning tomatoes are usuallysold by the ton. The cost of the product of a well-equipped cannery isdivided about as follows: fruit, 30 per cent. ; handling, preparing andprocessing the fruit, 18 per cent. ; cost of cans, labels, cases, etc. , 43 per cent. ; labeling, packing and selling, 0. 035 per cent. ;incidentals, 0. 055 per cent. =Canning on the farm. =--While as a general proposition such work ascanning tomatoes can usually be done at less cost in a central plant, yet in many cases the grower can profitably do this on the farm, thussaving not only the expense of delivery at the factory, but thedissatisfaction with weights credited and delays in receiving the fruit. But very little special apparatus or machinery (more than some form ofboiler for supplying steam) is needed, and this and the cans can bereadily obtained of dealers in canners' supplies. In Maryland andneighboring states many dealers furnish all necessary machinery, cansand other requisites and contract for the crop delivered in cans. Canning on the farm where the fruit is grown would be more generallypracticed except for the popular demand that the canned product shall bebrighter colored than it is possible to produce from fruit alone, andthe necessary dyeing and other doctoring can be more easily andskilfully done at a central factory, though it is always at thesacrifice of flavor and healthfulness for the sake of appearance. Another advantage of canning on the farm is that it can be done withless waste of fruit. The hauling to the factory and delay in working thefruit result in a great deal of waste. The average cannery does notobtain more than 1, 200 pounds of product from a ton of fruit, therebeing 800 pounds of waste, while with sound, ripe, perfectly freshfruit, it is entirely practical to secure from 1, 600 to 1, 800 pounds ofcanned goods from a ton, and this saving in waste would more thancounterbalance the gain from the use of the better machinery possible inthe factory. =The process of canning= is simple and consists first of rinsing off thefruit, then in wire baskets or pails dipping it into boiling hot waterto start the skins, which will require but two to four minutes. Whilethey are still hot they should be peeled and imperfections cut out, then promptly placed in the cans, which should be fully filled; it iswell to do this by adding the juice which has escaped while peeling, instead of water, as is done in the larger factories. This will give thecanned fruit better color and lessen the need of dye. Place in a hot boxfor three to five minutes until heated through, wipe top of can cleanand drop perforated cap in place, add flux and solder, seal cap in placewith round capper, close perforation in cap with drop of solder. Placein box or kettle and steam or boil for 20 to 40 minutes. If the tomatoeswere all ripe and none over-ripe, and have been kept hot from the timethey went into the scalding kettle until the sealed cans are in thekettle, 20 minutes' cooking will make them surer to keep than 40 minuteswould with fruit such as is commonly received at factories, or thatwhich has been allowed to cool once or twice while in process. CHAPTER XVIII Cost of Production There are a few vegetables or fruits where the cost of production andthe price received are more variable than with the tomato. The cost peracre for raising the fruit varies with the conditions of soil, facilities for doing the work economically and with the season, whilethat of marketing the product varies still more. Under usual conditions, the growing of an acre of tomatoes and the gathering and marketing ofthe fruit will cost from $18 to $90, of which from 15 to 40 per cent. Isspent in fertilizing and preparing the ground, 5 to 10 per cent. Forplants, 20 to 30 per cent. For cultivation, and 25 to 40 per cent. Forgathering and handling the fruit. The last item, of course, variessomewhat with, but not in proportion to, the amount of the crop, as itcosts proportionately less to gather a large than a small crop, and forcanners' use than for market. The expense of shipping and marketing the crop varies so greatlyaccording to the conditions and methods that I do not attempt to statethe amount. The total yield of fruit runs from 200 to 600 or 700 bushelsto the acre, a 200-bushel crop of tomatoes comparing as to amount withone of 25 bushels of wheat and a 700-bushel crop of tomatoes with one of60 bushels of wheat; with the best and wisest cultivation and under themost favorable conditions one can as reasonably hope for one as for theother. Of this total yield, from 10 to 25 per cent. Of the fruit shouldbe such as, because of earliness and quality, can be sold as extras, andthere is usually from 5 to 10 per cent. , and sometimes a much larger percent. , which should be rejected as unsalable. The selected fruit shouldnet from $1 to $5 a bushel, the common from 30 to 75 cents--making thereturns for a 200-bushel yield well sold in a nearby market $70 to $350, and proportionately larger, for a better yield. In practice I have knownof crops which gave a profit above expenses of over $1, 000 an acre. Thiscame, however, from exceptionally favorable conditions and skilledmarketing, and I have known of many more crops where, though the fruitwas equally large and well grown, the profit was less than $100. In this country a greenhouse is seldom used solely for the growing oftomatoes, but other crops--such as lettuce--are grown in connection withthe tomatoes, so that it is impracticable to give the cost ofproduction. As grown at the Ohio state experiment station--and the cropripened in late spring or early summer and sold on the market of smallercities--greenhouse tomatoes have yielded about two pounds a square footof glass and brought an average price of 12 cents per pound. In othercases yields as high as 10 pounds a foot of glass and an average priceof 40 cents a pound have been reported. CHAPTER XIX Insects Injurious to the Tomato By DR. F. H. CHITTENDEN Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture From the time tomato plants are set in the field until the fruit hasripened they are subject to the attacks of insects which frequentlycause serious injury. On the whole, however, the tomato is not sosusceptible to damage as are some related crops--such as the potato. =Cutworms. =--Of insects most to be feared and of those which attack theplants when they are first set out are cutworms of various species. Thegrower is as a rule quite too familiar with these insects, and nodescription of their methods is necessary, beyond the statement thatthey cut off and destroy more than they eat and re-setting is frequentlynecessary. The best remedy is a poisoned bait, prepared by dippingbunches of clover, weeds, or other vegetation in a solution of Parisgreen or other arsenical, 1 pound to 100 gallons of water. These baitsare distributed in small lots over the ground _before_ the plants areset, the precaution being observed that the land is free for two orthree weeks from any form of vegetation. This will force the hungry"worms" to feed on the baits, to their prompt destruction. A bran-mashis also used instead of weeds or clover, and is prepared by combiningone part by weight of arsenic, one of sugar, and six of sweetened bran, with enough water added to make a mash. The baits are renewed if theybecome too dry, or they can be kept moist by placing them under shinglesor pieces of board. [Illustration: FIG. 35--CUTWORM AND PARENT MOTH (_Feltia subgothica_)(From Chittenden, U. S. Department of Agriculture)] =Flea-beetles= attack the plants soon after they are set, and theirinjuries can be prevented by dipping the young plants before setting ina solution of arsenate of lead, about 1 pound to 50 gallons of water, orParis green, 1 pound to 100 gallons. If this precaution has not beenobserved a spray of either of these arsenicals used in the proportionspecified will suffice, repeating if the insects continue on the plants. In the preparation of the spray a pound of fresh lime to each pound ofthe arsenical should be added; or, better yet, Bordeaux mixture shouldbe employed as a diluent instead of water. This mixture has someinsecticidal value, is a most valuable fungicide, and is also apowerful deterrent of flea-beetle attack, acting to a less degreeagainst other insects which are apt to be found on the tomato. Inapplying any spray a sprayer costing not less than $7 is a positivenecessity. [Illustration: FIG. 36--FLEA-BEETLE Does great injury to young plants. Much enlarged. Actual size shown by line at right. (From Chittenden)] [Illustration: FIG. 37--MARGINED BLISTER BEETLE (From Chittenden)] =The Colorado potato beetle=, or "potato bug, " sometimes injurestomatoes, but not as a rule when potatoes are available. This suggeststhe use of potatoes as a trap crop, planted in about three rowscompletely around the field of tomatoes. The arsenicals used in the sameproportion as for flea-beetles will destroy the potato beetle. It isnecessary to keep the trap potatoes well sprayed to prevent them frombreeding on these plants and migrating to the tomatoes. Potato beetlescan also be controlled by jarring them from the affected plants intolarge pans containing a little water on which a thin scum of kerosene isfloating. =Blister beetles= may be controlled, under ordinary circumstances, bythe same method employed against the Colorado beetle. When they arepresent in great numbers a good remedy consists in driving them with thewind from the cultivated fields into windrows of straw or similar drymaterial previously prepared along the leeward side of the field, wherethey will congregate and can be burned. [Illustration: FIG. 38--TOMATO WORM (_Protoparce sexta_) (_a_) Adultmoth; (_b_) full-grown larva; (_c_) pupa--all reduced. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr. )] =The tomato worms=, of which there are two common species closelyresembling each other, are often abundant and destructive on tomatofoliage, particularly southward. The arsenicals will kill them, or theycan be held in check by hand-picking, a little experience enabling oneto detect their presence readily. Turkeys are utilized in destroyingthese worms in the South. [Illustration: FIG. 39--TOMATO STALK-BORER (_Papaipema nitela_)(_a_) Female moth; (_b_) half-grown larva; (_c_) mature larva in injuredstalk; (_d_) lateral view of abdominal segment; (_e_) pupa--all somewhatenlarged. (From Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr. )] =The stalk-borer=, as its name implies, attacks the stalk, and is anintermittent pest, though quite annoying at times. It is difficult tocombat, but its injuries may be prevented by care in keeping down, andby _promptly_ destroying, the weeds after they are pulled or hoed outduring the growing season. If weeds are left to dry the stripedcaterpillar of this species will desert them and enter cultivatedplants. Ragweed and burdock are the principal foods of this insect, andspecial attention should be given to eradicate them where tomatoes areplanted. Crop rotation is advisable where this can be convenientlypracticed, and such plants as cabbage, radish and the like, onions, beets, asparagus and celery are suggested as alternates. When the plantsare sprayed with arsenicals for other insects this will operate to acertain extent against the stalk-borer. [Illustration: FIG. 40--CHARACTERISTIC WORK OF THE TOMATO FRUIT WORM(_Heliothis obsoleta_) (Redrawn by Johnson from C. V. Riley)] [Illustration: FIG. 41--ADULT MOTH, OR PARENT OF TOMATO FRUIT WORM(From Chittenden, U. S. Department of Agriculture)] =The tomato fruit worm= (Fig. 40) known as the bollworm of cotton and theear worm of corn, is frequently the cause of serious trouble to tomatogrowers, especially in the southern states, due to its pernicious habitof eating into and destroying the green and ripening fruit. For itscontrol it is advisable not to plant tomatoes in proximity to old cornor cotton fields, nor should land be used in regions where this speciesis abundant until it has been fall or winter plowed. Sweet corn plantedabout the field before the tomatoes are set will serve as a lure for theparent moths to deposit their eggs, corn and cotton being favorite foodsof this species and preferred to tomatoes. The fruit worm feeds to acertain extent on the foliage before penetrating the fruit, and it ispossible to keep it in subjection by spraying with arsenicals as advisedfor the flea-beetles. It is suggested that arsenate of lead, being moreadhesive than other arsenicals, should be used for the first sprayings, beginning when the fruit commences to form, repeating once or twice asfound necessary, and making a last spraying with Paris green within afew days of ripening. This last poison will readily wash off and thereis no danger whatever of poisoning to human beings, as has beenconclusively proved in numerous similar cases. For the perfect successof this remedy the last spraying is essential, as those who havesprayed with an arsenical and have reported only partial good resultshave discontinued within about two weeks of the time of the ripening ofthe first fruit. =White fly or aleyrodes. =--These minute insects are familiar to mostgrowers who raise tomatoes under glass. They can be held in control byvaporization or fumigation with tobacco or nicotine extracts, or byspraying with kerosene emulsion or the so-called whale-oil (fish-oil)soap. Care is necessary in using the extracts that the smudge does notbecome too dense and injure the plants. Before applying this remedy on alarge scale a preliminary trial should be made following the directionson the packages, and reducing the amount if any ill results follow. Hydrocyanic acid gas, properly used, is also an excellent remedy foraleyrodes, aphides, "mealy-bug, " and other soft-bodied insects which aresometimes troublesome on greenhouse tomatoes. For a complete account of the methods of making and handling hydrocyanic acid gas, see Professor Johnson's book entitled "Fumigation Methods, " published by Orange Judd Company, of New York. Sent postpaid for $1. --[AUTHOR. CHAPTER XX Tomato Diseases By W. A. ORTON U. S. Department of Agriculture DISEASES NOT CAUSED BY FUNGI OR INSECTS The health of tomato plants is to a large extent dependent on theconditions under which they are being grown. The character and physicalcondition of the soil, the supply of water and plant food, thetemperature and amount of sunlight, are all factors of the greatestimportance in the growth and development of the crop. When there arevariations from the normal in the case of any of these the plant adaptsitself to the change as far as possible, but its functions may be sodisturbed as to result in ill health or disease. It is in many casesdifficult to draw a line between a natural re-action of the plant to itsenvironment and a state of disease. For example, the trouble describedin the next paragraph seems to fall into the first class. =Shedding of blossoms. =--The tomato is very liable to drop its buds andblossoms and in some instances partial or total crop failures haveresulted. The principal causes are an over-rapid growth, due in manycases to an excess of nitrogenous fertilizers, unfavorable weatherconditions, especially cold winds, continued rainy or moist weather, which hinders pollination, lack of sunlight, or extremely hot weather. Such shedding can be partially controlled by pruning away the lateralbranches as soon as formed and topping the plants after the thirdcluster of fruit has set, and by a reduction in the use of nitrogenousfertilizers. A failure to set fruit in the greenhouse is often due tolack of pollination, which must be remedied by hand pollination. =Cracking of the fruit. =--The formation of cracks or fissures in thenearly mature fruit is due to variations in the water supply and otherconditions affecting growth at this stage. If after the development ofthe outer portion of the fruit has been checked by drought there followsa period of abundant water supply and rapid growth, the fruit expandsmore rapidly than its epidermis and the latter is ruptured. Somevarieties of tomatoes are much less subject to this trouble than othersand should be given preference on this account. The grower, so far aslies in his power, should seek to maintain an uninterrupted growth bythorough preparation of the land, by cultivation or by mulching. If thehalf-grown fruits are enclosed in paper bags, cracking may be prevented, but at the risk of loss of flavor in the ripened fruit. =Leaf curl. =--The effect of pruning is to stimulate growth and toincrease the size of the leaves, the effort of the plant being tomaintain a balance between roots and foliage. With rapidly growingplants, especially in the greenhouse and garden where both high manuringand pruning have been practiced, more or less curling and distortion ofthe leaves may result without developing into serious trouble if thegrower takes the hint and modifies his methods so as to permit a morebalanced growth. On the other hand, the ill effects of over-feeding andpruning may reach a point where the plant is seriously crippled. =Edema. =--Under certain conditions plants in greenhouses or even in theopen field, may absorb water through the roots faster than it can betranspired through the leaves, with the result that dropsical swellingsor blisters occur on the leaves and more succulent stems. There is alsoa deformation of the foliage, much like the leaf-curl produced byover-feeding. This trouble, known as edema, occurs when the soil iswarmer than the air, or during periods of moist, warm, cloudy weather, which checks transpiration. The grower should cease pruning, andwithhold water, and in the field cultivate deeply. In the greenhouse, adequate ventilation should be given, keeping the house dry rather thanmoist. =Mosaic disease. =--The tomato is occasionally subject to a trouble alliedto the mosaic disease of tobacco. It is characterized by a variegationof the leaves into light and dark green areas, usually accompanied bydistortion and reduction in size. In severe cases a whole field maybecome worthless. While the nature of this malady is not fullyunderstood, it is known to be due to a disordered nutrition of the youngleaf-cells. It can be produced by severe pruning or by mutilation of theroots in transplanting, both of which should be carefully avoided. It ismore likely to occur in seedlings that have made a soft, rapid growth onaccount of an excess of nitrogenous fertilizer or too high temperature. Close, clayey soils, on account of their poor physical condition, alsofavor the development of the disease after transplanting. =Western blight (Yellows). =--In the North Pacific and Rocky Mountainstates, serious losses are annually caused by a disease apparentlyunlike any eastern trouble. It is marked by a gradual yellowing of thefoliage and fruit. Development is checked, the leaves curl upward andthe plant dies without wilting. The nature and cause of this disease isas yet unknown. It appears to be worst on new land. Experiments thathave been made indicate that in older cultivated fields thoroughpreparation of the soil, manuring and cultivation, combined with care intransplanting to avoid injuring the roots and checking growth, willgreatly restrict the spread of this blight. DISEASES CAUSED BY PARASITES There are several fungous parasites of tomatoes, which, for the readersconvenience, may be briefly mentioned and the treatment of all discussedtogether. The first three are indeed somewhat difficult to tell apartwithout a microscope, as they produce a similar effect on the leaves andall yield to the same treatment--thorough spraying with Bordeauxmixture. =Leaf spot= (_Septoria lycopersici_ Speg. ) has been widely prevalent andinjurious during recent years. It produces small, roundish dark-brownspots on leaves and stems. The lower leaves are attacked first andgradually curl up, die and fall off. The vitality of the plant isreduced and it is only kept alive by the young leaves formed at thetop. The fungus that causes early blight of potatoes (_Alternaria solani_ (E. & M. ) J. & G. ) occurs on tomatoes also, sometimes doing much injury. Thespots formed are at first small and black, later enlarging andexhibiting fine concentric rings. A somewhat similar leaf-blight results from a species of_Cylindrosporium_, and other fungi may occur on diseased leaves. =Leaf mold= (_Cladosporium fulvum_ Cke. ) is quite distinct from theforegoing in appearance. It does not cause such distinct spots butoccurs in greenish brown, velvety patches of irregular outline on theunder side of the leaves. The lower leaves are first attacked, and asthe disease progresses they turn yellow and drop off. This is theprincipal fungous enemy of greenhouse tomatoes, but also does injury ingardens, particularly in Florida and the Gulf region. It is readilycontrolled by spraying. In the greenhouse care should be taken toventilate well, without, however, allowing cold drafts to strike theplants. =Downy mildew= (_Phytopthora infestans_ DeBy. ), the cause of the lateblight of potatoes, will attack tomatoes during cool and very moistweather, which greatly favors its development. Such outbreaks sometimesoccur to a limited extent in New England and serious losses are reportedon the winter crop in southern California, but the disease has neverbeen troublesome in other sections of the country, as it cannot developin dry or hot weather. It affects the tomato as it does the potato, forming on the leaves dark, discolored spots, which spread rapidly underfavorable conditions, killing the foliage in a few days. The fruit isalso attacked and becomes covered with the mildew-like spore-bearingthreads of the fungus. Bordeaux mixture properly applied is an efficientpreventive. =Spraying tomatoes. =--It should be the invariable practice of the tomatogrower to spray with Bordeaux mixture to prevent injury from any ofthese leaf-blights. This should be done while the plants are stillhealthy, as if put off until the disease appears the battle is halflost. Make the first application to the young plants in the seed-bed afew days before transplanting. Spray again within a week after theplants are set in the field, and repeat at intervals of ten days or twoweeks until the fruit is full grown. Success in spraying depends mainlyon the thoroughness of the work. The aim should be to cover every leafwith a fine mist. Do not drench the foliage but pass to the next plantbefore the drops run together and off the leaf. Use a nozzle that givesa fine spray and maintain a high pressure at the pump. _Preparation of Bordeaux mixture. _--Formula: Copper sulphate(bluestone), 5 pounds; lime, 5 pounds; and water, 50 gallons. The coppersulphate may be either in crystals or pulverized. Dissolve by suspendingthe required amount in a coarse sack near the top of the water a fewhours before it will be needed. The lime must be fresh stone lime ofgood quality. Slake thoroughly by the addition of small quantities ofwater at a time as needed, stirring until all small lumps are slaked. Strain both the lime milk and the copper sulphate or bluestone solutionthrough a brass strainer of 18 meshes per inch and dilute each with halfthe water before mixing together. Do not use Bordeaux left over fromthe previous day. An old mixture or one made from the concentratedsolutions has a poor physical condition. It settles more quickly, tendsto clog the nozzle and does not adhere so well to the foliage. Failureto use the strainer results in endless trouble in the field from cloggednozzles. [Illustration: FIG. 42--PROPER WAY TO MAKE BORDEAUX (From W. G. Johnson)] When much spraying is to be done it is more convenient to keep thebluestone and lime in separate permanent stock solutions, as shown inFig. 42, containing 2 pounds to the gallon of their respectiveingredients. These will keep indefinitely, if the water evaporated isreplaced, and may be used from as needed. _Spraying apparatus. _--Tomato growers having only a small area to spraymay use one of the numerous forms of hand-pumps or bucket sprayers nowon the market. For larger fields it will be necessary to employ abarrel sprayer. This consists of a hand-pump mounted in a barrel or tankand equipped with two leads of 3/8 inch hose 25 feet long, each with afour-foot, extension made from 1/4 inch gas pipe, and a double Vermorelnozzle. The barrel should be carried in an ordinary farm wagon. Threemen do the work. One is expected to drive and pump, while the other twomanipulate the nozzles. The outfit is stopped while the plants withinreach are sprayed, then driven forward about 30 feet and stopped again. On an average in actual field practice 3 to 4 acres a day can be sprayedin this way, applying 100 to 200 gallons of Bordeaux per acre. To keepthe long hose off the plants two poles about 10 feet long may be pivotedto the bed of the wagon so as to swing at an angle over the wheel andcarry the hose. The pump for this outfit should be of good capacity, with brass valves. A "Y" shut-off discharge connection on the pump is aconvenience for stopping the spray at any time. The most satisfactorynozzles are those of the Vermorel type. It is cheapest in the long runto buy the best grades of pumps on the market. This outfit isexcellently adapted for spraying small fields of potatoes and forgeneral orchard work, and is invaluable on the average farm. =Phytoptosis. =--This disease is known to occur only in Florida, where itis sometimes common enough to require remedial treatment. The affectedportions of the foliage are more or less distorted and covered with anashy white fuzz. The general vigor and fruitfulness of the plants aregreatly reduced. The name applied to this trouble denotes its cause, anextremely small mite (_Phytoptus calacladophora_ Nal. ), which by itspresence on the leaves or stems so irritates them as to result in theabundant development of modified plant hairs, which shelter the mitesand form the fuzzy covering characteristic of the disease. A remedy forphytoptosis is available in the sulphur compounds. The following one isparticularly recommended by Prof. P. H. Rolfs, to whom our knowledge ofthe disease is due: _Preparation of sulphur spray. _--Place 30 pounds of flowers of sulphurin a wooden tub large enough to hold 25 gallons. Wet the sulphur with 3gallons of water, stir it to form a paste. Then add 20 pounds of 98 percent. Caustic soda (28 pounds should be used if the caustic soda is 70per cent. ) and mix it with the sulphur paste. In a few minutes itbecomes very hot, turns brown, and becomes a liquid. Stir thoroughly andadd enough water to make 20 gallons. Pour off from the sediment and keepthe liquid as a stock solution in a tight barrel or keg. Of thissolution use 4 quarts to 50 gallons of water. Apply with a spray pumpwhenever the disease appears, and repeat if required by its laterreappearance. The use of dry sulphur is also recommended. DISEASES OF THE FRUIT [Illustration: FIG. 43--POINT-ROT DISEASE OF THE TOMATO (Redrawn fromN. Y. Expr. Sta. No. 125)] =Point-rot. =--This trouble, called also "blossom-end rot, " and"black-rot, " occurs on the green fruit at various stages of development, as shown in Fig. 43. It begins at the blossom end as a sunken brownspot, which gradually enlarges until the fruit is rendered worthless. The decayed spot is often covered in its later stages by a dense blackfungous growth (_Alternaria fasciculata_ (C. & E. ) J. & G. Syn. _Macrosporium tomato_ Cke. ), formerly thought to be the cause of therot, but now known to be merely a saprophyte. Point-rot sometimes occursin greenhouses, but is more common in field culture. It is one of themost destructive diseases of the tomato, but its nature is not fullyworked out, and a uniformly successful treatment is unknown. It has beenthought to be due to bacterial invasion, but complete demonstrations ofthat fact have not yet been published. The physiological conditions ofthe plant appear to be important. The disease is worst in dry weatherand light soils, where the moisture supply is insufficient, andirrigation is beneficial in such cases. Spraying does not controlpoint-rot so far as present evidence goes. =Anthracnose--ripe-rot=--(_Colletotrichum phomoides_ (Sacc. ) Chest. ), isdistinguished from the point-rot by the fact that it occurs mainly onripe or nearly ripe fruits, producing a soft and rapid decay. Widespreadlosses from this cause are not common, but when a field becomes infecteda considerable proportion of the crop within a limited area may bedestroyed if humid or rainy weather prevails. Preventive measures onlycan be employed. These should consist in collecting and destroyingdiseased fruit and in staking and trimming the vines to admit light andair to dry out the foliage. Bordeaux mixture applied after thedevelopment of the disease would be of doubtful efficiency and would beobjectionable on account of the sediment left on the ripe fruit. DISEASES OF THE ROOT OR STEM =Damping off. =--Young plants in seed-beds often perish suddenly from arot of the stem at the surface of the ground. This occurs as a rule indull, cloudy weather among plants kept at too high a temperature, crowded too closely in the beds or not sufficiently ventilated. Severalkinds of fungi are capable of causing damping off, under suchconditions. _Preventive measures_ are of the first importance. Since old soil isoften full of fungous spores left by previous crops, it is the wisestplan to use sterilized soil for the seed-bed. When the young plants aregrowing, constant watchfulness is required to avoid conditions that willweaken the seedlings and favor the damping off fungi. _Watering and ventilation_ are the two points that require especialskill. Watering should be done at midday, to allow the beds to drainbefore night, and only enough water for the thorough moistening of thesoil should be applied. Ventilation should be given every warm day asthe temperature and sunshine will permit, but the plants must beprotected from rain and cold winds. Work the surface of the soil topermit aeration and do not crowd the plants too closely in the beds. Ifdamping off develops something can be done to check it by scattering alayer of dry, warm sand over the surface, and by spraying the bedthoroughly with weak Bordeaux or by applying dry sulphur and air-slakedlime. =Bacterial wilt= (_Bacterium solanacearum_ Erw. Sm. ). --This disease, which also attacks potatoes and eggplants and some related weeds, is oneof the most serious enemies of the tomato. It is known to occur fromConnecticut southward to Florida and westward to Colorado, but is mostprevalent in the Gulf States, where it has greatly discouraged manygrowers. _Its most prominent symptoms_ are the wilting of the foliage and abrowning of the wood inside the recently wilted stems. An affected plantwilts first at the top, or a single branch wilts, but later the entireplant yellows, wilts and dies. Young plants wilt more suddenly and dryup. The disease progresses more rapidly in plants that have made asucculent, luxurious growth, while those with hard, woody stems resistit somewhat. _The disease is due_ to the invasion of bacteria, which enter the leavesthrough the aid of leaf-eating insects, or through the roots. They plugthe water-carrying vessels of the stem, shutting off the water and foodsupply of the plant. If the stem of a plant freshly wilted from thisdisease be severed, the bacteria will ooze out in dirty white drops onthe cut surface. =Remedial measures= entirely satisfactory for the control of bacterialwilt have not yet been worked out. The best methods to adopt at presentare the following: (1) _Rotation of crops. _--The field evidence is that this disease is inmany cases localized in old gardens or in definite spots in the field. It appears also that the infection left by a diseased crop can remain inthe soil for some time. It is therefore advised that tomato growersshould always practice a rotation of crops, whether any disease hasappeared or not, and that in case bacterial wilt develops they shouldnot plant that land in tomatoes, potatoes, or eggplants for three orfour years. The length of rotation necessary to free the soil is notknown, but will have to be worked out by the individual grower. (2) _Destruction of diseased plants. _--The bacteria causing wilt notonly spread through the soil but are carried by insects from freshlywilted to healthy plants. Diseased plants thus become dangerous sourcesof infection, and it is evident that all such should be pulled out andburned. This is particularly important at the beginning of the troublewhen the eradication of a few wilting plants may save the remainder. (3) _Control of insects. _--To lessen the danger from spread of wilt byinsects, the measures advised in the next chapter for the control ofleaf-eating insects should be adopted. In this connection it should bementioned that the use of Bordeaux mixture for leaf blights, aspreviously recommended, has an additional value in that the coating onthe leaves is distasteful to insects and helps to keep them away. (4) _Seed selection. _--Work done at the Florida experiment stationindicates that resistant varieties may be secured, but there are as yetnone in commercial use. This is an important line for experimenters tofollow up. There is no proof that the disease is spread through seedfrom diseased plants. =Fusarium wilt. =--This disease and the one following resemble thebacterial wilt so closely, as far as external characters go, that theyare difficult to tell apart. The parasites, however, differ somaterially in their nature and life history that the field treatment isquite different. There are also differences in geographical distributionthat are important, for while the Fusarium wilt occurs occasionallythroughout the southern states, it is known to be of general commercialimportance only in southern Florida and southern California. _The symptoms of the disease_ are a gradual wilting and dying of theplants, usually in the later stages of their development. Young plantsdie, however, when the soil infection is severe. There is a browning ofthe woody portions of the stem, and when a section of this is examinedunder a compound microscope the vessels are found to be filled withfungous threads, which shut off the water supply. _The infection_ in the Fusarium wilt appears to come entirely from thesoil. Little is known of its manner of spread, except that thecultivation of a tomato crop in certain districts appears to leave thesoil infected so that a crop planted the next year will be injured ordestroyed. The fungus does not remain in the soil for a very long timein sufficient abundance to cause serious harm. A rotation of crops thatwill bring tomatoes on the land once in three years has been found inFlorida to prevent loss from Fusarium wilt. _This fungus does not attack any other crop_ than tomatoes, so far asknown, though it is very closely related to species of Fusariumproducing similar diseases in cotton, melon, cowpea, flax, etc. Fusariumwilt has not been found in fields and gardens in the northern states, but tomatoes in greenhouses there are sometimes attacked by it or arelated Fusarium, which also occurs in England. When greenhouse beds areinfected the soil for the next crop should be thoroughly sterilized bysteam under pressure. =Sclerotium wilt. =--This disease resembles the two preceding in itseffect on the plant, which wilts at the tip first, and gradually dies. Its geographical range is more restricted. It seems to be confined tonorthern Florida and the southern part of Georgia and Alabama, where itoccurs in gardens and old cultivated fields. The fungus causing thiswilt attacks the root and the stem near the ground, working in from theoutside. There is not the browning of the wood vessels characteristic ofthe two preceding diseases. If an affected stem is put in a moistchamber made from a covered or inverted dish, there will develop anexceedingly vigorous growth of snow-white fungous mycelium which, aftera few days, bears numerous round shot-like bodies, at firstlight-colored, then becoming smaller and dark-brown. These are thesclerotia or resting bodies of the fungus. This fungus, called_Sclerotium_ sp. , or "Rolf's Sclerotium, " is noteworthy because itattacks potatoes, squash, cowpea, and a long list of other gardenvegetables and ornamental plants. The only satisfactory means of controlis rotation of crops, using corn, small grain, and the Iron cowpea, avariety immune to this and other diseases. Susceptible crops should bekept from infected fields for two or three years. =Root-knot= (_Heterodera radicicola_ (Greef) Mül. ) attacks tomatoes ingreenhouses and is in some cases an important factor in southern fieldculture. It is caused by a parasitic eelworm or nematode, of minutesize, which penetrates the roots and induces the formation of numerousirregular swellings or galls, in which are bred great numbers of youngworms. The effect on the plant is to check growth and diminishfruitfulness, in advanced cases even resulting in death. _The remedy in greenhouse culture_ is thorough soil sterilization. Inthe open field this is impracticable and recourse must be had to arotation with immune crops, which will starve out the root-knot. It mustnow be borne in mind that the root-knot worm can attack cotton, cowpea, okra, melons and a very large number of other plants. The only commoncrops safe to use in such a rotation in the South are corn, oats, velvet beans, beggar weed, peanuts, and the Iron cowpea. The use ofother varieties of cowpea than the Iron is particularly to be avoided, on account of the danger of stocking the land with root-knot. Fortunately, the disease is serious only in sandy or light soils. =Rosette= (_Corticium vagum_ (B. & C. ) var. _solani_ Burt. ) is a diseaseof minor importance, which occurs in Ohio, Michigan, and scatteringly inother states. The fungus causing it (_Rhizoctonia_) attacks the rootsand base of the stem, forming dark cankers. The effect on the plant isto dwarf and curl the leaves and to restrict productiveness. The potatosuffers more severely from the same trouble. Rotation of crops andliberal application of lime to the soil are advised for the control ofrosette in tomatoes. INDEX PAGE Adaptations of varieties, 97 as to habit, 97 as to foliage, 100 as to fruit, 102 Botany, 1 Canning, cost of, 118 on the farm, 118 Essentials for successful, 119 Catalog descriptions incomplete, 110 Characteristics of blossom, 25 Characteristics of fruit, 26 Development from original form, 26 Effect of conditions on, 26 Quality, 26 Characteristics of plant, 20 Checking of growth, effect upon, 20 Natural environment, 20 Uniform growth, importance of, 21 Characteristics of root, 23 Characteristics of stem and leaves, 24 Classification, 4 Cherry, 5 Cultivated varieties, 10 Currant, 4 Pear, 7 Cold-frames, construction, 53 Commercial importance of crop, 18 Cost of crop, per acre, 121 as grown for canners, 117 Covers for plant beds, 55 Cultivation, 76 Care and thoroughness necessary, 76 in greenhouse, 77 in home garden, 77 Diseases, 131 Bacterial wilt, 142 Blight, early, 135 Blight, leaf, 134 Blight, Western, 134 Cracking of fruit, 132 Damping off, 141 Edema, 133 Fusarium wilt, 144 Leaf curl, 132 Leaf mold, 135 Leaf spot, 134 Mildew, downy, 135 Mosaic disease, 133 Phytoptosis, 138 Point rot, 139 Root knot, 146 Sclerotium wilt, 145 Yellows, 134 Diseases, remedies for, 131 Bordeaux mixture, preparation of, 136 Preventatives of, 143 Spraying apparatus, 137 Spraying, importance of, 136 Sulphur spraying, 139 Distances for setting plants, 68 in field, 68 in greenhouse, 70 in home garden, 69 Drainage, importance of, 31 Essentials for best development, 28 Cultivation, 32, 76 Effect of shade, 28 Food supply, 31, 43 Heat, 30 Moisture, 30 Sunlight, 28 Exposure, 38 for early crop, 39 for greenhouse, 40 for home garden, 40 Fertilizers, 43 Amounts, 43 Character, 44 Experiments with, 45 for general application, 44 for greenhouse, 45 for home garden, 45 Flats, construction, 57 Gathering fruit, 91 Habit, 22 Handling fruit, 92 History, 14 Hotbeds, construction, 51 Hotbeds, growing fruit in, 70 House, construction, 49 Insects injurious to tomatoes, 123 Blister beetle, 125 Colorado potato beetle, 125 Cut worm, 123 Flea-beetle, 124 Stalk-borer, 127 Tomato fruit worm, 128 Tomato worm, 126 White fly, 130 Location of field as determining profit, 38 Manure Fall dressing, 41 for cold-frames, 55 for greenhouse soil, 37 for hotbeds, 51 in preparing ground, 46 Origin, 10 Origin of name, 14 Packing, 94 Pollinating, 77 Pollination, 25 Prices obtained at canneries, 118 for hothouse fruit, 122 for select field grown fruit, 122 Profits on crop, 122 Propagation of plants, 48 from cuttings, 49 from seed, 48, 49 in cold-frames, 53 in hotbeds, 51 in temporary greenhouses, 49 Pruning, 80 Ripening on the vines, 90 Ripening after frost, 95 Sash, cost, 49 for hotbeds, 52 for cold-frames, 53 Seed breeding, 112 Essentials to success, 113 Growing and saving commercial seed, 115 Methods followed, 115 Prices received, 116 Yields obtained, 116 Importance of breeding from individual plants, 114 Importance of exact ideals, 113 Methods recommended, 113 Principles underlying, 112 Setting plants, 70 Conditions favorable and unfavorable, 70, 71 in field, 70 in greenhouse, 74 in home garden, 74 New Jersey method, 71 Other methods, 73 Soil Composition, importance of, 24 Conditions essential, 41 Preparation, 41, 46 for greenhouse, 47 for home garden, 47 Soil Preparation, for main crop, 46 Importance of, 46 Selection, 33 for early crop, 36 for greenhouse, 37 for home garden, 36 for main crop, 34 Previous crop, 41 Sorting, 92 Staking, 79 Starting plants, 59 Effect of shade, 29 for early fruit, 63 for forcing, 67 for home garden, 67 for late crop, 65 in flats, 59 in greenhouse, 59 Pricking out, 60 Right conditions, 62 Spotting boards, 61 Unfavorable conditions, 63 Watering, 60 With least labor, 66 Succession, practice in the South, 42 Training, 79 for greenhouse, 88 for home garden, 85 Types, 14 Value, development of, 16 Variations, in foliage, 100 in fruit, 102 Coloring, 106 Flesh, 105 Ripening, 106 Shape, 102 in habit, 97 Varietal differences, as to foliage, 100 as to fruit, 102 as to growth, 97 Variety names, 108 Sources, 109 Varying application, 110 Watering, danger in, 30, 60 Yielding capacity, 22 Yield per acre, 117, 121 Yield per foot of greenhouse bench, 122 Transcriber's Notes The following typographical errors have been corrected: Page 61: ". .. Necessary. When plants are set in . .. " (had 'plans'). Page 107: ". .. These respects we have varieties . .. " (had 'resepcts'). Page 117: ". .. The question, "What is the best . .. " (had 'queston'). Page 148: "Mildew, downy, 135" (had 'downey'). Page 149: "Pollinating, 77" (had 'Pollenating'). Page 149: "Pollination, 25" (had 'Pollenation'). The archaic spelling of "hight" is as used throughout the original. '_' is used to denote italics, and '=' is used to denote bold typeface.