[Illustration: Mount Vesuvius] [Illustration: Marvels of Creation] WONDERS OF CREATION: A DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF VOLCANOES AND THEIR PHENOMENA. "The mountains quake at Him and the hills melt and the earth is burned at His presence"--NAHUM 1:5 1872 PREFACE Being intended for the Young, this work treats of Volcanoes only ina popular way. Scientific details and philosophical speculationsare accordingly avoided. Nevertheless, a perusal of the followingpages may so stimulate the curiosity of youthful minds, that some, on attaining to riper years and more mature understanding, may beinspired with a longing to inquire more deeply into thisinteresting subject. They may be stimulated to investigate, in aphilosophical spirit, all the marvellous facts and phenomenaconnected with volcanic agency, and to speculate on their causesand modes of operation. Some also, on reaching their manhood, maybe induced to ascend one or more of the nearer active volcanoes, and examine their phenomena for themselves. The facilities oftravel are now so great, that a visit to Vesuvius or Etna is nolonger beyond the limits of a holiday trip. Even the more remoteHecla with the playful Geysers may be reached within a reasonabletime. Perhaps a very few, who are now scientific travellers inembryo, may call to remembrance what they may have read in thesepages, when, many years hence, they may be climbing the cone ofCotopaxi, or peering into the crater of Kilauea. Apart from these considerations, a perusal of this work may enablethe young mind to form a more lively idea of the tremendous energyof the forces which are imprisoned in the bowels of the earth. Sucha vivid conception will naturally lead to a higher appreciation ofthe wisdom and power of Him who guides the operation of thoseforces by his laws, and has set bounds to their activity which theycannot overpass. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Volcanoes in general--Origin of the Name--General Aspect--Crater--Cone--Subordinate Cones and Craters--Peak of Teneriffe--Lava-Streams--Cascades and Jets of Lava--Variations in its Consistency--Pumice--Different Sorts of Lava--Obsidian--Olivine--Sulphur--Dust, Ashes, &c. --Volcanic Silk--Volcanic Islands--Volcanic Fishes--HotWater, Mud, Vapours, &c. --Volcanic Storm--Explosions--Number ofVolcanoes--King of the Volcanoes--Artificial Volcano CHAPTER II. Volcanoes of Iceland--Mount Hecla--Earliest Eruption--GreatEruption in 1845--Skaptar Yokul--Terrible Eruption in 1783--Riseand Disappearance of Nyoe--Katlugaia--The Geysers--A very hot Bath--Californian Geysers--Iceland-spar--Jan Mayen CHAPTER III. Mount Vesuvius--Origin of Name--Former Condition--Eruption of A. D. 79--Death of Pliny--Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum--Appearance of the Mountain before and after Eruption--Formation ofMonte Nuovo--Eruption of Boiling Water--Coloured Vapours--Cascadeof Lava--Discovery of Remains of Herculaneum and Pompeii--TheBuildings of Pompeii--Street of Tombs--Skeletons--Sundry Shops--Ascents of Vesuvius--Crater--Temple of Serapis CHAPTER IV. Mount Etna--Its Appearance and Height--Ancient Eruptions--Pindar'sAllusion--Virgil's Description--Subordinate Cones and Craters--Caverns--Val de Bove--Formation of Monti Rossi--Eruption of 1852--Whirlwinds--Lava Torrents--Cascades of Lava--Description of Crater--Empedocles--Enceladus--Craters of 1865--Cyclopean Isles--Homer'sLegend--Volcanic Origin--Other Basaltic Groups CHAPTER V. Lipari Islands--Stromboli--Origin of Name--Position of Crater--Description of Crater--New Volcanic Island named Julia--Phenomenapreceding its Elevation--Description of Island and Crater--ItsDisappearance--Rise of Islands at Santorin CHAPTER VI. Peak of Teneriffe--Its Crater--Eruption of Chahorra--Palma--GreatCaldera--Lancerote--Great Eruption--Sudden Death--Fuego, Cape deVerde Islands--Cotopaxi--Its Appearance--Great Eruptive Force--Tunguragua--Great Eruption of Mud and Water--Fish thrown out--Quito--Its Overthrow--Pichinca--Humboldt's Ascent--Narrow Escape--Antisana--Sangay--Rancagua--Chillan--Masaya CHAPTER VII. Jorullo--Great Monument--Jorullo's Estate--Interruption to hisQuiet--His Estate Swells--Swallows Two Rivers--Throws up Ovens--Becomes a Burning Mountain--Popocatepetl--Spanish Ascents--Orizaba--Muller's Ascent--Morne Garou--Pelee--La Soufriere CHAPTER VIII. Hawaii, Sandwich Islands--Crater of Kilauea--Its awful Aspect--Fiery Lake and Islands--Jets of Lava--Depth of Crater and Surfaceof Lake--Bank of Sulphur--Curious Rainbow--Mouna Kaah and Mouna Loa--Eruption of the Latter in 1840--Recent Eruption--Great Jet andTorrent of Lava--Burning of the Forests--Great Whirlwinds--Underground Explosions--Other Volcanoes in the Pacific CHAPTER IX. Atolls, or Coral Islands--Their strange Appearance--Their Connexionwith Volcanoes--Their Mode of Formation--Antarctic Volcanoes-Diatomaceous Deposits CHAPTER X. Volcanoes of Java--Papandayang--Mountain Ingulfed--GreatDestruction of Life and Property--Galoen gong--DestructiveEruption--Mount Merapia--Great Eruption, with Hurricane--Another, very destructive---Mud Volcano--Crater of Tankuban Prahu--Island ofSumbawa--Volcano of Tomboro--Terrific Eruption--Timor--A Volcanoquenches itself--Cleaving of Mount Machian--Sangir--DestructiveEruption--Bourbon CHAPTER XI. Mud and Air Volcanoes--Luss--Macaluba--Taman--Korabetoff New Islandin the Sea of Azof--Jokmali--Fires of Baku--Mud Volcano in Flank ofEtna--Air Volcanoes of Turbaco, Cartagena, and Galera Zamba CHAPTER XII. New Zealand--Boiling Fountains and Lakes CHAPTER XIII. Underground Sounds--Quito--Rio Apure--Guanaxuato--Melida--Nakous CHAPTER XIV. Extinct Volcanoes--Auvergne--Vienne--Agde--Eyfel--Italy--LacusCimini--Grotto del Cane--Guevo Upas--Talaga Bodas--The Dead Sea WONDERS OF CREATION: VOLCANOES AND THEIR PHENOMENA. CHAPTER I. Volcanoes in general--Origin of the Name--General Aspect--Crater--Cone--Subordinate Cones and Craters--Peak of Teneriffe--Lava-Streams--Cascades and Jets of Lava--Variations in its Consistency--Pumice--Different Sorts of Lava--Obsidian--Olivine--Sulphur--Dust, Ashes, &c. --Volcanic Silk--Volcanic Islands--Volcanic Fishes--HotWater, Mud, Vapours, &c--Volcanic storm--Explosions--Number ofVolcanoes--King of the Volcanoes--Artificial Volcano. Among the many wonderful works of God, none exhibits so much ofawful grandeur as an active volcano. This name for a burningmountain was first applied to that which exists in the islandanciently called Hiera, one of the Lipari group. It is derived fromthe name of the heathen god Vulcan, which was originally spelt withan initial B, as appears from an ancient altar on which wereinscribed the words BOLCANO SAC. ARA. This spelling indicates thetrue derivation of the name, which is simply a corruption of Tubal-cain, who was "an instructer of every artificer in brass and iron"(Gen. Iv. 22). The ancient heathen, having deified this personage, imagined, on first seeing a burning mountain, that Tubal-cain, orVulcan, must have established his forge in the heart of it, and so, not unnaturally, named it Volcano--an appellation which the Islandof Hiera retains to the present day. The Cyclops--the supposed descendants of Vulcan, who were fabled tohave been of gigantic stature, and to have had each only one eye inthe centre of the forehead--were imagined to be the workmen wholaboured in these underground forges. The noises, proceeding fromthe heart of the mountain, were attributed to their operations. Itis to the Island of Hiera that Virgil alludes in the AEneid, lib. Viii. 416. The passage is thus rendered by Dryden:-- "Sacred to Vulcan's name, an isle there lay, Betwixt Sicilia's coasts and Lipare, Raised high on smoking rocks, and deep below, In hollow caves the fires of Etna glow. The Cyclops here their heavy hammers deal; Loud strokes and hissings of tormented steel Are heard around; the boiling waters roar, And smoky flames through fuming tunnels soar. " A volcano generally presents itself to the imagination as amountain sending forth from its summit great clouds of smoke withvast sheets of flame, and it is not unfrequently so described. Thetruth is, however, that a real volcano seldom emits either truesmoke or true flame. What is mistaken for smoke consists merely ofvast volumes of fine dust, mingled with much steam and othervapours--chiefly sulphurous. What appears like flames is simply theglare from the glowing materials which are thrown up towards thetop of the mountain--this glare being reflected from the clouds ofdust and steam. [Illustration: Peak of Teneriffe. ] The most essential part of a volcano is the crater, a hollow basin, generally of a circular form. It is often of large dimensions, andsometimes of vast depth. Some volcanoes consist of a crater alone, with scarcely any mountain at all; but in the majority of cases thecrater is situated on the top of a mountain, which in someinstances towers to an enormous height. The part of the mountainwhich terminates in the principal crater is usually of a conicalform--much like a glass-house chimney, and is therefore named thecone. It is generally composed of loose ashes and cinders, withhere and there masses of stone, which have been tossed into the airby the volcanic forces. In some mountains the cone rises out of ahollow at a considerable height from the base. A hollow of thiskind is generally regarded as having been a former crater, whichhad become extinct before the existing cone was raised. There aresometimes formed lower down the mountain subordinate craters, smaller than that which occupies the summit of the cone. Within thecrater itself there are frequently numerous little cones, fromwhich vapours are continually issuing, with occasional volleys ofashes and stones. One of the largest and most perfect of the volcanic cones in theworld is that of the Peak of Teneriffe, of which you have here arepresentation. It conveys a good idea of the general form of thecone, and has long been a conspicuous and useful landmark tomariners. It is upwards of twelve thousand feet in height, and issaid to be visible in very clear weather at a distance of a hundredmiles. The most interesting products of an active volcano are the streamsof lava which it pours forth--sometimes from the principal crateron the summit--sometimes from the smaller craters lower down. Thislava consists of melted stone. When it issues from the mountain itsheat is intense and it glows like a furnace, so that, during thenight especially, these fiery rivers present a grand yet awfulspectacle. The streams spread themselves till they sometimes attaina breadth of several miles, with a depth of several hundred feet, and they flow onward till their length sometimes reaches fiftymiles. Lava, not being so liquid as water, does not flow so rapidly:nevertheless, when it is careering down the sides of a mountain, orwhere the slope of the ground is considerable, it advances withgreat speed. Even when at its hottest, it is somewhat viscid, liketreacle, and this viscidness increases as it cools. Hence on alevel plain, and at some distance from its source, the lava-streamadvances at a leisurely pace. In such circumstances the coolingproceeds so quickly that a crust of considerable thickness is soonformed on the top of the current, and persons who are bold enoughmay cross the stream by means of this natural bridge. Even wherethe current continues flowing rapidly, this crust may be formed onits surface; and a man, whose curiosity exceeds his prudence, maystand on the top of it, bore a hole through the crust, and see thelava flowing underneath his feet! Nothing can resist the progress of the lava-flood; trees, houses, everything yields to its massive assault, The trees take firebefore its approach, and when it reaches them they emit a hissingnoise almost amounting to a shriek, and then plunging into themolten flood are seen no more. Even the sea cannot withstand thelava-stream, but retires on its approach; so that promontoriesstretching to a considerable distance from the shore are formed inthis manner, when the molten matter hardens into stone. The eruptions of lava are sometimes attended by peculiarities whichimpart to them much additional grandeur. Instances have occurred inwhich the fiery stream has plunged over a sheer precipice ofimmense height, so as to produce a glowing cascade exceeding inbreadth and perpendicular descent the celebrated Falls of Niagara. In other cases, the lava, instead of at once flowing down the sidesof the mountain, has been first thrown up into the air as a fieryfountain several hundred feet in height. This happens when thegreat crater at the summit of the cone is full of liquid lava butdoes not overflow. Then, on the formation of an opening in the sideof the cone, a good way down, the lava issuing from it is projectedupwards to nearly the same height that it occupies in the interiorof the crater at the top of the cone. It is hardly possible for thefancy to picture to itself anything so magnificent as such afountain of liquid fire must be. A simple jet of water ofconsiderable volume, thrown into the air to the height of a hundredfeet, is itself a beautiful spectacle. What then must be a huge jetof glowing white lava projected to the height of several hundredfeet, and with what an awful thundering sound must it come tumblingto the ground, thence to rush as a roaring torrent down themountain's side! Lava, when congealed, differs in its consistency according as it isnear the top or near the bottom of the stream. When near the top itis porous, owing to its rapid cooling; when near the bottom it isdense, owing to its slow cooling and the great pressure to which itis subjected. When the lighter superficial lava is brought suddenlyinto contact with water, as when a lava-stream enters the sea, itbecomes still lighter and more porous--forming the well-knownsubstance called pumice, so much used for polishing. It may beregarded as the solidified froth of lava, and is so light that itfloats on the surface of water. The lavas of different mountains, when cooled and hardened, differmuch in their appearance and composition. Among those of Iceland isfound the beautiful black volcanic glass named obsidian. It is agood deal used for ornamental purposes; for it possesses thepeculiar property of presenting a different appearance according tothe manner in which it is cut. When cut in one direction it is of abeautiful jetty black; when cut across that direction it isglistering gray. The lavas of Vesuvius are generally of a browncolour, and are also used in the arts. In them are found thebeautiful olive-green crystals of the mineral called olivine, sometimes used by jewellers. But the most useful of all volcanicproductions is native sulphur, in which Mount Etna has been veryprolific. It is to this mountain chiefly, therefore, that we areindebted for our beautiful fire-works--our squibs, crackers, Romancandles, serpents, Catherine-wheels, and sky-rockets. Would it hadproduced nothing more harmful than these! But it has also suppliedone of the ingredients of that villainous gunpowder, which has beenthe means of thrusting so many of our fellow-creatures prematurelyout of the world. Etna, however, can hardly be held responsible forthis sad misuse of the valuable substance which it affords; whileeven gunpowder itself has, on the whole, been of vast benefit tomankind. Could we only refrain from shooting each other with it, wemight regard it as an almost unmixed good; for it has helped usgreatly in forming our roads, railways, and tunnels, and in workingour quarries and mines. In all great eruptions the flow of the lava is preceded by theejection of vast quantities of volcanic dust, ashes, dross, slag, and loose stones. These are tossed into the air with tremendousviolence, consequently, to a great height. The stones thus ejectedare sometimes of immense size. A rock, whose weight is estimated attwo hundred tons, was thrown from the summit of Cotopaxi to thedistance of more than ten miles. Large stones have been tossed upby Vesuvius to the estimated height of three thousand six hundredfeet. The dust of the volcano of St. Vincent was carried more thantwo hundred miles to the eastward in the teeth of the trade wind;consequently it must have been thrown to an enormous height, inorder to its falling at so vast a distance from its source. Besides the usual volcanic dust and ashes, there is sometimesthrown from the crater of a volcano a substance resembling spun-glass or asbestos. It possesses the flexibility and lustre of silk. The volcano of Salazes, in the Island of Bourbon, is remarkable forthis substance, and it has there been seen to form a cloud coveringthe entire surface of the mountain. But it has also been found inother places. How curious it would be to have this volcanic silkspun into threads, and knitted into stockings or woven into agarment! Who can tell what may happen in these days of adventureand invention? Who knows but what some young reader, whose eye isnow resting on this page, may yet live to present his ladylove witha pair of knitted gloves composed of the volcanic silk of Salazes? Great as the contrast is between this filmy material and theponderous blocks tossed into the air by Cotopaxi and Etna, it isnot greater than that between the latter and other masses whichhave from time to time been upheaved by volcanic forces. Instanceshave occurred of whole islands having been raised from the bed ofthe ocean, or whole mountains upreared on the surface of the land, far away from the sea, and that too in the short space of a fewhours. But of such we shall have occasion to speak more at large inthe sequel. Of all the extraordinary productions that have ever been thrown upby volcanoes, the strangest of all are fishes. How droll to dineupon fish cooked in a volcano! A queer fish it must be that likesto dwell in the bowels of a mountain--more especially of one whoseentrails are mostly of liquid fire. But of this also more fullyanon. In addition to the solid materials thrown out by volcanoes, thereare sometimes poured forth torrents of boiling water and liquidmud. More frequently, however, the water issues in the form of vastcolumns of steam and sulphurous vapour. These ascend to greatheights in the air, and becoming gradually chilled, they formimmense masses of dark heavy clouds, similar to those we observebefore a thunderstorm. Nor is this resemblance apparent only. Forthe clouds that overhang an active volcano during an eruption ofits vapours are, in reality, thunderclouds highly charged withelectricity. They accordingly produce what Baron Humboldt calls thevolcanic storm. It includes all the most terrible of atmosphericphenomena--lightnings of extraordinary vividness; thunders thatpeal and reverberate as if they would rend the echoes asunder;torrents of rain that pour down upon the mountain and itsneighbourhood, hissing like thousands of serpents when they fall onthe glowing lava-torrent; and whirlwinds that sweep the volcanicashes round and round in vast eddies, and before whose violence noman of mortal mould is able for a moment to stand. Beyond and above this din of contending elements are heard thehoarse bellowings of the mountain itself, which, meanwhile, trembles to its very core. The detonations from the volcano farexceed in loudness any other earthly noise. Compared with these, the pealing of the loudest thunder is but as the report of a musketcontrasted with the simultaneous discharge of a thousand pieces ofheavy ordnance. The explosions of Tomboro, and the vibrationsaccompanying them, have been heard and felt at almost incredibledistances. Judge, then, of the immensity of the forces which arethus brought into play, and the overwhelming grandeur of the scenewhich such an eruption, with all its accompaniments of storm andtempest, must present to the bewildered eye and ear. Even to readof it sends a thrill through the nerves: what, then, must it be tolisten and behold? So far do we dwell from the nearest volcanoes, and so little are wefamiliar with the names except of a few, that not many persons areaware of the large number of burning mountains on the face of ourglobe. The total number, however, of those which are known to havebeen active within historic times is fully two hundred. Of these, the most familiar to us for its classic fame and its restlessactivity is Mount Vesuvius, which stands alone in its grandeur onthe continent of Europe. The most violent in its activity isTomboro, in the island of Sumbawa. The highest is Cotopaxi, in therange of the Andes, which rises far into the region of perpetualsnow. Its height is 16, 800 feet above the level of the sea. Strangeit seems, that volcanic fires should glow at such a height in themidst of snow and ice. But in this particular Cotopaxi does notstand alone. The Peak of Teneriffe, Mount Etna, and several others, also rise above the snow-line; while the burning mountains ofIceland, Greenland, and Kamtschatka, with those which rear theirheads in the frozen regions near the South Pole, are for the mostpart enveloped in ice and snow from head to foot. Before proceeding to describe to you some of the more interestingof the individual volcanoes and volcanic groups, it may be well tolet you into a secret worth knowing. You would doubtless like tohave a volcano all to yourself. Here is the receipt: Buy severalpounds of clean iron filings, and a somewhat larger quantity of theflowers of sulphur. Mix the two together and knead them well withwater into a stiffish paste. Then wrap this pudding in a cloth, andput another cloth about it, which has been smeared with common orcoal-tar. Dig a hole in some quiet corner of your garden, pop yourdumpling into it, and cover it well up with earth, treading it downfirmly with your feet. Not many hours will elapse before you willsee the ground swell like a molehill; an eruption will ensue, andyou will be the happy possessor of a Stromboli of your own! CHAPTER II. Volcanoes of Iceland--Mount Hecla--Earliest Eruption--GreatEruption in 1845--Skaptar Yokul--Terrible Eruption in 1783--Riseand Disappearance of Nyoe--Katlugaia--The Geysers--A very hot Bath--Californian Geysers--Iceland-spar--Jan Mayen We shall begin with the volcanoes of Iceland, of which the mostinteresting and active is Mount Hecla. The annexed woodcut willgive you an idea of its appearance. You will observe the column ofvolcanic vapour ascending from the snow-clad summit of the cone, and how dreary and desolate is the aspect of the country at itsbase. The earliest recorded eruption of Mount Hecla took place in theninth century of the Christian era; but probably there had beenmany before that date. Since then there have been between twentyand thirty considerable eruptions of this mountain, and it hassometimes remained in a state of activity for upwards of six yearswith little intermission. It took a long rest, however, of morethan sixty years' duration, prior to the year 1845, when it againburst forth. After a violent storm on the night of the 2nd ofSeptember in that year, the surface of the ground in the OrkneyIslands was found strown with volcanic dust. There was thusconveyed to the inhabitants of Great Britain an intimation thatHecla had been again at work. Accordingly, tidings soon afterarrived of a great eruption of the mountain. On the night of the1st of September, the dwellers in its neighbourhood were terrifiedby a fearful underground groaning, which continued till mid-day onthe 2nd. Then, with a tremendous crash, there were formed in thesides of the cone two large openings, whence there gushed torrentsof lava, which flowed down two gorges on the flanks of themountain. The whole summit was enveloped in clouds of vapour andvolcanic dust. The neighbouring rivers became so hot as to kill thefish, and the sheep fled in terror from the adjoining heaths, somebeing burnt before they could escape. On the night of the 15th of September, two new openings wereformed--one on the eastern, and the other on the southern slope--from both of which lava was discharged for twenty-two hours. Itflowed to a distance of upwards of twenty miles, killing manycattle and destroying a large tract of pasturage. Twelve miles fromthe crater, the lava-stream was between forty and fifty feet deepand nearly a mile in width. On the 12th of October a fresh torrentof lava burst forth, and heaped up another similar mass. Themountain continued in a state of activity up to April 1846; then itrested for a while, and began again in the following month ofOctober. Since then, however, it has enjoyed repose. The effects of these eruptions were disastrous. The whole islandwas strown with volcanic ashes, which, where they did not smotherthe grass outright, gave it a poisonous taint. The cattle that ateof it were attacked by a murrain, of which great numbers died. Theice and snow, which had gathered about the mountain for a longperiod of time, were wholly melted by the heat. Masses of pumiceweighing nearly half a ton were thrown to a distance of betweenfour and five miles. [Illustration: Mount Hecla] Mount Hecla is not the only volcano in Iceland. There are severalothers; and from one of them, named Skaptar Yokul, there was, inthe year 1783, an eruption still more violent than that from Heclaabove described. It began on the 8th of June, and raged with littleabatement till the end of August, whence onward it continued, butwith less violence, till the following year. The lava, in thiscase, poured from numerous openings; but these rivulets ultimatelyunited themselves into two large currents, which flowed onwards tothe sea. In their progress, these burning torrents filled up thebeds of two considerable rivers. The greater of the two streams, after it had ceased to flow and had become a solid mass of rock, measured fifty miles in length, and between twelve and fifteenmiles in breadth. Its average depth on the plains was about ahundred feet; but in the bed of the river, which it had filled, itwas not less than six hundred feet. The snow and ice, which hadpreviously covered the mountain, were not only melted, but thewater that flowed from them was raised to the boiling point, andpoured down with destructive effect on the plains. The dust andashes thrown into the air darkened the sun; and they were thenstrown over the surface of the island, destroying all the pastures, so that many thousands of cattle, horses, and sheep perished. Butworse than that, upwards of nine thousand persons lost their livesby this dreadful catastrophe. About a month before this great eruption of Skaptar Yokul, avolcanic island was thrown up from the sea, at a distance of aboutseventy miles from Iceland. So great was the quantity of ashes anddross ejected from its crater, that it overspread the sea to adistance of a hundred and fifty miles, forming a crust whichobstructed the progress of ships. Portions of this crust floated asfar as the Shetland and Orkney islands. The King of Denmark namedthis fiery apparition "Nyoe, " or "New Island, " and doubtless pridedhimself not a little on this addition to his limited dominions. But, alas, for human ambition! About a year after the date of itsfirst appearance, Nyoe sank into the depths out of which it arose, and its position is now marked only by a moderate shoal. It is not by their ejected lavas alone that the volcanoes ofIceland produce their destructive effects. Disastrous consequenceshave frequently resulted from the sudden melting of their snows andglaciers, on which the volcanic fires operate far more rapidly thandoes the heat of the sun. It is chiefly by the vast quantities ofearth, sand, stones, and broken fragments of rock, which they hurryalong with them in their wild career, that the waters, so suddenlyfreed, produce the greatest amount of damage. During an eruption ofKatlugaia, one of the southern Icelandic volcanoes, in 1756, themass of material thus carried down by the melted snows and glacierswas so great, that, advancing several leagues into the sea, itformed three parallel promontories, which rose above the sea-level, where there had formerly been a depth of forty fathoms of water. Vast ravines were, at the same time, scooped out of the sides ofthe mountain by the erosion of the waters. Another eruption of thisvolcano in 1860 produced similar results. Still more interesting than the volcanic mountains of Iceland areits Geysers, or intermittent springs of boiling water. The chief ofthese is the Great Geyser. A jet rises to a vast height, and isaccompanied by much steam. Indeed, it is quite at the boiling-point. The little mound, from the top of which the jet appears to rise, iscomposed of a substance named siliceous sinter, and is a depositfrom the water of the fountain. At the top of this mound, which isbetween six and seven feet in height, there is an oval basin, measuring about fifty-six feet in one direction, and about forty-six in the other; its average depth is about three feet. In thecentre of this basin is a round hole, about ten feet in diameter, out of which the water springs. This hole is the mouth of acircular well, between seventy and eighty feet in depth. It is downthis well that the jet retires on its disappearance; and it dragsalong with it all the water out of the basin, leaving both basinand well quite empty, without even a puff of steam coming out ofthe hole. In this state of emptiness the basin and well remain forseveral hours. Suddenly the water begins to rise in the well, overflowing till it fills the basin. Loud explosions are heard frombelow, and the ground trembles. Then, with amazing violence, upsprings a vast column of boiling water, surmounted by clouds ofsteam, which obscure the air. This first jet is followed by severalothers in rapid succession, to the number of sixteen or eighteen;the last jet being usually the greatest of all, and attaining aheight of nearly a hundred feet. In some instances it has risen toa height of a hundred and fifty feet; and one particular jet wasmeasured which rose to the amazing height of two hundred and twelvefeet. The action of the fountain seldom continues more than about fiveminutes at a time, and then a repose of several hours ensues. Ifleft to itself, the periods of the fountain's activity, though notquite regular, generally recur at intervals of six or seven hours. But they may be hastened by throwing big stones down the well. Thisnot only hurries the eruption of the jet, but increases its energy, and the stones are thrown out with great force by the column ofboiling water; the loudness of the explosions being alsoconsiderably augmented. There are several other geysers in the island besides this big one. Their jets are smaller, but to compensate this deficiency, they aremore frequent in their ascent; so that travellers who are tooimpatient to await the eruptions of the Great Geyser, contentthemselves with visiting the little ones. Would it not be very convenient to live near a geyser? We mighthave our victuals cooked by it, and have pipes led from it allround our house, to keep us comfortable in winter; and we mighthave nice hot baths in our dressing-rooms, arid even a littlesteam-engine to roast our meat and grind our coffee. But perhapsyou may think it might not be altogether pleasant to be kept socontinually in hot water. Were any of the water from the geyser to fall on your hands, youwould doubtless feel it rather sore; still more so, were you to beso rash as to thrust your hand fairly into the jet of boilingwater, as it ascends into the air. Nevertheless, strange as it mayseem, it would be possible for you, without feeling any pain orsustaining any injury, to thrust your hand right into the glowinglava as it flows from the crater of Hecla. The only precautionneedful to be observed, is first to plunge the hand into coldwater, and then dry it gently with a soft towel, but so as to leaveit still a little moist. This discovery was made by a Frenchphilosopher, M. Boutigny, and has been practically proved both byhim and M. Houdin, the celebrated conjuror, by thrusting theirhands into molten iron, as it flowed from the furnace. The latterdescribes the sensation as like what one might imagine to be felton putting the hand into liquid velvet. [1] The reason why thisexperiment proves so harmless is that between the skin and theglowing substance there is formed a film of vapour, which acts as acomplete protection. It is this elastic cushion of vapour whichimparts that feeling of softness described by M. Houdin; for it iswith it alone that the hand comes into contact. [1. Houdin's Autobiography, ii 270] Geysers have been recently discovered in California; but the jetsdo not rise higher than twenty or thirty feet. They are, however, very numerous, there being upwards of a hundred openings within aspace of half a mile square. The vapour from the whole group risesto upwards of a hundred and fifty feet into the air. The boilingwater issues from conical mounds, with great noise. The wholeground around them is a mere crust, and when it is penetrated theboiling water is seen underneath. The Californian geysers, however, are impregnated, not with silica, like those of Iceland, but withsulphur, of which they form large deposits. The sulphurous vapoursfrom the water corrode the rocks near the fountains; neverthelesstrees grow, without injury to their health, at a distance from themof not more than fifty feet. Besides obsidian, already mentioned as a product of its volcanoes, Iceland is famed for another mineral of great scientific value. Itis that fine variety of carbonate of lime named Iceland-spar. Transparent and colourless, like glass, this mineral possesses theproperty of double refraction--any small object viewed through itin a particular direction appearing double. It is much used foroptical purposes--especially for obtaining polarized light. There is another volcano lying far to the northward of Iceland. Itis in the island of Jan Mayen, off the coast of Greenland, and hason its summit a vast crater, 2000 feet in diameter, and 500 indepth. CHAPTER III. Mount Vesuvius--Origin of Name--Former Condition--Eruption of A D79--Death of Pliny--Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum--Appearance of the Mountain before and after Eruption--Formation ofMonte Nuovo--Eruption of Boiling Water--Coloured Vapours--Cascadeof Lava--Discovery of Remains of Herculaneum and Pompeii--TheBuildings of Pompeii--Street of Tombs--Skeletons--Sundry Shops--Ascents of Vesuvius--Crater--Temple of Serapis. Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the continent ofEurope, and it is highly interesting both from its historicalassociations and the frequency of its eruptions. It is situated onthe coast of the Bay of Naples, about six miles to the eastward ofthe city and at a short distance from the shore. It forms aconspicuous feature in the beautiful landscape presented by thatbay, when viewed from the sea, with the city in the foreground. Mount Vesuvius was in ancient times held sacred to the deified heroHercules, and the town of Herculaneum, built at its base, was namedafter him. So also, it is said, was the mountain itself, though ina more round-about way. Hercules, as you will doubtless learn, wasfeigned to have been the son of the heathen god Zeus and Alcmena, aTheban lady. Now one of the appellations of Zeus was Ves, which was applied to him as being the god of rains and dews--thewet divinity. Thus Hercules was Vesouuios, the son of Ves. Howthis name should have become corrupted into "Vesuvius, " you can beat no loss to perceive. Vesuvius was not always a volcano. It was for many ages a verypeaceable and well-behaved mountain. Ancient writers describe it ashaving been covered with gardens and vineyards, except at the topwhich was craggy. Within a large circle of nearly perpendicularcliffs, was a flat space sufficient for the encampment of an army. This was doubtless an ancient crater; but nobody in those timesknew anything of its history. So little was the volcanic nature ofthe mountain suspected, that the Roman towns of Stabiae, Pompeii, and Herculaneum had been erected at its base, and their inhabitantsdwelt in fancied security. In the year A. D. 63, however, the dwellers in the cities got agreat fright; for the mountain shook violently, and a good manyhouses were thrown down. But soon all became quiet again, and thepeople set about rebuilding the houses that had fallen. Theycontinued to live in apparent safety for some time longer. Theydanced, they sung, they feasted; they married, and were altogetheras merry a set of citizens as any in southern Italy. But the 24thof August A. D. 79 at length arrived. Then, woe to Stabiae! woe toPompeii! woe to Herculaneum! Pliny the elder was that day in command of the Roman fleet atMisenum, which was not far off. His family were with him, and, among others, his nephew, Pliny the younger, who has left aninteresting account of what happened on the occasion. He observedan extraordinary dense cloud ascending in the direction ofVesuvius, of which he says:--"I cannot give you a more exactdescription of its figure, than by resembling it to that of a pinetree; for it shot up to a great height in the form of a tall trunk, which spread out at the top into a sort of branches. It appearedsometimes bright, and sometimes dark and spotted, as it was eithermore or less impregnated with earth and cinders" On seeing this remarkable appearance, the elder Pliny, who was agreat naturalist and a man of inquiring mind, resolved to go ashoreand inspect more narrowly what was going on. But a rash resolve itproved. Steering towards Retina (now Resina), a port at the foot ofthe mountain, he was met, on his approach, by thick showers of hotcinders, which grew thicker and hotter as he advanced--falling onthe ships along with lumps of pumice and pieces of rock, black butburning hot. Vast fragments came rolling down the mountain andgathered in heaps upon the shore. Then the sea began suddenly toretreat, so that landing at this point became impracticable. Hetherefore steered for Stabiae, where he landed, and took up hisabode with Pomponianus--an intimate friend. Meanwhile, flames appeared to issue from several parts of themountain with great violence--the darkness of the night heighteningtheir glare. Pliny nevertheless went to sleep. Soon, however, thecourt leading to his chamber became almost filled with stones andashes; so his servants awoke him, and he joined Pomponianus and hishousehold. The house now began to rock violently to and fro; whileoutside, stones and cinders were falling in showers. They, notwithstanding, thought it safer to make their way out from thetottering mansion; so, tying pillows upon their heads with napkins, they sallied forth. Although it was now day, the darkness wasdeeper than that of the blackest night. By the aid of torches andlanterns, however, they groped their way towards the beach, with aview to escape by sea; but they found the waves too high andtumultuous. Here Pliny, having drunk some cold water, lay down upona sailcloth which was spread for him; when almost immediatelyflames, preceded by a strong smell of sulphur, issuing from theground, scattered the company and forced him to rise. With the helpof two of his servants he succeeded in raising himself; but, chokedby some noxious vapour, he instantly fell down dead. [Illustration: Vesuvius Before the Eruption of A. D. 79. ] Nor was he alone in his death; for although many of the inhabitantsof the devoted cities were able to effect their escape; yet, sosuddenly did the overwhelming shower of ashes, cinders, and stonesfall upon them, that not a few of them perished in their dwellingsor their streets. As for the cities themselves, they were utterlyburied completely out of sight, and, like other things that arelong out of sight, they soon became also buried out of mind. Formany centuries they remained entirely forgotten. You will doubtless like to know how Vesuvius looked, after doing somuch mischief. Here is a picture showing what like it wasimmediately before the eruption; and one showing its appearancesoon after the event. On comparing the two, you will observe themountain had undergone a great change. It was no longer flat on thetop, but had formed for itself a large cone, from the summit ofwhich dense vapours ascended. This cone was composed entirely ofthe ashes, cinders, and loose stones, thrown up during theeruption. It had become separated by a deep ravine from theremainder of the former summit, which afterwards came to bedistinguished by the name Monte Somma. The whole of the forests, vineyards, and other luxuriant vegetation, which had covered thatportion of the sides of Vesuvius where the eruption took place, were destroyed. Nothing could be more striking than the contrastbetween the beautiful appearance of the mountain before thiscatastrophe, and its desolate aspect after the sad event. Thisremarkable contrast forms the subject of one of Martial's Epigrams, lib. Iv. Ep. 44. It is thus rendered by Mr. Addison:-- [Illustration: Vesuvius after the Eruption of A. D. 79. ] "Vesuvius covered with the fruitful vine Here flourished once, and ran with floods of wine. Here Bacchus oft to the cool shades retired, And his own native Nysa less admired. Oft to the mountain's airy tops advanced, The frisking Satyrs on the summit danced. Alcides [1] here, here Venus graced the shore, Nor loved her favourite Lacedaemon more. Now piles of ashes, spreading all around, In undistinguished heaps deform the ground. The gods themselves the ruined seats bemoan, And blame the mischiefs that themselves have done. " [1. Hercules] Since the eruption of A. D. 79, Vesuvius has had many fits ofactivity with intervals of rest. In A. D. 472, it threw out so greata quantity of ashes, that they overspread all Europe, and filledeven Constantinople with alarm. In A. D. 1036 occurred the firsteruption in which there was any ejection of lava. This eruption wasfollowed by five others, the last of which occurred in 1500. Tothese succeeded a long rest of about a hundred and thirty years, during which the mountain had again become covered with gardens andvineyards as of old. Even the inside of the crater had becomeclothed with shrubbery. In this interval, however, there was an extraordinary eruption--notof Vesuvius itself, but at no great distance from it, in the Bay ofBaiae, on the opposite shore of the Bay of Naples. The whole ofthis neighbourhood is a volcanic country, and was anciently namedthe Phlegraean Fields. It contains a crater in a state of subduedactivity, called the Solfatara; an extinct volcano having a largecrater called Monte Barbaro; and Lake Avernus, also supposed to bean extinct volcanic crater. Between Monte Barbaro and the sea, there was formerly a fiat piece of ground bordering on the LucrineLake, which is separated from the Bay of Baiae by a narrow strip ofshingle. On the 29th of September 1538, the flat piece of groundabove mentioned became the scene of a great eruption, whichresulted in the throwing up of a new elevation to the height offour hundred and thirteen feet, and with a circumference of eightthousand feet. It received the name of Monte Nuovo, and is nowcovered with a luxuriant vegetation. In 1631 there was another dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which covered with lava most of the villages at the foot of themountain. To add to the calamity, torrents of boiling water were, on this occasion, thrown out by the volcano, producing awfuldestruction. There have been since that time numerous eruptions, which it wouldbe tedious to mention in detail; but two of them are worthy ofnotice. During an eruption in February 1848, a column of vapoursarose from the crater about forty feet high, presenting a varietyof colours; and a short time afterwards there arose ten circles, which were black, white, and green, and which ultimately assumedthe form of a cone. A similar appearance had been observed in 1820. More recently, in May 1855, a great stream of glowing lava, abouttwo hundred feet in breadth, flowed towards a vast ravine nearly athousand feet in depth. The first descent into this chasm is asheer precipice, over which the lava dashed heavily, forming amagnificent cascade of liquid fire. Of the buried cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii no traces werediscovered till the year 1713, when some labourers, in digging awell, came upon the remains of Herculaneum about twenty-four feetunderground. Little attention, however, was paid to the discoveryat that time; but in 1748 a peasant, digging in his vineyard, stumbled on some ancient works of art. On sinking a shaft at thisspot to the depth of twelve feet, the remains of Pompeii werefound. This discovery led to further researches, and the exactpositions of the two cities were erelong ascertained. The work ofdisinterment has continued with little interruption from that tothe present time, and many valuable specimens of ancient art havebeen brought to light. The greatest progress has been made at Pompeii; because the stuff, in which it was buried, is far looser than that which coversHerculaneum. In the former city, although it was anciently reckonedonly a third-rate place, there have already been discovered eighttemples, a forum, a basilica, two theatres, a magnificentamphitheatre, and public baths. The ramparts, composed of hugeblocks of stone, have also been exposed. One of the most remarkableplaces is the Cemetery. It consists of a broad path covered withpavement, and bordered on either side with stately monuments, placed over the tombs of the wealthy citizens of the place, and inwhich whole families have been interred. The houses were found filled with elegant furniture, the walls ofthe apartments adorned with beautiful paintings. Numerous statues, vases, lamps, and other elegant works of art, have been recovered. Many skeletons have also been found, in the exact positions inwhich the living men were caught by the deadly shower ofsuffocating ashes. The excavators came upon the skeleton of amiser, who had been attempting to escape from his house, and whosebony fingers were still clutching the purse which contained thetreasure he loved. There were also found in the barracks at Pompeiithe skeletons of two soldiers chained to the stocks; and thewritings scribbled by the soldiers on the walls are still quitelegible. In the vaults of a villa in the suburbs were discoveredthe skeletons of seventeen persons, who had probably sought refugethere, and been entombed. The stuff in which they were imbedded hadbeen originally soft, but had become hardened through time. In thissubstance was found a cavity, containing the skeleton of a femalewith an infant in her arms. Although nothing but the bonesremained, the cavity contained a perfect cast of the woman'sfigure--thus showing that she must have been imbedded in thesubstance while alive. Round the neck of this skeleton there was agold chain, and on the fingers jewelled rings. In many of the houses the names of the owners over the doors arestill legible, and the fresco-paintings on the inner walls arestill quite fresh and beautiful. The public fountains are adornedwith shells formed into patterns; and in the room of a painterthere was found a collection of shells in perfectly good order. Alarge quantity of fishing-nets was found in both the cities, and inHerculaneum some pieces of linen retaining its texture. There alsowas discovered a fruiterer's shop, with vessels full of almonds, chestnuts, carubs, and walnuts. In another shop stood a glassvessel containing moist olives, and a jar with caviare--thepreserved roe of the sturgeon. In the shop of an apothecary stood abox that had contained pills, now reduced to powder, which had beenprepared for a patient destined never to swallow them--a happycircumstance for him, if he eventually escaped from the city. Veryrecently there has been laid open a baker's shop, with the loavesof bread on the shelves, all ready for his customers, but doomednever to be eaten. These loaves are of the same form as those stillmade in that country, and on being analyzed were found to consistof the same ingredients as modern bread. Mount Vesuvius rises rather abruptly from the plain on which itstands. The circuit of the base is about twelve miles, and theheight of the summit above the level of the sea about threethousand feet. This latter measurement, however, alters from timeto time, owing to the variable height of the cone. Its moderateelevation, and the ease with which it may be approached, haveinduced many travellers to ascend the mountain; and not a few haverecorded their experiences. So frequent are the eruptions of thevolcano, however, and so much do they change the aspect of thecrater, that any description remains correct for only a limitedtime. Within the last hundred years the crater has been five times whollyaltered, in consequence of its interior having been completelyblown out, and its walls having crumbled down. When Sir WilliamHamilton ascended the mountain in 1756, it had no less than threecraters and cones, one within another. The outermost was a verywide-mouthed cone. Within it rose centrically another, smaller insize and narrower in the mouth; and within that again was the thirdand highest, having a smaller base and still narrower opening atthe top, whence the greatest volume of vapour ascended. In 1767this innermost cone merged in the second, which was greatlyenlarged; and by a subsequent eruption the interval between thefirst and second was obliterated, so that only a single coneremained. In 1822 the whole interior of the cone was blown out, andits walls crumbled down, so as to lower the height of the mountainseveral hundred feet. But within the vast gulf, nearly a mile indiameter, which was thus left yawning open, there soon began to beformed a new cone, which showed itself erelong above the jaggededge of the crater. Eventually this cone increased, by theaccumulation of ejected matters, to such an extent as to obliteratethe division between it and the rim of the former crater--thus oncemore establishing a continuous cone. Since that time, the cone andcrater have twice undergone similar changes. The most usual appearance of the crater, when in comparativerepose, is that of a vast circular or oval hollow basin, withnearly perpendicular walls, broken in their continuity, every hereand there, by large projecting dykes, formed by the injection ofmore recent lavas into fissures rent in those which had previouslybecome consolidated. Below the perpendicular walls is a rapidslope, composed of fine ashes or sand, descending to the floor ofthe crater, which is, for the most part, nearly flat. It is muchrent by fissures, which during the night are seen to glow with aruddy glare, emanating from the hot materials beneath, and givingto the floor the appearance of being overspread with a fierytissue, like a spider's web. From the bottom there usually rise oneor two small craters of eruption, whence continually issuesulphurous fumes, and which, at pretty regular intervals, dischargeshowers of stones heated to whiteness. The exterior of the cone is composed entirely of loose cinders, ashes, and stones, so that the ascent is very laborious. The regionof the mountain beneath the cone presents no difficulties, and thatpart of the ascent may be performed on donkeys or mules. The viewfrom the top is magnificent. The contrast between the desolateaspect of the interior of the crater, and the smiling prospectwhich may be seen from its edge, has been well compared to lookingout of Tartarus into Paradise. Near Puzzuoli, in the Bay of Baiae, and not far from Monte Nuovo, stand the ruins of the Temple of Serapis, so interesting togeologists. These remains, consisting chiefly of the shafts ofthree marble columns, still erect, though with a slight inclinationsea-ward, afford distinct proofs, confirmed by other phenomena inthe neighbourhood, that, since the beginning of the Christian era, the level of the coast in relation to that of the sea has changedtwice--the land having first sunk and been then raised again, eachtime to the extent of upwards of 20 feet. The evidence of thesubmergence of the pillars consists mainly of a zone commencing atthe height of about 12 feet above their pedestals, and extending 9feet upwards, in which are numerous perforations, made by a marinebivalve mollusc. The upraising again of the ground on which thetemple stands, to nearly its original height, appears to haveoccurred about the time of the formation of Monte Nuovo. CHAPTER IV. Mount Etna--Its Appearance and Height-Ancient Eruptions-Pindar'sAllusion--Virgil's Description--Subordinate Cones and Craters-Caverns--Val del Bove--Formation of Monti Rossi--Eruption of 1852--Whirlwinds--Lava Torrents--Cascades of Lava--Description of Crater--Empedocles--Enceladus--Craters of 1865-Cyclopean Isles--Homer'sLegend-Volcanic Origin--Other Basaltic Groups Mount Etna may well be called the Queen of European Volcanoes, somajestic does she look, with her lofty summit glistening in thesunbeams white with snow, yet pouring forth volumes of vapour. Thismountain, as you will observe from the annexed woodcut, isaltogether more massive in its appearance than Vesuvius. It isabout three times higher, rising to nearly eleven thousand feetabove the level of the sea, and it has a circuit of about eighty-seven miles at its base. Etna has been a volcano from time immemorial; but of its moreancient eruptions only vague traditions have survived. The Greekpoet Pindar is the earliest writer who makes mention of itsactivity. He refers to it in his first Pythian Ode, Strophe B, 1. 1. The passage is thus rendered by Carey-- "From whose caverned depths aspire, In purest folds upwreathing, tost Fountains of approachless fire-- by day a flood of smouldering smoke With sullen gleam the torrents pour" [Illustration: Mount Etna. ] The ode in which this allusion occurs is said to have been writtenabout B. C. 470; and the eruption to which it refers probably tookplace shortly before that date. Virgil also describes the mountain very forcibly in the AEneid, lib. Iii. 570. Dryden renders the passage thus:-- "The port capacious, and secure from wind, Is to the foot of thund'ring Etna joined. By turns a pitchy cloud she rolls on high: By turns hot embers from her entrails fly, And flakes of mounting flames, that lick the sky. Oft from her bowels massy rocks are thrown, And shivered by the force come piece-meal down. Oft liquid lakes of burning sulphur flow, Fed from the fiery springs that boil below. " Since the one to which Pindar alludes, there have been recordedabout sixty eruptions; but in the present century Etna has beenless frequently active than Vesuvius. Owing to the great height of Mount Etna, the lava seldom rises sofar as to flow from the summit. It more frequently bursts forthfrom the flanks of the mountain; and in this manner there have beenformed numerous smaller cones, of which several have craters oftheir own. Hence Etna is rather a group of volcanoes than a singlecone; but all these subordinate volcanic hills cluster round theflanks of the great central summit. Etna may thus be regarded as afertile mother of mountains, with all her children around her. Someof these hills, her offspring, are covered with forests and richvegetation--such having enjoyed a lasting repose. Others are stillarid and bare, having been more recently formed. Owing to thispeculiarity in its structure, Etna does not present that conicalaspect which characterizes most other volcanoes. Strange as it mayseem, there are, on the sides of the mountain, caverns which theSicilians use for storing ice. Some of these caverns are of vastextent. One called Fossa della Palomba measures, at its entrance, 625 feet in circumference, and has a depth of about 78 feet. Thisgreat cavity, however, forms merely the vestibule to a series ofothers, which are perfectly dark. Another striking feature of Mount Etna is the Val del Bove. It is adeep valley, presenting, when viewed from above, somewhat of theappearance of an amphitheatre, It stretches from near the summitdown to the upper limit of the wooded region of the mountain, andhas a remarkably desolate aspect--presenting a vast expanse of bareand rugged lava. Of the numerous eruptions of Etna, one of the most memorable wasthat of 1669, when on the flank of the mountain above Nicolosi, about half way between Catania and the top of the great crater, there was formed an immense rent about twelve miles long, fromwhich a vast torrent of lava descended. After flowing for severalmiles, and destroying a part of Catania in its course, it enteredthe sea, and formed a small promontory, which has since proved veryuseful as a breakwater. But besides this stream, there were at thesame time thrown up such immense quantities of ashes, cinders, stones, and other matters, that they formed two conical hills, morethan three hundred feet in height above the slope of the mountainfrom which they rose, and measuring nearly two miles incircumference at their base. These hills were named Monti Rossi. Mount Etna was in activity as lately as 1865; but a previouseruption in 1852 was of greater violence. It began, as usual, withhollow underground rumblings, and the ascent of dense columns ofvapour, mingled with dust and ashes, high into the air. These werespeedily whirled into enormous eddies by fierce whirlwinds. Two newmouths were formed on the side of the mountain, and these vomitedforth immense streams of lava, which rushed with the vehemence of atorrent down the steep. The violence of the commotion increasing, the two mouths were, by the crumbling of the intervening rocks, blended into one, and then huge fragments of the broken rock werehurled to a great height, along with vast quantities of hot stones, cinders, and black sand. Increasing quantities of lava were nowpoured from the greatly enlarged opening, and these formed on theplains below a great river of liquid fire, nearly two miles inbreadth, and between seven and eight feet in depth, which advancedat the rate of upwards of a hundred feet in an hour, carryingbefore it devastation and ruin. Its course being through a highlycultivated country, the damage it inflicted was immense. Thiseruption continued for several months, with only short intervals ofrest. [Illustration: Crater of Etna. ] It has more than once happened, that the lava-streams of Etna, intheir descent from the crater of eruption, have come to aprecipitous wall of rock, over which they have plunged in a cascadesimilar to that formed by the lava of Vesuvius in 1855, but on aless magnificent scale, as respects the height of the fall. One ofthese occasions was during the eruption of 1771, and another duringthat of 1819. The principal cone of Mount Etna was ascended in 1834 by Messrs. Elie de Beaumont and Leopold von Buch. The former describes whatthey saw in the following terms:--"It was to us a moment ofsurprise difficult to describe, when we found ourselvesunexpectedly on the margin--not, indeed, of the great crater--butof an almost circular gulf, nearly three hundred feet in diameter, which does not touch the great crater save at a small part of itscircumference. We peered eagerly into this nearly cylindricalfunnel; but vain was our search into the secret of its volcanicaction. From the almost horizontal tops of the nearly verticalsteeps, nothing can be descried but the upper cone. On trying toreckon those one below another, vision becomes gradually lost inthe perfect darkness beneath. No sound issues from this darkness. There are only exhaled slightly sulphurous white vapours, chieflysteam. The dismal aspect of this black and silent gulf, in whichour view was lost--its dark moist sides, along which crept, in alanguid and monotonous manner, long flakes of vapour of a sombregray--the great crater to which this narrow gulf is attached, withits confused heap of diverse substances, coloured yellow, gray, red, like the image of chaos--all presented around us an aspectquite funereal and sepulchral. " The French geologist, in having escaped from his visit to thecrater with nothing worse than a fit of the vapours, came offbetter than Empedocles, the Sicilian philosopher, in the days ofold: for, as the story goes, this inquisitive sage, being veryanxious to have a peep into the crater, and venturing too near, toppled in altogether, and nothing more was seen of him, except oneof his sandals, which was vomited up by the volcano--thus conveyingto his friends an intimation of the manner of his death. Some incredulous persons allege that this story has no betterfoundation than the fable of the poets, that the giant Enceladus, son of Titan and Terra, having offended Jupiter, the infuriated godfirst felled him with a thunderbolt, and then put Mount Etna as asort of extinguisher on the top of him--his restlessness underneathfully accounting for all the commotions of the mountain. Soon after the eruption which took place towards the end of January1865, the craters then opened were visited by M. Fouque, a Frenchgeologist. At the time of his visit, 10th March, they were seven innumber, and he thus describes their modes of action:-- "The three upper craters produced two or three times a minute, powerful detonations like thunderclaps. The lower craters, on thecontrary, incessantly gave forth a succession of reports too rapidto be reckoned. These sounds, although unremitting, were clear anddistinct, the one from the other. I can find no better comparisonfor them than the strokes of a hammer falling on an anvil. Had theancients heard a similar noise, I can readily conceive whence arosethe idea of their imagining a forge in the centre of Etna, with theCyclops for workmen. " Off the eastern coast of Sicily, and not far from Mount Etna, liethe Cyclopean Isles, of one of which the annexed woodcut gives arepresentation. You will observe what a singular appearance itpresents, with its rows of basaltic columns piled one aboveanother. The other isle is close by, and there is an ancienttradition that they at one time formed part of the mainland ofSicily. Homer has a curious story about the manner in which theybecame detached. The passage occurs towards the end of the ninthbook of the Odyssey. He tells that, at the time Ulysses visitedSicily, it was inhabited by the Cyclops, who, as already mentioned, were said to have had each only one eye, situated in his forehead. Their king's name was Polyphemus, a huge giant who beguiled Ulyssesand a portion of his crew into a cave, where he killed some of thecrew and devoured them for his supper. Ulysses, fearing his turnmight come next, persuaded Polyphemus to taste some strong wine hehad with him, and filled him so tipsy that he fell fast asleep. While he was in this state, Ulysses burnt out his one eye with ared-hot iron. The giant awoke in agony, but Ulysses contrived toescape from his clutches, and, after getting into his ship, begantaunting and jeering the monster. Thereupon Homer says:-- [Illustration: Cyclopean Isle] "These words the Cyclops' burning rage provoke: From the tall hill he rends a pointed rock; High o'er the billows flew the massy load, And near the ship came thund'ring on the flood. It almost brushed the helm, and fell before: The whole sea shook, and refluent beat the shore. " Pope's _translation_. The huge missile having thus missed its mark, Ulysses, with greatimpudence, renewed his jeers, taunting the giant, and telling himwho it was that had poked out his eye; whereupon Polyphemus invokesthe vengeance of Neptune upon him, and-- "A larger rock then heaving from the plain, He whirled it round--it rung across the main: It fell and brushed the stern: the billows roar, Shake at the weight, and refluent beat the shore. " Pope's _translation_. The rocks of which the Cyclopean Isles are composed are entirely ofvolcanic origin, and it is far from improbable that they may haveat one time been attached to Sicily, and severed from it by somegreat volcanic convulsion. A careful examination of these largepiles of basaltic columns led Dr. Daubeny to the conclusion, thatthe lavas from which they have been formed were consolidated undergreat pressure, and probably at the bottom of the sea, whence theyhave been afterwards upheaved. He also concludes, from certainappearances, that the two islands were at one time united. The Cyclopean Isles strongly resemble, in their general aspect, thewell-known Giant's Causeway on the northern coast of Ireland, andthe Isle of Staffa off the western coast of Scotland. The latter, which, around its whole sea-girt outline, presents ranges ofbasaltic columns, some of them disposed in curious fantasticgroups, most nearly resembles the Sicilian pair. These differ fromit chiefly in their having the columns piled in terraces, one aboveanother. Staffa, however, can boast of a far more striking feature--the celebrated Cave of Fingal--its stately basaltic columnsinspiring every beholder with admiration, not unmixed with awe, while its brightly-tinted floor rivals in brilliancy of colouringthe most beautiful mosaics. In the Island of Iceland, also, there are some remarkable ranges ofbasaltic columns. One in particular, named the Ruins ofDverghamrar, is in the form of a semicircle skirting the sea-coast. Another group, still more wonderful, forms a curious natural Gothicarch, surmounted by pinnacles. It is so picturesque that anarchitect might study it with advantage, and derive from itvaluable hints in designing the entrance to a cathedral. CHAPTER V. Lipan Islands--Stromboli--Origin of Name--Position of Crater--Description of Crater--New Volcanic Island named Julia--Phenomenapreceding its Elevation--Description of Island and Crater--ItsDisappearance--Rise of Islands at Santorin The Lipari Islands are all of volcanic origin. The most interestingamong them, for the length of time it has been in action and theconstancy of its activity, is Stromboli. This name is a corruptionof the ancient Greek name Strongulae which was given to itbecause of its round swelling form. This is a very fussy littlevolcano, for it keeps perpetually puffing, growling, and fuming. Itthrows out columns of steam, and at intervals stones, cinders, andashes, which are for the most part drifted by the wind into thesea. This restless volcano has been in almost uninterruptedactivity since at least the third century before the Christian era--however much further back. Several enterprising travellers have ascended to the crater ofStromboli. It was examined with great care in 1828 by M. Hoffmann, a celebrated Prussian geologist, who, while being held fast by hiscompanions, leant over the crag immediately above the crater, andlooked right down into one of its active mouths. He thus describeswhat he saw:-- "Three active mouths were seen at the bottom of the crater. Theprincipal one, in the middle, was about two hundred feet indiameter; it shows nothing remarkable, only fuming slightly; andnumerous yellow incrustations of sulphur coat the walls of itschimney. Close by this mouth is another, somewhat nearer theprecipice, only twenty feet wide, in which I could observe the playof the column of liquid lava, which at intervals poised itself at alevel. This lava did not look like a burning mass vomiting flames, but as glossy as molten metal--like iron issuing from the smeltingfurnace, or silver at the bottom of a crucible. "This melted mass rose and fell--evidently urged by the powerfultension of elastic vapours pressing it upwards from beneath; and itwas easy to perceive the balance of effect between the weight ofthe molten masses and the pressure of the steam which resistedthem. The surface rose and fell rhythmically: there was heard apeculiar sound, like the crackling of air from bellows entering thedoor of a furnace. A bubble of white vapour issued at each crack, raising the lava, which fell down again immediately after itsescape. These bubbles of vapour dragged to the surface of the lavared-hot cinders, which danced as if tossed by invisible hands inrhythmic sport above the brink of the opening. "This play, so regular and attractive, was interrupted, everyquarter of an hour or so, by more tumultuous movements. The mass ofwhirling vapour then rested motionless for a moment--even making ajerking motion of return, as if inhaled by the crater, from thebottom of which the lava rose more strongly as if to encounter it. Then the ground trembles, and the walls of the crater startingbend. It was quite an earthquake. The mouth of the crater uttered aloud rolling bellow, which was followed by an immense bubble ofvapour, bursting at the surface of the lava with a loud thunderingreport. The whole surface of the lava, reduced to glowingsplinters, was then tossed into the air. [Illustration: Julia, or Graham's Island, in August 1831. ] "The heat struck our faces forcibly; while a flaming sheaf roseright into the air, and fell back in a shower of fire all around. Some bombs ascended to a height of about 1200 feet, and in passingover our heads described parabolas of fire. Immediately after suchan eruption, the lava withdrew to the bottom of the chimney, whichthen yawned black and gaping. But erelong there was seen re-ascending the shining mirror of the surface of lava, which thenrecommenced the rhythmic play of its ordinary less violentbubblings. " What an agreeable visit this must have been! Don't you think, between ourselves, that the German philosopher must, on thisoccasion, have greatly resembled an Irishman in love, seeing he wasso eager to reach the mouth of the _crater?_ Before passing on to the description of other existing volcanoes, it may entertain you to hear something about Julia. Thisinteresting _crater_ had a short and troubled existence. Shewas not born like others of her name, but rose suddenly andmajestically out of the sea, as the poets feign that Venus did ofold. She did not, however, keep her head long above water, butafter raging and fuming for about a couple of months, she plungedagain under the waves. This happened in the year 1831. On page 57 is a picture showing you how she looked in August ofthat year, about a month after she made her appearance. You seewhat a fury of a _crater_ she must have been. It was a Frenchphilosopher (Constant Prevost) who christened her Julia; but it ishard to divine what prompted him to act so ungallantly. Perhaps, atthe moment, he may have had in his eye some Julia of hisacquaintance, with very red hair and a very fiery temper. This volcanic island rose out of the Mediterranean, about midwaybetween the Island of Pantellaria and the village of Sciacca on thesouthern coast of Sicily. From about the 28th of June to the 2nd ofJuly 1831, the inhabitants of Sciacca felt several slight shocks, which they imagined to have proceeded from Etna. On the 8th of Julythe crew of a Sicilian ship, which was sailing at a distance ofabout six miles from Sciacca, suddenly observed in the sea a jet ofwater about 100 feet high. It rose into the air with a thunderingnoise, sustained itself for about ten minutes, and then fell down. Similar jets continued to rise in succession, at intervals of abouta quarter of an hour, and produced a thick mist overspreading thesurface of the sea, which was much agitated and covered with areddish scum. Shoals of dead fishes were drifted on the waves. Onthe third day the jets were between 800 and 900 feet in diameter, and between 60 and 70 feet in height, while the steam from themrose to nearly 1800 feet. On the 12th of July the inhabitants of Sciacca had their nostrilsassailed by a strong smell of sulphur, and beheld the surface ofthe sea covered with black porous cinders, which, being driftedashore, formed a bed of some thickness on the beach. So great wasthe drift of volcanic ashes, that boats could hardly strugglethrough the water, and multitudes of dead fishes floated on itssurface. Next morning they saw rising out of the sea a column ofdark vapour, which, however, towards night became lurid red. Fromtime to time, during both the day and night, they heard loudreports, and saw bright sparks of fire through the dusky vapour. [Illustration: Julia, or Graham's Island, on 29th September 1831. ] On the 18th of July the captain of the Sicilian ship discoveredthat an island had arisen out of the sea at the spot whence theappearances before described had proceeded. It had already attaineda height of nearly twelve feet, and had in its centre a crater, which vomited forth immense jets of steam, along with ashes, cinders, stones, &c. The water which boiled in this crater wasreddish, and the cinders, which covered the sea all round theisland, were of a chocolate colour. The island subsequentlyattained a height of upwards of 90 feet at its highest point, and acircumference of about three-quarters of a mile. A channel ofcommunication was also opened between the sea and the interior ofthe crater, which had a diameter of about 650 feet. The vapours andother matters thrown up from the mouth of the volcano formed aluminous column upwards of 200 feet in height. On the 29th of September it was visited by the French gentleman whogave it the name of Julia, and it then presented the appearancewhich we have sketched. He landed with a party and proceeded toexamine the crater, in which he found a circular basin filled withreddish water, almost boiling hot, and fresh. This basin was nearly200 feet in diameter. There rose from the water bubbles of gas, which made it appear as if it were boiling. The water was not quiteat the boiling point, however, yet the bubbles of gas weresufficiently hot to burn the fingers. [Illustration: Crater of Julia, or Graham's Island. ] These bubbles rose from a great depth, and each, on bursting, whichit did with a feeble report, threw out sand and cinders. At a shortdistance from the crater there rose sulphurous vapours, whichdeposited sulphur and salt. The loose dust and ashes forming thesoil of the island were hot, and walking on them was difficult. Theforegoing woodcut will give you an idea of the appearance which thecrater presented to those visitors. In the following month of October nothing remained of thiswonderful island but a hillock of sand and cinders; and at the endof six months it had quite vanished. Soundings taken a few yearsago show ten feet of water over the spot, so that, although theisland has disappeared, there is still a shoal left behind. Thistemporary volcano is best known in England under the name ofGraham's Island; so called after an English naval officer of thatname, who was the first to set foot on it, and who planted upon itthe English flag, so claiming it for his sovereign. The Siciliansallege this to be the reason why it disappeared so soon--that itwas in a hurry to escape from under the English yoke. Similar phenomena have been taking place during the past year, 1866, in the Bay of Santorin, situated in the island of that name, which lies to the northward of Crete. There are several islands inthe bay, all apparently of volcanic origin, and one of them wasthrown up about three centuries before the beginning of theChristian era. Last year their number was increased by a series oferuptions similar in their attendant circumstances to those whichaccompanied the upheaval of Julia. The first warnings were given onthe 30th of January 1866, by low underground rumblings, and slightmovements of the ground at the south end of New Kammeni, one of theformerly upheaved islands in the bay. Next day these phenomenaincreased in violence, and quantities of gas bubbled up from thesea. On the 1st of February, reddish flames ascended from thewater, and on the 2nd there rose, out of the harbour of Voulcano, an island, which was christened "George. " The volcanic agitationwas prolonged during February and March--the upheaval of other twoislands being the result. Whether these additional islands willcontinue permanently above water remains to be seen. CHAPTER VI. Peak of Teneriffe--Its Crater--Eruption of Chahorra--Palma--GreatCaldera--Lancerote--Great Eruption--Sudden Death--Fuego, Cape deVerde Islands--Cotopaxi--Its Appearance--Great Eruptive Force--Tunguragua--Great Eruption of Mud and Water--Fish thrown out--Quito--Its Overthrow--Pichinca--Humboldt's Ascent--Narrow Escape--Antisana--Sangay--Rancagua--Chillan--Masaya The Island of Teneriffe is celebrated for its magnificent snow-cladpeak. On referring to the woodcut of this volcano at page 11, youwill observe in what a sharp point the cone terminates, and howslender is the column of vapour at its summit. The crater at thetop is comparatively small--its greatest diameter being 300, andits smallest 200 feet, while its depth is only about 100 feet. Fromthis crater there has been no eruption since 1706, when the finestharbour in the island was destroyed. But from the side of the peakthere rises a supplementary mountain named Chahorra, on the top ofwhich there is also a crater, whence there was an eruption in 1798. So great was its violence, that masses of rock were thrown to aheight of upwards of 3000 feet. In the neighbouring island of Palmathere is a volcanic crater named the Great Caldera, whose depth issaid to be upwards of 5000 feet. Almost due east of Palma, and much nearer the African coast, liesthe Island of Lancerote, on which are a great many volcanic cones, arranged nearly in a straight line. These were for the most partformed by a long series of eruptions which took place during theyears from 1730 to 1736. Such immense quantities of lava werepoured forth in the course of those six years, that about a thirdof the surface of the island was covered by them, and many townsand villages were destroyed. St. Catalina, a populous and thrivingtown, was first overflowed by a lava-stream, and then a new craterburst forth on its very site, raising over it a hill 400 feet high. All the cattle in the island fell down dead in one day, and nearlyabout the same time--they were suffocated by deadly vapours thatrose from the ground. The volcanic activity of this island wasrenewed in August 1824, when there was formed, near the port ofRescif, a new crater, which vomited forth such quantities ofstones, ashes, and other volcanic matters, that in the short spaceof twenty-four hours they formed a hill of considerable height. The Cape de Verde Islands, lying to the south-westward of theCanaries, are also volcanic. In 1847 a volcano named Fuego, situated in one of them, after remaining at rest about fifty years, burst into fresh activity. No less than seven new vents wereformed; and from these were poured forth great streams of lava, which wrought immense damage in the cultivated parts of the island. The inhabitants sustained great loss by the destruction of theircattle and crops. Passing over to the South American continent, we come to the rangeof the Andes, which contains numerous volcanoes. Among these themost conspicuous is Cotopaxi, the highest volcano in the world, situated in the territory of Quito. So perfect is the form of thecone, that it looks as if it had been turned in a lathe. Itscoating of snow gives it a dazzling appearance, and so sharply isthe snow-line defined that it seems almost as if the volcano-kingwore a white night-cap instead of a crown. The eruptions of this mountain are rare. One of the greatest ofthem lasted for three years, and desolated an immense extent ofcountry with floods of lava. On this occasion, it is said, columnsof fire rose to the height of nearly 5000 feet, so great was theenergy of the volcanic force. A little to the southward of Cotopaxi, but concealed from it by theintervening mass of Chimborazo, lies the volcano of Tunguragua, from which there was an extraordinary eruption in the year 1797, that proved very destructive to the cities in its neighbourhood. Indeed, so terrible was the convulsion of the ground, which lastedfour minutes, that the cities of Riobamba and Quero were reduced toheaps of ruins. Then the base of Tunguragua was rent, and fromnumerous apertures there were poured out streams of water and mud, the latter gathering in the valleys to the depth of 600 feet. Thismud spread itself far and wide, blocking up the channels of rivers, and forming lakes, which remained upwards of two months. But, strangest of all, quantities of dead fishes were found in the waterwhich burst from the volcano. These fishes are supposed to havebeen bred in subterranean lakes contained in caverns in theinterior of the mountain, considerably removed from the volcanicfires in the centre. It is probable that, when the rent was formednear the base, one of those caverns was broken open, and that thewaters from it were discharged along with their finny inhabitants. Here is a picture of one of those fishes, which was taken by BaronHumboldt. When you see what a queer-looking fish it is, you willwonder the less at its having chosen so strange an abode. [Illustration: Pimelodus Cyclopum] Quito, the capital of the province of that name, is the highest ofcities--being situated at an elevation of between nine and tenthousand feet above the level of the sea. It is built on a plain, lying on the flanks of the volcano Pichinca, of which a view isgiven in the annexed woodcut. Poor Quito has suffered severely fromthis dangerous neighbourhood; for, on the 22nd of March 1859, aviolent shaking of the mountain laid the whole city in ruins. Pichinca, you will observe, has a most irregular outline, but verygraceful withal. Instead of a single cone like Cotopaxi, it has agroup of cones, some of which are very pointed. It has fourprincipal summits, of which the most southerly contains the activecrater. Here the celebrated traveller Baron Humboldt nearly losthis life. Having ascended the cone and approached the edge of thecrater, he peered into the depths of the dark abyss, and therebeheld the glowing lava boiling as if in a huge caldron. A thickmist coming on, he unwarily advanced to within a few feet of therapid slope descending into the crater, and was within an ace oftoppling over into the fiery gulf beneath. What a pity it wouldhave been had he fallen in! We should have had no "PersonalNarrative, " no "Cosmos. " [Illustration: Pichinca] There are in this region of South America other two greatvolcanoes, named Antisana and Sangay. The former has not been inaction since 1718, but is remarkable for the immense beds of lavawhich it has amassed around it during its former eruptions. Sangay, again, has ever since 1728 been in a state of almost perpetualactivity--in this respect resembling Stromboli, which, however, itfar exceeds in height, its summit being nearly 18, 000 feet abovethe level of the sea. The eruptions of this mountain areaccompanied by loud explosions, which are heard at great distances, and they succeed each other with immense rapidity. The fumesemitted are sometimes gray, sometimes orange; and the mattersejected are cinders, dross, and spherical masses of stone. Theselast are often two feet in diameter, and in strong explosions asmany as sixty of them may be thrown out at a time. They are glowingat a white heat, and for the most part they fall back into the ventof the crater. Sometimes, however, they alight on the edge of thecone--imparting to it a temporary brilliancy; but the mass of thecone, being composed of loose black cinders, has a most dismalaspect. Another very active South American volcano is Rancagua in Chili. Itis, however, of moderate height, and thus in its general characterresembles Stromboli, which it rivals in restlessness. Another ofthe volcanoes of Chili, named Chillan, which had long been in astate of repose, renewed its activity in November 1864. Its usuallysnow-clad summit became covered in a short time with a thick layerof volcanic ashes, which greatly altered its appearance. Streams oflava were also thrown out by the mountain on this occasion. There are several volcanoes in Central America. One of them, namedMasaya, was very active during the sixteenth century. It issituated near the lake of Nicaragua, in the territory of that name. It was visited in 1529 by the Spanish historian Gonzales Fernandode Oviedo, from whose description it seems to have presentedphenomena resembling those seen in the crater of Stromboli. "In itsordinary state, " he says, "the surface of the lava, in the midst ofwhich black scoriae are continually floating, remains severalhundred feet below the edges of the water. But sometimes there issuddenly produced an ebullition so violent, that the lava risesalmost to the very brim. " CHAPTER VII. Jorullo--Great Monument--Jorullo's Estate--Interruption to hisQuiet--His Estate Swells--Swallows Two Rivers--Throws up Ovens--Becomes a Burning Mountain--Popocatepetl--Spanish Ascents--Orizaba--Muller's Ascent--Morne-Garou--Pelee---La Soufriere What a fortunate man was Mr. Jorullo! Old Cheops, king of Egypt, spent vast sums of money, many long years, and the labour ofmyriads of his subjects, in erecting the Great Pyramid as amonument to his memory. But Mr. Jorullo, without his having to laydown a single Mexican dollar, and without any labour, either of hisown or of his servants, had a magnificent monument raised to hismemory in a single night. Jorullo's monument, too, is far biggerthan the pyramid of Cheops--being nearly four times the height, andoccupying a much larger extent of ground. Whether it will last aslong as the pyramid has done, time only can show. You would doubtless like to know how this great monument wasreared. Here is the story:--Don Pedro di Jorullo was a Mexicangentleman who lived about the middle of the last century. He was alanded proprietor--the owner of a nice little farm of greatfertility, situated to the westward of the city of Mexico, andabout ninety miles from the coast of the Pacific Ocean. The groundwas well watered by artificial means, and produced abundant cropsof indigo and sugar-cane. Thus Mr. Jorullo was a very thrivingwell-to-do sort of man. [Illustration: Jorullo] This gentleman's prosperity continued without interruption till themonth of June 1759, when, to the great alarm of his servantsdwelling on the estate, strange underground rumblings were heard, accompanied by frequent shakings of the ground. These continued fornearly two months; but at the end of that time all became quietagain, and Mr. Jorullo's servants slept in fancied security. On thenight of the 28th of September, however, their slumbers weresuddenly broken by a return of the horrible underground rumblings-thundering more loudly than before. The next night, thesesubterranean thunders became so loud, that the Indian servantsstarted from their beds, and fled in terror to the mountains in theneighbourhood. Gazing thence, after day had dawned, they beheld totheir astonishment that a tract of ground from three to four squaremiles in extent, with their master's farm in the middle of it, hadbeen upheaved in the shape of an inflated bladder. At the edgesthis singular elevation rises only about thirty-nine feet above theold level of the plain; but so great is the general convexity ofthe mound, that towards the centre it swells up to five hundred andtwenty-four feet above the original level. The Indians affirmed that they saw flames issue from the groundthroughout an extent of more than half a square league, whilefragments of burning rocks were thrown to enormous heights. Thickclouds of ashes rose into the air, illuminated by glowing firesbeneath; and the surface of the ground seemed to swell intobillows, like those of a tempestuous sea. Into the vast burningchasms, whence these ejections were thrown, two rivers plunged incataracts; but the water only increased the violence of theeruption. It was thrown into steam with explosive force, and greatquantities of mud and balls of basalt were ejected. On the surfaceof the swollen mound there were formed thousands of small cones, from six to ten feet in height, and sending forth steam to heightsvarying from twenty to thirty feet. Out of a chasm in the midst of these cones, or ovens, as thenatives call them, there rose six large masses, the highest ofwhich is sixteen hundred feet in height, and constitutes thevolcano of Jorullo. The eruptions of this central volcano continuedtill February 1760 with extreme violence--the crater throwing outlarge quantities of lava; but in the succeeding years it becameless turbulent in its activity. It still, however, continues toburn; and the mountain emits from the wide crater at its summitseveral jets of vapour. The foregoing woodcut gives a view of thisvolcano, and of the little steaming ovens which stud the wholeground around it, giving it at a distance the appearance of the seain a storm. And now confess that Mr. Jorullo's monument is fargrander than the pyramid of Cheops. Surely the loss of his farm wasamply compensated to him, by the perpetuation of his memory and hisname, through the rearing of such a marvellous cenotaph. For a long time after the first eruption, the ground for a greatdistance round the volcano was too hot to be habitable or capableof cultivation. It is now, however, so much cooled down, that it isonce more covered with vegetation; and even some small portions ofthe raised ground containing the ovens have been again broughtunder culture. Besides this volcano, so recent in its origin, Mexico containsother five--Orizaba, Toluca, Tuxtla, Popocatepetl, and Colima. Whatis rather remarkable, these five, together with Jorullo, all lienearly in a straight line running east and west. The tracts ofcountry which these volcanoes have desolated with their lavas arecalled by the Mexicans the "Malpays. " The most remarkable of these mountains is Popocatepetl. Although ithas long remained in comparative quiet, it was very active at thetime of the Spanish invasion under Cortes. Of the first approach ofthe Spaniards to this volcano, and of the attempts made by some ofthem to climb to the top, Mr. Prescott, in his history of theconquest of Mexico, gives the following graphic account:-- "They were passing between two of the highest mountains on theNorth American continent, Popocatepetl, 'the hill that smokes' andIztaccihuatl, or 'white woman;' a name suggested, doubtless, by thebright robe of snow spread over its broad and broken surface. Apuerile superstition of the Indians regarded these celebratedmountains as gods, and Iztaccihuatl as the wife of her moreformidable neighbour. A tradition of a higher character describedthe northern volcano as the abode of the departed spirits of wickedrulers, whose fiery agonies in their prison-house caused thefearful bellowings and convulsions in times of eruption. It was theclassic fable of antiquity. These superstitious legends hadinvested the mountain with a mysterious horror, that made thenatives shrink from attempting its ascent, which, indeed, was, fromnatural causes, a work of incredible difficulty. "The great _volcan_, as Popocatepetl was called, rose to theenormous height of 17, 852 feet above the level of the sea; morethan 2000 feet above the 'monarch of mountains'--the highestelevation in Europe. During the present century it has rarely givenevidence of its volcanic origin, and 'the hill that smokes' hasalmost forfeited its claim to the appellation. But at the time ofthe conquest it was frequently in a state of activity, and ragedwith uncommon fury while the Spaniards were at Tlascala; an evilomen, it was thought, for the natives of Anahuac. Its head, gathered into a regular cone by the deposit of successiveeruptions, wore the usual form of volcanic mountains, when notdisturbed by the falling in of the crater. Soaring towards theskies, with its silver sheet of everlasting snow, it was seen farand wide over the broad plains of Mexico and Puebla; the firstobject which the morning sun greeted in his rising, the last wherehis evening rays were seen to linger, shedding a gloriouseffulgence over its head, that contrasted strikingly with theruinous waste of sand and lava immediately below, and the deepfringe of funereal pines that shrouded its base. "The mysterious terrors which hung over the spot. And the wild loveof adventure, made some of the Spanish cavaliers desirous toattempt the ascent, which the natives declared no man couldaccomplish and live. Cortes encouraged them in the enterprise, willing to show the Indians that no achievement was above thedauntless daring of his followers. One of his captains, accordingly, Diego Ordaz, with nine Spaniards, and severalTlascalans, encouraged by their example, undertook the ascent. Itwas attended with more difficulty than had been anticipated. "The lower region was clothed with a dense forest, so thicklymatted, that in some places it was scarcely possible to penetrateit. It grew thinner, however, as they advanced, dwindling bydegrees into a straggling stunted vegetation, till, at the heightof somewhat more than 13, 000 feet, it faded away altogether. TheIndians, who had held on thus far; intimidated by the strangesubterraneous sounds of the volcano, even then in a state ofcombustion, now left them. The track opened on a black surface ofglazed volcanic sand and of lava, the broken fragments of which, arrested in its boiling progress in a thousand fantastic forms, opposed continual impediments to their advance. Amidst these, onehuge rock, the Pico del Fraile, a conspicuous object from below, rose to the perpendicular height of 150 feet, compelling them totake a wide circuit. They soon came to the limits of perpetualsnow, where new difficulties presented themselves, as thetreacherous ice gave an imperfect footing, and a false step mightprecipitate them into the frozen chasms that yawned around. Toincrease their distress, respiration in these aerial regions becameso difficult, that every effort was attended with sharp pains inthe head and limbs. Still they pressed on, till, drawing nearer thecrater, such volumes of smoke, sparks, and cinders were belchedforth from its burning entrails, and driven down the sides of themountain, as nearly suffocated and blinded them. It was too mucheven for their hardy frames to endure, and, however reluctantly, they were compelled to abandon the attempt on the eve of itscompletion. They brought back some huge icicles--a curious sight inthose tropical regions--as a trophy of their achievement, which, however imperfect, was sufficient to strike the minds of thenatives with wonder, by showing that with the Spaniards the mostappalling and mysterious perils were only as pastimes. Theundertaking was eminently characteristic of the bold spirit of thecavalier of that day, who, not content with the dangers that lay inhis path, seemed to court them from the mere Quixotic love ofadventure. A report of the affair was transmitted to the EmperorCharles V. ; and the family of Ordaz was allowed to commemorate theexploit by assuming a burning mountain on their escutcheon. "The general was not satisfied with the result. Two years after hesent up another party, under Francisco Montano, a cavalier ofdetermined resolution. The object was to obtain sulphur to assistin making gunpowder for the army. The mountain was quiet at thetime, and the expedition was attended with better success. TheSpaniards, five in-number, climbed to the very edge of the crater, which presented an irregular ellipse at its mouth, more than aleague in circumference. Its depth might be from 800 to 1000 feet. A lurid flame burned gloomily at the bottom, sending up asulphureous steam, which, cooling as it rose, was precipitated onthe sides of the cavity. The party cast lots, and it fell onMontano himself to descend in a basket into this hideous abyss, into which he was lowered by his companions to the depth of 400feet! This was repeated several times, till the adventurouscavalier had collected a sufficient quantity of sulphur for thewants of the army. " The more tranquil state of the volcano in modern times havingrendered the summit no longer so difficult of access as it was inthose days, the ascent has been several times achieved--twice in1827, and again in 1833 and 1834. The crater is now a large ovalbasin with precipitous walls, composed of beds of lava, of whichsome are black, others of a pale rose tint. At the bottom of thecrater, which is nearly flat, are several conical vents, whence arecontinually issuing vapours of variable colour, red, yellow, orwhite. The beds of sulphur deposited in this crater are worked foreconomical purposes. Two snowy peaks tower above its walls. Not less magnificent in its proportions is the volcano of Orizaba, which is nearly of the same height as Popocatepetl. It was veryactive about the middle of the sixteenth century, having hadseveral great eruptions between 1545 and 1560; but since then ithas sunk into comparative repose. This mountain was ascended byBaron Muller in 1856. A first attempt proved unsuccessful; but bypassing a night in a grotto near the limit of perpetual snow, hewas able on the following day, after a toilsome ascent, to reachthe edge of the crater--not, however, till near sunset. Hisexperiences, and the scene which was presented to his wonderinggaze, he describes in the following terms:-- "I have achieved my purpose, and joy banishes all my griefs, butonly for a moment; suddenly I fell to the ground, and a stream ofblood gushed from my mouth. "On recovering, I found myself still close to the crater, and Ithen summoned all my strength to gaze and observe as much aspossible. My pen cannot describe either the aspect of thoseregions, or the impressions they produced on me. Here seemed to bethe gate of the nether world, enclosing darkness and horror. Whatterrible power must have been required to raise and shiver suchenormous masses, to melt them and pile them up like towers, at thevery moment of their cooling and acquiring their actual forms! "A yellow crust of sulphur coats in several places the internalwalls, and from the bottom rise several volcanic cones. The soil ofthe crater, so far as I could see, was covered with snow, consequently not at all warm. The Indians however affirmed that, atseveral points, a hot air issues from crevices in the rocks. Although I could not verify their statement, it seemed to meprobable; for I have often observed similar phenomena inPopocatepetl. "My original intention of passing the night on the crater had foroverpowering reasons become impracticable. The twilight which, inthis latitude, as every one knows, is extremely short, havingalready begun, it was necessary to prepare for our return. The twoIndians rolled together the straw mats which they had brought, andbent them in front so as to form a sort of sledge. We sat down uponthese, and stretching out our legs, allowed ourselves to glide downon this vehicle. The rapidity with which we were precipitatedincreased to such a degree, that our descent was rather like beingshot through the air, than any other mode of locomotion. In a fewminutes we dashed over a space which it had taken us five hours toclimb. " There are several of the West Indian islands of volcanic origin;and three of them--St. Vincent, Martinique, and Guadaloupe--containactive volcanoes. The most remarkable is the volcano of Morne-Garou, in St. Vincent, the eruptions from which have beenparticularly violent. In 1812 the ashes which it threw out were sogreat in quantity, and projected to so vast a height, that theywere carried to a distance of two hundred miles in the teeth of thetrade-wind. From Mount Pelee, in Martinique, there was an eruptionin August 1851. La Soufriere, the volcano in Guadaloupe, is said tohave been cleft in twain during an earthquake. Its activity haslong been in a subdued state; but it is remarkable for its depositsof sulphur. CHAPTER VIII. Hawaii, Sandwich Islands--Crater of Kilauea--Its awful Aspect--Fiery Lake and Islands--Jets of Lava--Depth of Crater and Surfaceof Lake--Bank of Sulphur--Curious Rainbow--Mouna-Kaah and Mouna-Loa--Eruption of the Latter in 1840--Recent Eruption--Great Jet andTorrent of Lava--Burning of the Forests--Great Whirlwinds--Underground Explosions--Other Volcanoes in the Pacific. Hawaii is well known in history as being the island where thecelebrated navigator Captain Cook was killed. The name used to bewritten Owhyhee; but a better apprehension of the nativepronunciation has led to its being altered into Hawaii. No one whovisits it in the present day need be afraid of sharing the fate ofpoor Captain Cook; for the descendants of the savages who, in histime, inhabited the island, have now, through the labours ofChristian missionaries, become a very decent sort of quiet, well-behaved Christian people. Hawaii, which is the largest of a group called the SandwichIslands, can boast of the greatest volcanic crater in the world. Itis called sometimes Kirauea, sometimes Kilauea; for the nativesseem not very particular about the pronunciation of their _l_and their _r_; but where one uses _l_ another aspertinaciously employs _r_, while a third set use a soundbetween the two, as you may have heard some people do at home. Situated on the lower slopes of a lofty mountain called Mouna-Roa, or Loa (for there is the same dubiety about the _l_ and the_r_ here as in the former case), the crater of Kilauea is avast plain between fifteen and sixteen miles in circumference, andsunk below the level of its borders to a depth varying from twohundred to four hundred feet--the walls of rock enclosing it beingfor the most part precipitous. The surface of the ground is veryuneven, being strown with huge stones and masses of volcanic rock, and it sounds hollow under the tramp of the foot. Towards the centre of the plain is a much deeper depression. Thosewho have ventured to approach it, and look down, describe it as anawful gulf, about eight hundred feet in depth, and presenting amost gloomy and dismal aspect. The bottom is covered with moltenlava, forming a great lake of fire, which is continually boilingviolently, and whose fiery billows exhibit a wild terrificappearance. The shape of the lake resembles the crescent moon; itslength is estimated at about two miles, and its greatest breadth atabout one mile. It has numerous conical islands scattered round theedge, or in the lake itself, each of them being a littlesubordinate crater. Some of them are continually sending outcolumns of gray vapour; while from a few others shoots up whatresembles flame. It is, probably, only the bright glare of the lavathey contain, reflected upwards. Several of these conical islandsare always belching forth from their mouths glowing streams oflava, which roll in fiery torrents down their black and ruggedsides into the boiling lake below. They are said sometimes to throwup jets of lava to the height of upwards of sixty feet. Theforegoing woodcut can convey only an imperfect idea of this immensecrater. [Illustration: Crater of Kilauea] The outer margin of the gulf all round is nearly perpendicular. Theheight of the bounding cliffs is estimated at about four hundredfeet above a black horizontal ledge of hardened lava, whichcompletely encircles it, and beyond which there is a gradual slopedown into the burning lake. The surface of the molten lava is atpresent between three and four hundred feet below this horizontalledge; but the lava is said sometimes to rise quite up to thislevel, and to force its way out by forming an opening in the sideof the mountain, whence it flows down to the sea. An eruption ofthis kind took place in 1859. On one side of the margin of the lakethere is a long pale yellow streak formed by a bank of sulphur. Thefaces of the rocks composing the outer walls of the crater have apale ashy gray appearance, supposed to be due to the action of thesulphurous vapours. The surface of the plain itself is much rent byfissures. It is said that the glare from the molten lava in thelake is so great as to form rainbows on the passing rain-clouds. The entire Island of Hawaii is of volcanic origin; and besides thisgreat crater it contains two other lofty mountains, whose summitsare covered with snow, and whose height is estimated at fifteen orsixteen thousand feet above the level of the sea. The one is namedMouna-Kaah or Keah, the other is Mouna-Loa--the same on whose lowerflanks the crater of Kilauea is situated. Mouna-Kaah has long beenin a state of repose. So also was Mouna-Loa up to 1840, when itburst forth with great fury, and it has continued more or less in astate of activity ever since. There has been a grand eruption verylately, said by the natives to have been the greatest of any onrecord. A new crater opened near the top, at a height of about ten thousandfeet, and for three days a flood of lava poured down the north-eastern slope. After a pause of about thirty-six hours, there wasopened on the eastern slope, about half way down the mountain, another crater, whence there rose an immense jet of liquid lava, which attained a height of about a thousand feet, and had adiameter of about a hundred feet. This jet was sustained for twentydays and nights; but during that time its height varied from theextreme limit of a thousand, down to about a hundred feet. The playof this fiery fountain was accompanied by explosions so loud as tobe heard at the distance of forty miles. Nothing could surpass theawful grandeur of this jet, which was at a white heat when itissued from its source, but, cooling as it ascended into the air, it became of a bright blood red, which, as the liquid fell, deepened into crimson. In a few days there was raised around this crater a cone of aboutthree hundred feet in height, composed of the looser materialsthrown out along with the lava. This cone continued to glow withintense heat, throwing out occasional flashes. The base of thiscone eventually acquired a circumference of about a mile. But thefountain itself formed a river of glowing lava, which rushed andbounded with the speed of a torrent down the sides of the mountain, filling up ravines and dashing over precipices, until it reachedthe forests at the foot of the volcano. These burst into flames atthe approach of the fiery torrent, sending up volumes of smoke andsteam high into the air. The light from the burning forests and thelava together was so intense as to turn night into day, and wasseen by mariners at a distance of nearly two hundred miles. During the day the air throughout a vast extent was filled with amurky haze, through which the sun showed only a pallid glimmer. Smoke, steam, ashes, and cinders were tossed into the air andwhirled about by fierce winds--sometimes spreading out like a fan, but every moment changing both their form and colour. The stream oflava from the fountain flowed to a distance of about thirty-fivemiles. The scene was altogether terrific--the fierce red glare ofthe lava--the flames from the burning trees--the great volumes ofsmoke and steam--the loud underground explosions and thunderings, --all combined to overpower the senses, and fill the mind withindescribable awe. A remarkable volcanic chain runs along the northern and westernmargins of the Pacific Ocean. It embraces the Aleutian Islands, thepeninsula of Kamtschatka, the Kurile, the Japanese, and thePhilippine Islands. The most interesting are the volcanoes ofKamtschatka, in which there is an oft-renewed struggle betweenopposing forces--the snow and glaciers predominating for a while, to be in their turn overpowered by torrents of liquid fire. CHAPTER IX. Atolls, or Coral Islands--Their strange Appearance--TheirConnexion with Volcanoes--Their Mode of Formation--AntarcticVolcanoes--Diatomaceous Deposits To the southward of the Sandwich Islands, on the other side of theequator, there is a large group of islands in the Pacific, whichhave a very peculiar appearance. They are called Atolls or CoralIslands. Although not exactly of volcanic origin, yet the manner inwhich they are formed has some connexion with submarine volcanicaction. An atoll consists essentially of a ring of coral rocks but littleelevated above the level of the sea, and having in its centre alagoon or salt-water lake, which generally communicates by a deepnarrow channel with the sea. The ring of rocks is flat on thesurface, which is composed of friable soil, and sustains aluxuriant vegetation, chiefly of cocoa-nut palms. It is seldom morethan half a mile in breadth between the sea and lagoon, sometimesonly three or four hundred yards. The outer margin of the ring isthe highest, and it slopes gradually down towards the lagoon; buton the outside of the ledge of rocks is a beach of dazzlingwhiteness, composed of powdered and broken coral and shells. Theappearance they present is thus not less beautiful than singular. Some of these islands are of large size, from thirty to fifty mileslong, and from twenty to thirty broad, but they are in generalconsiderably smaller. Their most frequent form is either round oroval. The rocks composing them are all formed by different speciesof coral. The animal which constructs them is of the polyp tribe, and so small that it can be seen only under the higher powers ofthe microscope. It multiplies by means of buds like those of atree, the individuals all combining to form a composite stony mass, which is called a polypidom. A number of such polypidoms growingclose together form a coral reef. See woodcuts. [Illustration: Coral] [Illustration: Coral Polyp] It was at one time supposed that these coral reefs were erected onthe edges of the craters of submarine volcanoes, an opinion towhich their annular form, and the lagoon in the centre, lent somecountenance; but the vast size of some of them, united to severalother particulars connected with them, threw great doubts over thissupposition. More recently it has been shown by Mr. Darwin that, while volcanicagency does perform a part in their formation, it is different fromwhat had been formerly imagined. His supposition is, that thesecoral reefs were built round the coasts of islands which had oncestood very much higher above water than they do now. He conceivesthat the bottom of the sea under them being very volcanic, andcontaining large collections of molten lava beneath a thin solidcrust, the islands have gradually sunk down into the lava, untiltheir central parts have become covered with a considerable depthof water. The central parts thus submerged, he imagines, form thelagoons in the middle of the islands, while the ring of coral reefshas gradually grown upwards, as the ground on which it rested sankdownwards. [Illustration: Coral Reef. ] The corals thus rise to near the surface, but immediately on theirbeing uncovered by the water they die, and the reef ceases to grow. Then the waves by their action break the upper part of it intopieces, which thus become heaped up by degrees on the remainder, until the mass attain so great a height that the sea can no longerwash over it. Thus the curious ring of land is gradually formed, and affords a nutritive soil, in which cocoa-nuts, on being castashore, germinate and grow to be large trees. Other seeds, waftedby the waves or carried by birds, also begin to grow, until thewhole surface becomes covered with vegetation. Then comes man andbuilds his habitation upon those fertile spots, and finds in theman agreeable and convenient abode, well suited to those who areaccustomed to live by fishing and other simple means. You will thus perceive that the connexion between the atoll and thevolcano consists in this--that while the coral builds up the reef, the volcano beneath ingulfs the island and causes it to sink down. In some instances, however, the volcano, after a while, reversesits action, and raises up the island with the reef upon it. In suchcases, the coral reefs are seen standing out of the water, formingperpendicular cliffs several hundred feet in height. Then also theinterior of the island becomes once more dry land, and that, too, of great fertility. [Illustration: Mount Erebus. ] Almost due south of that region, in the Pacific, where the coralislands abound, but at a great distance from them, and considerablywithin the limits of the Antarctic zone, lies South Victoria. Here, in lat. 76 degrees S. , Captain Ross discovered, in 1841, twovolcanoes, which he called Erebus and Terror, after the names ofhis two ships. Of the former, which is the higher of the two, aview is given in the annexed woodcut. It is covered with perpetualsnow from the bottom even to the tip of the summit. Nevertheless, it is continually sending forth vast columns of vapour, which glowwith the reflection of the white hot lava beneath. These vapoursascend to a great height, more than two thousand feet above the topof the cone, which is itself twelve thousand feet above the levelof the sea. There is found in these frozen regions a remarkable botanicalcuriosity, having a certain connexion with volcanoes. The waters ofthe ocean, all along the borders of the icy barrier, produce inamazing abundance the family of water-plants named Diatomaceae. TheDiatoms are so called from their faculty of multiplying themselvesindefinitely by splitting into two; and so rapidly is this processperformed, that in a month a single diatom may produce a thousandmillions. The quantity found in the Antarctic regions is so immensethat, between the parallels of 60 degrees and 80 degrees of southlatitude, they stain the whole surface of the sea of a pale olive-brown tint. These plants, which are so minute as to be individuallyinvisible, save under the higher powers of the microscope, have thecurious property of encrusting themselves with a sheath, or shell, of pure silica. These shells remain after the death of the plant, and are as indestructible as flint. They are marvellous objects, both as respects the elegance of their forms and the beauty oftheir markings. So great is the accumulation of these shells at thebottom of the sea, that they have formed an immense bank 400 milesin length by 120 in breadth, between the 76th and 78th degrees ofsouth latitude. One portion of this bank rests on the coast at thefoot of Mount Erebus. Now, it is remarkable that these microscopic shells of Diatoms arenot unfrequently found in the ejections of volcanoes; while it isgenerally supposed that, in the case of those situated near thesea, eruptions are caused by the formation of explosive steamconsequent on the access of sea-water to the reservoirs of moltenlava lying underground. The proximity of this Diatomaceous bed toMount Erebus would easily explain how these minute shells might befound abundant in the fine dust ejected from that volcano. CHAPTER X. Volcanoes of Java--Papandayang--Mountain Ingulfed--GreatDestruction of Life and Property--Galoen-gong--DestructiveEruption--Mount Merapia--Great Eruption, with Hurricane--Another, very destructive--Mud Volcano Crater of Tankuban-Prahu--Island ofSumbawa--Volcano of Tomboro--Terrific Eruption--Timor--A Volcanoquenches itself--Cleaving of Mount Machian--Sangir--DestructiveEruption--Bourbon. One of the most marvellous volcanic regions in the world is thatcomposed of the islands of the Malayan Archipelago in the IndianOcean. They form a chain stretching from east to west, but curvingup towards the north at the western extremity. The most easterly ofthe chain is Timor, the most westerly Sumatra. The most interesting of the group is Java, which is almost entirelyof volcanic origin, and contains no less than thirty-eightmountains of that conical form which indicates their having at onetime or other been active volcanoes. Only a few of them, however, have been in activity in more recent times. The most remarkableeruption was that of the mountain named Papandayang, which occurredin 1772. During this convulsion the greater part of the mountain, which was formerly one of the largest in the island, was completelyswallowed up in some great underground gulf. On the night between the 11th and 12th of August of that year, themountain appeared to be wholly enveloped in a remarkable luminouscloud. The inhabitants fled in consternation; but before they couldall escape, the mountain began to totter, and the greater part ofit tumbled down and disappeared. The crash with which it fell wasdreadful, the noise resembling the discharge of volleys ofartillery. Besides that part of the mountain which thus fell in, alarge extent of ground in its neighbourhood was ingulfed. The spacemeasured fifteen miles in length and six in breadth. The ground formany miles round this space was covered with immense quantities ofashes, stones, cinders, and other substances thrown out by thevolcano. These were, on many parts of the surface, accumulated tothe height of three feet; and even at the end of six weeks, thelayers thus deposited retained so much heat as to render themountain inaccessible. By this dreadful occurrence forty villageswere destroyed, some ingulfed with the ground on which they stood, others buried under the loose materials which had been ejected. Notfar short of three thousand of the inhabitants perished. Another of the volcanoes of Java, called Galoen-gong, burst intoeruption in 1822, commencing with a terrible explosion of stones, ashes, &c. , followed by a stream of hot mud, which overspread alarge tract of ground. This eruption proved still more fatal tohuman life, about four thousand persons having been destroyed. So lately as September 1849, Mount Merapia, another volcano in thisisland, which had been supposed to be quite extinct, burst forthinto an eruption, which lasted three days. It was accompanied by aviolent hurricane. The bed of a river was filled up by the matterthrown out from the crater, and the destruction of property incrops, &c. , was immense. Fortunately the inhabitants succeeded inmaking their escape, so that no lives were lost. A second eruptionof this mountain however, in January 1864, was more disastrous, three hundred and fifty people having perished. Java likewise contains a remarkable mud volcano. When viewed from adistance, there are seen to rise from it large volumes of vapour, like the spray from the billows dashing against a rocky shore, andthere is heard a loud noise like distant thunder. On a nearerapproach, the source of these phenomena is seen to be ahemispherical mound of black earth mixed with water, about sixteenfeet in diameter, and which at intervals of a few seconds is pushedupwards by a force acting from beneath to a height of betweentwenty and thirty feet. It then suddenly explodes with a loudnoise, scattering in every direction a quantity of black mud, whichhas a strong pungent smell resembling that of coal-tar, and isconsiderably warmer than the air. With the mud thus thrown outthere has been formed around the mound a large perfectly level andnearly circular plain, about half a mile in circumference. Thewater mixed with the mud is salt, and the salt is separated from itby evaporation for economical purposes. During the rainy season theaction of this mud volcano becomes more violent, the explosions arelouder, and the mud is thrown to a greater height. The crater of Tangkuban-Prahu, another of the volcanoes of Java, presents a remarkable appearance. On approaching its edge, nothingis seen but an abyss, from which dense clouds of vapour continuallyarise, with hideous sounds, like the steam rushing from the openvalves of hundreds of steam-engines. This great abyss consistsreally of two craters, separated the one from the other by a narrowridge of rock, to which it is possible to descend and view themboth. Each of them is elliptical in form, and surrounded by acrater-wall. That of the western, which the natives call thepoison-crater, is a rapid slope nearly a thousand feet in depth, and is densely covered with brushwood almost to the bottom. Theflat floor of this deep basin is continually sending out vapours, and in its centre is a pool of boiling water of a sulphur yellowcolour. The floor itself is nothing but a crust of sulphur full ofrents and holes, whence vapours constantly arise. This crust coversa surface of boiling hot bitter water, and by breaking it beautifulcrystals of sulphur may be obtained. The eastern is called by the natives the king's-crater; its wallsare only between five and six hundred feet in depth, and areperfectly bare from top to bottom. The surfaces of the rockscomposing them are grayish white, an effect produced upon them bythe action of the vapours, to which they are continually exposed. The bottom of this crater consists of mud mixed with sulphur; butround the edges are some stones and hard masses. These are theremnants of an eruption which took place from this crater in 1846, when there was thrown up a great mass of sulphurous boiling mud, accompanied by quantities of sand and stones. This mountain, therefore, seems to be also more of the nature of a mud volcano, than of one which throws out burning lava. Nearly in a right line to the eastward of Java lies the Island ofSumbawa, in which stands the volcano of Tomboro, the most violentin its eruptions of any in the world. One of the most remarkableoccurred in the year 1815, beginning on the 5th of April andcontinuing till the middle of July. Its effects were felt over animmense tract of country, embracing the Molucca Islands, Java, andportions of Celebes, Sumatra, and Borneo. The concussions producedby its explosions were sensible at a distance of a thousand milesall round; and their sound is said to have been heard even at sogreat a distance as seventeen hundred miles. In Java the day wasdarkened by clouds of ashes, thrown from the mountain to that greatdistance (three hundred miles), and the houses, streets, andfields, were covered to the depth of several inches with the ashesthat fell from the air. So great was the quantity of ashes ejected, that the roofs of houses forty miles distant from the volcano werebroken in by their weight. The effects of the eruption extendedeven to the western coasts of Sumatra, where masses of pumice wereseen floating on the surface of the sea, several feet in thicknessand many miles in extent. From the crater itself there were seen to ascend three fierycolumns, which, after soaring to a great height, appeared to unitein a confused manner at their tops. Ere long, the whole of the sideof the mountain next the village of Sang'ir seemed like one vastbody of liquid fire. The glare was terrific, until towards evening, when it became partly obscured by the vast quantities of dust, ashes, stones, and cinders thrown up from the crater. Between nineand ten o'clock at night the ashes and stones began to fall uponthe village of Sang'ir, and all round the neighbourhood of themountain. Then arose a dreadful whirlwind, which blew down nearlyevery house in the village, tossing the roofs and lighter partshigh into the air. In the neighbouring sea-port the effects wereeven more violent, the largest trees having been torn up by theroots and whirled aloft. Before such a furious tempest no livingthing could stand. Men, horses, and cattle were whirled into theair like so much chaff, and then dashed violently down on theground. The sea rose nearly twelve feet above the highest tide-mark, sweeping away houses, trees, everything within its reach. This whirlwind lasted about an hour, and then commenced the awfulinternal thunderings of the mountain. These continued with scarcelyany intermission until the 11th of July, when they became moremoderate, the intervals between them gradually increasing till the15th of July, when they ceased. Almost all the villages for a longdistance round the mountain were destroyed; and it is computed thatnearly twelve thousand persons perished. By far the greatest partof this destruction was wrought by the violence of the whirlwindwhich accompanied the eruption. Considerably to the eastward of Sumbawa lies the Island of Timor, in which there was for a long time a volcanic peak, whose perpetualfires served as a lighthouse to mariners navigating those seas. Butin the year 1637 there took place a great eruption of the mountain, which ended in its being gobbled up whole and entire, leavingnothing behind it but a lake, in which its fires were quenched, andwhich now occupies its place. To the north of Timor lie the Molucca Islands, several of which arevolcanic. In one of them, named Machian, there occurred in the year1646 an extraordinary event. A mountain was rent from top tobottom, sending out great columns of fire and dense vapours. Thetwo parts now remain two distinct mountains. In the Island of Sangir, another of the Moluccas, there was aviolent eruption in March 1856. A large portion of the mountainfell down, and tremendous floods of water issued forth. Thedestruction that ensued was dreadful, upwards of two thousandpersons having perished. In another part of the Indian Ocean, near Madagascar, lies thelittle Isle of Bourbon, containing the volcano Salazes, whichoccasionally throws out the curious thready substance alreadymentioned, so strongly resembling spun glass. CHAPTER XI. Mud and Air Volcanoes--Luss--Macaluba--Taman--Korabetoff--NewIsland in the Sea of Azof--Jokmali--Fires of Baku--Mud Volcano inFlank of Etna--Air Volcanoes of Turbaco, Cartagena, and Galera-Zamba. The curious mud volcano in the Island of Java, described inthe preceding chapter, although presenting some peculiar features, is not the only one of the kind in the world. Mud, as you havelearned, is often thrown out in great quantities, along withboiling water, even by true volcanoes, which at other times ejectashes and lava. But there are some volcanoes that never throw outanything else than mud and water, gas and steam. Such are calledmud volcanoes or salses. The most remarkable assemblage of mud volcanoes in the world existsin the district of Luss, lying at the south-east corner ofBeloochistan. They extend over a very large area, and areexceedingly numerous. The cone of one of them is no less than fourhundred feet high, and the crater at the top is ninety feet indiameter. The mud in the crater is quite liquid, and is constantlydisturbed by bubbles of gas, and occasionally by jets of the muditself. More familiarly known is the mud volcano of Macaluba, nearGirgenti, in Sicily. It is situated in a country much impregnatedwith sulphur and other inflammable matters. The top of the hill iscovered with dry clay, in which are numerous basins full of warmishwater mixed with mud and bitumen. From these small craters bubblesof gas arise from time to time; but at long intervals they becomemuch more active, and throw up jets of wet mud to the height ofnearly two hundred feet. This mud smells strongly of sulphur. In the peninsula of Taman, near the entrance to the Sea of Azof, there is a group of mud volcanoes, from one of which there was aconsiderable eruption on the 27th of February 1793. It was precededby underground detonations, and accompanied by a column of fire anddense vapour, which rose to the height of several hundred feet. Thedischarge of mud and gas was abundant. The accompaniment of fireand smoke makes this eruption more nearly resemble that of a truevolcano. There is in the adjacent parts of the Crimea a mountain namedKorabetoff, which also presents similar phenomena. On the 6th ofAugust 1853, a column of fire and smoke was seen to rise from thetop of this mountain to a great height, and it continued for fiveor six minutes. Two other similar but less violent ejections offire and smoke followed at short intervals. These appearances werethe accompaniments of an eruption of black fetid mud, whichoverspread the ground at the foot of the mountain to a considerabledepth. A still more striking phenomenon occurred in the Sea of Azof, onthe 10th of May 1814. On that day a column of flame and very thicksmoke arose out of the water, with a loud report like that of acannon, and masses of earth with large stones were tossed high upinto the air. Ten eruptions of this kind succeeded each other atintervals of about a quarter of an hour; and after they had ceasedfor a time, they began again during the night. Next morning it wasfound that an island had risen out of the sea, between nine and tenfeet in height, surrounded by a lower level of hardened mud. Astrong fetid smell, probably that of petroleum, proceeded from theisland, and extended for a considerable distance all round. [Illustration: Air Volcanoes of Turbaco] Another mud volcano, named Jokmali, near the Caspian Sea, wasformed in November 1827. In this case, also, the ejection of mudwas for several hours preceded by flames, rising to so great aheight that they could be seen at a distance of twenty-four miles. Large pieces of rock were at the same time thrown up and scatteredto considerable distances all round. The entire district in whichthis mountain is situated, has its soil copiously impregnated withpetroleum, and numerous wells are formed for its collection. Quantities of this mineral oil are frequently found floating on thesea, along the neighbouring shores, where the sailors are in thehabit of setting fire to this floating petroleum, while theydexterously steer their boats so as to avoid the flames. In thisdistrict also stands the city of Baku, held sacred by the Parsees, or fire-worshippers, who have here built a temple, in which arekept burning perpetual fires, fed by the naphtha springing from theground. During the past year, 1866, a small mud volcano has been formed inthe flanks of Mount Etna. It began with an outburst of strong jetsof boiling water. First, one rose to the height of about six feet, then several others broke out, whereupon the height of the wholeset diminished. There was much gas bubbling through the water, andsome petroleum floated on its surface. It was very muddy, and lefta thick deposit as it flowed away. Neither flames nor noiseaccompanied this eruption. There are also diminutive volcanoes, consisting of small conicalhills, from which nothing seems to be emitted but various sorts ofgas. These are called air volcanoes. Such are those of Turbaco inSouth America, discovered by Baron Humboldt, who has left us apicture of them, of which you here have a copy. These volcanichillocks are truncated cones, eighteen or twenty in number, composed of hardened mud, from 18 to 24 feet in height, and fromabout 140 to about 180 feet in diameter at the base. The smallcraters at the top are filled with liquid mud, whence bubbles ofgas, chiefly nitrogen, are being continually disengaged. There is a similar, but much larger, group in the neighbouringprovince of Cartagena. It consists of about one hundred conesspread over a district of nearly four hundred square leagues. Thereis also a group of about fifty cones within a range of four or fivemiles in the adjacent peninsula of Galera-Zamba. A sub-marinevolcano, from which there have been several eruptions, is supposedto be connected with these numerous salses. CHAPTER XII. New Zealand--Boiling Fountains and Lakes In the eruptions of mud volcanoes, described in the foregoingchapter, a frequent ingredient is boiling water. There are, however, several instances in which there are thrown up jets ofboiling water that are not intermingled with mud, but in which thewater is either pure or impregnated with some mineral which itholds in perfect solution. Of this nature are the Geysers ofIceland and California, already described. In New Zealand there is another variety of this phenomenon, theboiling water issuing forth, not in intermittent jets, as in theGeysers, but in perpetually flowing springs, forming lakes, inwhich the water remains nearly at the boiling point. These springsand lakes occur at a place called Roto-Mahana. The annexed woodcutwill convey an idea of their appearance. There are several basins raised one above another, and all higherthan the level of the large lake. The highest is of an oval form, and about two hundred and fifty feet in circumference. It is filledfrom an opening at the height of about a hundred feet above thelevel of the lower lake. At various stages below this upper basinare numerous other springs, from which several similar basins arefilled. The whole of these basins empty themselves into the largelake below, and the water in all of them is nearly boiling hot, giving forth, with a hissing sound, volumes of white vapour. [Illustration: Boiling Lakes of Roto Mahana] These waters are richly impregnated with carbonate of lime, whichhas formed all round the margins of the basins beautifulincrustations of snowy whiteness. The sand round the lake is verywarm; and if a stick be thrust into it, jets of steam arise. Doubtless, some years hence, the enterprising English settlers willestablish hot baths here. Not far from the lake there are smallerbasins, in which the water is not beyond what would be agreeablefor a warm bath; while it is of a blue colour and beautifullyclear. On both banks of the river Waikato, also in this neighbourhood, arefound numerous basins full of boiling mud or slime, which cannot beapproached save with extreme care, owing to the softness andslipperiness of the soil. The largest of these basins is oval inform, 14 feet long by 8 feet wide, and about as much in depth. Itcontains hot mud of a bright red colour, being strongly impregnatedwith oxide of iron. Large viscous bubbles are continually rising tothe top, and on bursting they emit a fetid, sulphureous smell. These phenomena are nearly akin to those of a mud volcano. CHAPTER XIII. Underground Sounds--Quito--Rio Apure--Guanaxuato--Melida--Nakous. Not the least remarkable among the phenomena produced by volcanicforces, are the strange underground noises which are occasionallyheard. For the most part these are the preludes either of shocks ofearthquake or of volcanic eruptions. Those which for monthspreceded the upheaval of the volcano of Jorullo, will recur to yourremembrance. For about a month before the great mud eruption fromTunguragua on 4th February 1797, already described, there proceededfrom the interior of that mountain noises of the most fearful kind. These would occur suddenly in the midst of perfect silence. Theywere heard by Antonio Pineda, the naturalist, who was there at thetime, and they led him to foretell the approach of some greatconvulsion. Strange to say, however, the catastrophe itself wasunaccompanied by underground noises any where near the volcano. But, stranger still, at Quito, which is distant about 200 miles, ashort time after the eruption began, there were heard tremendousunderground thunders. But this distance, between the site of theunderground noises and the probable focus of disturbance, was farexceeded in another remarkable instance. It is stated by Humboldtthat, in the grassy plains of Calaboso, on the banks of the RioApure, a tributary of the Orinoco, there were heard, over a largeextent of country, loud underground thunders, unaccompanied by anyshaking of the ground; while great streams of lava were beingpoured forth from the crater of Morne-Garou, in the Island of St. Vincent, at the distance of no less than 632 miles in a right line. This was as though an eruption of Mount Vesuvius were accompaniedby underground thunders in Normandy. There have, nevertheless, been instances of the existence of suchunderground noises, without their having been followed either by anearthquake, by a volcanic eruption, or any other outward appearancewhatever. One of the most remarkable cases of the kind, was thatmentioned by Humboldt as having occurred at Guanaxuato in Mexico, amountain-city situated far from any active volcano. This celebratedtraveller states that these noises began on the 9th of January1784, and lasted above a month. The sounds were at first neithervery loud nor very frequent; but from the 15th to the 16th ofJanuary they resembled continuous low rolling thunder, alternatingwith short loud thunder-claps. The sounds then gradually died awayand nothing came of them, although they excited great terror amongthe inhabitants while they lasted. There are mines in theneighbourhood fifteen hundred and ninety-eight English feet indepth, yet neither in them nor at the surface could the leasttremor be detected. A somewhat similar phenomenon occurred in the Island of Melida inthe Adriatic, off the coast of Dalmatia, where undergroundrumblings were heard from March 1822 to September 1824; but in thiscase the sounds were sometimes accompanied by shocks. A still more singular phenomenon of this sort occurs on the bordersof the Red Sea, at a place called Nakous, where intermittentunderground sounds have been heard for an unknown number ofcenturies. It is situated at about half a mile's distance from theshore, whence a long reach of sand ascends rapidly to a height ofabout three hundred feet. This reach is about eighty feet wide, andresembles an amphitheatre, being walled in by low rocks. The soundscoming up from the ground at this place recur at intervals of aboutan hour. They at first resemble a low murmur; but ere long there isheard a loud knocking, somewhat like the strokes of a bell, andwhich, at the end of about five minutes, becomes so strong as toagitate the sand. The explanation of this curious phenomenon given by the Arabs, is, that there is a convent under the ground here, and that thesesounds are those of the bell, which the monks ring for prayers. Sothey call it "Nakous, " which means a bell. The Arabs affirm thatthe noise so frightens their camels when they hear it as to renderthem furious. Philosophers attribute the sounds to suppressedvolcanic action--probably to the bubbling of gas or vapoursunderground. CHAPTER XIV. Extinct Volcanoes--Auvergne--Vienne--Agde--Eyfel--Italy--LacusCimini--Grotto del Cane--Guevo Upas--Talaga Bodas--The Dead Sea. There are two sorts of extinct volcanoes: _first_, those inwhich all evidences of activity have entirely ceased; and, _secondly_, those in which a subdued state of activitylingers. The former are more widely distributed than the latter;but sometimes both kinds occur in the same district of country. Extinct volcanoes are found in the district of Auvergne in France. Solidified streams of lava occur at Volvic near Riom; and thecrater whence they descended is still visible on the top of the Puyde Nugere. It is an oblong basin, having its edge broken on theside down which the lava flowed. In its descent the fiery streamappears to have encountered a knoll of granite, by which it wasdivided into two branches. These seem to have reunited lower down, and thence to have overspread the valley beneath. The Puy de Come, a mountain near Clermont, appears to have sentforth two streams of lava, which have effected considerable changesin the surface of the country--blocking up the courses of riversdiverting them into new channels, and forming swamps in the old. Onthe top of Puy Pariou, to the north of Clermont, there exists aperfect crater, quite round, and about two hundred and fifty feetdeep, whence there has flowed a stream of lava, whose course can bedistinctly traced. The summit of Puy Graveniere, a long round-backed hill also near Clermont, consists almost entirely of a heapof volcanic cinders, which have obliterated all traces of a crater;but two streams of lava appear to have flowed from the sides of themountain. The Puy de Dome, and the mountains in its neighbourhood, likewise appear to be of volcanic origin, and to have been upheavedsomewhat in the same manner as Jorullo. Although the aspect of themountains of Auvergne indicates so clearly their having been activesince the surrounding country acquired its present generalconformation, neither history nor tradition has preserved anyrecord of their eruptions. There is extant, however, a letter from Sidonius Apollinaris, acotemporary of Pliny, addressed to the Bishop of Vienne, in whichhe refers to forms of prayer which had been appointed by the bishopat the time when earthquakes demolished the walls of Vienne, andthe mountains, opening, vomited forth torrents of inflamedmaterials. It hence appears that the extinct volcanoes in theneighbourhood of Vienne, and perhaps those of Le Puy, had been in astate of eruption not long after the beginning of the Christianera. To the westward of the latter town, there is a number of smallvolcanic craters, of which the two largest are the Lake de Bouchetand the Crater of Bar, which also appears to have been at one timea lake, but is now dry. The former has its greatest diameter about2300 feet, with a depth of about 90 feet. The latter is on the topof a mountain, which is composed entirely of such substances as areejected by volcanoes. Its diameter is about 1660, and its depthabout 130 feet; while it is almost perfect in its form. Themountains near Vienne exhibit streams of lava, which accommodatethemselves to the existing valleys. Near Agde also, on the shoresof the Gulf of Lions, on the top of a hill named St. Loup, there isan extinct crater, whence have descended two streams of lavaapparently of recent origin. On one of them the town of Agde hasbeen built; the other projects into the sea. The district of Eyfel, on the borders of the Rhine, is another inwhich extinct volcanoes abound. They occur mostly in the form ofcircular craters, which are now filled with water, their bordersconsisting of volcanic ejections. They also exhibit varioussuperficial streams of lava. One of the most remarkable of theseround craters lies near Andernuch, a little west of the Rhine. Itis named the Lake of Laach, and is nearly two miles in circumference. On its margin are found numerous volcanic ejections, exactlyresembling those of Mount Vesuvius. Notwithstanding theseevidences that the extinct volcanoes of Eyfel have been in activitysince the country acquired its present conformation, there are nohistorical records of their operations. There is, indeed, a passagein Tacitus referring to fires that issued from the earth nearCologne; but his description does not warrant the conclusion thatthe event to which he alludes was of the nature of a volcaniceruption. The Drachenfels on the eastern bank of the Rhine, and theother mountains in its neighbourhood, belong to the more ancientvolcanic formations. The same may be affirmed of the othermountains scattered throughout Germany and central Europegenerally, in which rocks of volcanic origin occur. There are a good many traces of extinct volcanoes in Italy, besidesthose of the Phlegraean fields already mentioned. In generalcharacter they resemble those previously described. The chieflocalities are certain lakes, near Volterra in Tuscany, which giveforth very hot sulphurous and boracic acid vapours; a smallsulphureous lake near Viterbo continually giving forth bubbles ofgas; the Lake of Vico between Viterbo and Rome; the mountain andLake of Albano near Rome; Mount Vultur in the Apennines, in theprovince of the Basilicata; and Lake Agnano near Naples. Of these, the Lakes of Vico and Agnano are the most interesting. The formeris the ancient Lacus Cimini, and old authors state that its sitewas once occupied by a town, whose ruins used to be visible at thebottom of the lake when the water was clear. The ground, with thetown upon it, is said to have been ingulfed during a volcanicconvulsion, when the lake was formed in its place. The Lake Agnano is the site of an ancient volcanic crater, and onits margin is situated the Grotto del Cane, so famous for thedeadly vapours it exhales. These consist of carbonic acid gas, incombination with watery vapour. This celebrated Grotto is thusdescribed, in his work on volcanoes, by Dr. Daubeny, who visitedthe spot:-- "The mouth of the cavern being somewhat more elevated than itsinterior, a stratum of carbonic acid goes on constantlyaccumulating at the bottom, but upon rising above the level of itsmouth, flows like so much water over the brim. Hence the upper partof the cavern is free from any noxious vapour; but the air of thatbelow is so fully impregnated, that it proves speedily fatal to anyanimal that is immersed in it, as is shown to all strangers by theexperiment with the dog. "The sensation I experienced, on stooping my head for a moment tothe bottom, resembled that of which we are sometimes sensible ondrinking a large glass of soda water in a state of briskeffervescence. The cause in both instances is plainly the same. "The quantity of carbonic acid present in the cavern at variousheights, was shown by immersing in it various combustibles in astate of inflammation. I found that phosphorus would continuelighted at about two feet from the bottom, whilst a sulphur matchwent out a few inches above, and a wax taper at a still higherlevel. "It was impossible to fire a pistol at the bottom of the cavern, for although gunpowder may be exploded even in carbonic acid by theapplication of a heat sufficient to decompose the nitre, andconsequently to envelop the mass in an atmosphere of oxygen gas, yet the mere influence of a spark from steel produces too slight anaugmentation of temperature for this purpose. " Similar phenomena, but on a grander scale, are presented by theextinct crater in the Island of Java called "Guevo Upas, " thePoison-Valley. It is a level about half a mile in circumference, surrounded by precipitous rocks. From various parts of its soilcarbonic acid gas is discharged in such quantities as to provefatal to any animal venturing nigh. The ground is consequentlystrown with numerous skeletons. This valley gave rise to the famousfigment about the upas-tree, which once obtained such generalbelief in Europe. There is another extinct crater in Java, whence are exhaled vapoursequally deadly, but which exert a most peculiar effect on the deadcarcasses subjected to their influence. Instead of their being, asin the Gruevo Upas, reduced to skeletons, the carcasses have alltheir bones dissolved by the vapours; while the flesh, skin, hair, and nails are by their action preserved from decay. This remarkablecrater is situated near the volcano of Talaga Bodas. Of all the extinct volcanoes in the world, however, none is soremarkable as the Dead Sea. That singular collection of salt andbitter water has the level of its surface depressed 1312 feet belowthat of the Mediterranean--thus indicating an enormous subsidence. The Dead Sea occupies the site of what was formerly the plain ofJordan, described as having been "well-watered everywhere, as thegarden of the Lord, like the land of Egypt. " One part of it, calledthe Vale of Siddim, was full of slime-pits--the only indications ofvolcanic action. When the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, which stoodin the plain, were destroyed, the Lord, it is said, rained uponthem fire and brimstone from heaven; but while these fell upon thecities from the atmosphere, it appears that they must haveprimarily been discharged from the earth; for "the smoke of thecountry went up as the smoke of a furnace. " The phenomena, therefore, most likely resembled, in the first instance, those ofJorullo; but the catastrophe seems to have ended like the lastgreat eruption of the volcano in Timor--the whole of the plainhaving been ingulfed and replaced by the salt lake, whose depressedlevel so clearly indicates the nature of its origin.