Transcriber's Notes:

The Table of Contents has been changed to match the actualchapter headings. A few hyphenations have been changed to makethem consistent. Minor typographic errors have been corrected. 

 WOODWORK JOINTS

 (_THE WOODWORKER SERIES_)

 _REVISED EDITION_

 WOODWORK JOINTS

 HOW THEY ARE SET OUT, HOW MADE AND WHERE USED; WITH FOUR HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS AND INDEX

 _REVISED EDITION_

 LONDON EVANS BROTHERS, LIMITED MONTAGUE HOUSE, RUSSELL SQUARE, W. C. 1

 _THE WOODWORKER SERIES_

 WOODWORK JOINTS. CABINET CONSTRUCTION. STAINING AND POLISHING. WOODWORK TOOLS. PRACTICAL UPHOLSTERY. WOOD TURNING. WOODCARVING. TIMBERS FOR WOODWORK. FURNITURE REPAIRING AND RE-UPHOLSTERY. HOUSEHOLD REPAIRS AND RENOVATIONS. CARPENTRY FOR BEGINNERS. KITCHEN FURNITURE DESIGNS. BUREAU AND BOOKCASE DESIGNS. LIGHT CARPENTRY DESIGNS. DOORMAKING. 

 EVANS BROTHERS, LIMITED, MONTAGUE HOUSE, RUSSELL SQUARE, LONDON, W. C. 1. 

EDITORIAL FOREWORD

To be successful in woodwork construction the possession of two secretsis essential--to know the right joint to use, and to know how to makethat joint in the right way. The woodwork structure or the piece ofcabinet-work that endures is the one on which skilful hands have combinedto carry out what the constructive mind planned. And it is just here thatthe present Volume will help, not alone the beginner who wishespreliminary instruction, but also the expert who desires guidance overground hitherto unexplored by him. 

In the preparation of this new edition the Publishers have secured theservices of Mr. William Fairham, by whom the chapters have been carefullyrevised and re-illustrated. Although intended for the practical man, andnot professing to be a graded course of "educational woodwork, " theVolume is one which Handicraft Instructors will find of the greatestvalue in conducting woodwork classes. No book hitherto published containssuch a variety of illustrations of joints, almost all of which will formsuitable exercises of practical educational importance in a woodworkingcourse. 

 J. C. S. B. 

[Illustration: Old Oak Chests, showing the Method of Structure whichforms the origin of most of our English Furniture. (From _TheWoodworker_, January, 1927. )]

CONTENTS

 PAGE

THE GLUED JOINT 1

THE HALVED JOINT 13

THE BRIDLE JOINT 35

THE TONGUED AND GROOVED JOINT 48

THE MORTISE AND TENON JOINT 64

THE DOWELLING JOINT 93

THE SCARF JOINT 103

THE HINGED JOINT 109

SHUTTING JOINTS 127

THE DOVETAIL JOINT 132

DOVETAIL GROOVING 160

THE MITRED JOINT 163

JOINTS FOR CURVED WORK 172

MISCELLANEOUS JOINTS 176

PUZZLE JOINTS 189

INDEX 209

[Illustration: Staircase of the Second Half of Seventeenth Century. (From_The Woodworker_, September, 1929. )]

THE GLUED JOINT

The glued joint in its various forms is in use in every country in theworld, and is frequently met with in mummy cases and other examples ofancient woodwork. Alternative names under which it is known are the buttjoint, the rubbed joint, the slipped joint, whilst in certain localitiesit is known as the slaped (pronounced _slayped_) joint. 

[Illustration: Fig. 1. --Simplest Form of Glued or Rubbed Joint. ]

The glued joint is made by planing two pieces of timber so that whenplaced together they are in contact with each other at every point; theyare then usually united with glue. Fig. 1 shows a sketch of a butt jointin its simplest form. In Fig. 2 is indicated the method of holding thejoint whilst being glued; the upright portion is held rigid in the benchvice, thus leaving the left hand to hold the piece which is to bejointed, whilst the right hand operates the glue brush. The pieces ofwood which form a butt joint may be glued together with or without theaid of cramps or artificial pressure. If the joint is to be made withoutcramping, the two surfaces of the timber are warmed so as not to chillthe glue. The surfaces are then glued and put together and rubbedbackwards and forwards so as to get rid of the superfluous glue. They arethen put aside to dry. 

GLUEING. --The better the glue penetrates into the pores of the wood, thestronger the joint will be; for this reason timber of the loose-fibredvariety, such as pine, etc. , will hold up at the joint better thanhardwoods like teak and rosewood. The glue used for jointing should beneither too thick nor too thin; the consistency of cream will be foundsuitable for most purposes. It should be nice and hot, and be rapidlyspread over the surface of the wood. 

[Illustration: Fig. 2. --How the Wood is held whilst Glueing. ]

If light-coloured woods, such as pine, satinwood, sycamore, etc. , have tobe jointed, a little flake white should be procured and mixed into theliquid glue. This will prevent the glue showing a thin black line on thejoint. 

Broad surfaces of close-grained hardwood having a shiny surface areusually carefully roughened with a fine toothing plane blade previous toglueing. 

SUPPORTING THE JOINT. --The jointed boards should not be reared up againsta "bench leg" or wall without having any support in the centre, as dottedline at Fig. 5, because in all probability they will fracture before theglue has time to set; and, when we go to take them up to renew workingoperations, we shall be annoyed to find that they have assumed aposition similar to that at Fig. 5 (shown exaggerated), and this will, ofcourse, necessitate re-jointing. 

[Illustration: Fig. 3. --Correct Jointing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 4. --Faulty Jointing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 5. --Boards unsupported. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 6. --Boards supported. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 7. --(A) Glued Slip, (B) Glued Moulding. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 8. --Grain alternating. ]

A correct method to adopt is seen at Fig. 6. Here we have supported thejoint by rearing up against the wall a couple of pieces of batten, oneat each end of the board, thus supporting it throughout its entire widthuntil the glue is thoroughly set. The two or more pieces of timber in abutt joint adhere by crystallisation of the glue and atmosphericpressure. A well-fitted joint made with good quality glue is so strongthat, when boards of 3 feet and upwards are jointed together by thismethod, the timber in most cases will break with the grain sooner thanpart at the joint. 

Butt joints may be cramped up, if desired, and it is customary to warmthem as previously stated. In the absence of the usual iron cramp, theamateur may make an excellent wooden arrangement out of any odd pieces oftimber that happen to be handy. Two blocks of hardwood are screwed on thebase board at a suitable distance for the work in hand; the boards to bejointed are glued and placed in position between the blocks; and the twohardwood wedges are inserted and hammered in opposite directions to eachother, thus exerting the desired pressure. An example of this method ofcramping is shown in Fig. 25, which also indicates the use of iron"dogs. "

When jointing, care should be taken to first plane up the boards true onone side--_i. E. _, take them out of winding. The method of testing forthis is shown at Fig. 9, and it may with advantage be used when jointingthe edges of the boards. Two laths or strips of wood are planed up toexactly the same width, having their edges straight and parallel. Oneedge of each lath may, if desired, be bevelled a little. The method ofusing these "twist sticks" or "winding laths" is to put them on the boardas indicated, and sight along their top edges. The winding laths, beingmuch longer than the width of the board, show up the irregularity greatlypronounced. 

THE TOOLS generally used for making the butt joints are:--

The jack plane, for roughing the edges, etc. 

The wooden trying plane (or iron jointing plane) for trueing up the work. 

The try square for testing purposes. 

The winding laths and straight edge. 

THE METHOD OF WORK is as follows: Each board is in turn put in the viceand planed straight lengthwise; it is then tested with winding laths anda try square (the latter method is shown at Fig. 22). 

[Illustration: Fig. 9. --Testing Surface with Winding Laths. ]

The boards are then put on the top of one another as at Fig. 1 and testedwith a straight edge; they should appear true as shown at Fig. 3; if theyshow faulty as at Fig. 4 the joints must be again fitted until therequired degree of accuracy is obtained. Difficulties may be avoided bycare in selecting timber suitable for jointing, and it must be rememberedthat timber shrinks circumferentially (the heart side becoming curved) asdotted lines in Fig. 10. If the timber be jointed with all the heart sideone way as at Fig. 10, the tendency will be for it to cast as shown bythe dotted line. If the timber be alternated as at Fig. 11, the tendencywill be to cast wavy, whereas if quartered timber can be obtained it willstand practically straight as the tendency to shrink is in thicknessonly. The grain of quartered timber is shown in Fig. 12. 

[Illustration: Fig. 10. --Showing Heart side of Timber one way. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 11. --Heart side of Timber shown alternated. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 12. --Grain of Quartered Timber. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 13. --Boards showing uniformity of Grain. ]

Judgment should also be exercised to avoid jointing in which one piece oftimber is wild and large in the grain, and the adjoining piece of amild-grained nature. Jointed boards should always be glued up with thegrain running in the same direction if possible; this we show at Fig. 13, and nothing looks worse than a dressing chest end or similar piece ofwork in which the grain runs haphazard. When jointing thin timber (say, 1/4-in. , 3/8-in. , 1/2-in. And 5/8-in. Boards) the best method is to use ashooting board (Fig. 26). It must be noted, however, that a shootingboard and plane practically never give a true right angle, owing to wearand the grinding of the blade. Therefore, the boards _should not_ all belaid with the "face mark" on the shooting board whilst the edges areshot, because any inequality would be multiplied by the number of piecesjointed. A better method is to alternate the boards, face side up, thenface side down, whilst shooting the edges; this will prevent convexity orconcavity on the face of the jointed board, because any slight error inthe angle is neutralised (see Fig. 8). 

APPLICATIONS OF THE JOINT. --The following show various applications ofthe butt or glued joint:--

[Illustration: Fig. 14. --Carcase Wing-pieces Glued on. ]

Fig. 7A shows a mahogany or other hardwood slip glued on the edge of acheaper wood, such as pine or whitewood, as is the case on bookcaseshelves when only the front edge is seen and polished. 

Fig. 7B shows a moulding glued on a shelf, both mould and shelf in thisinstance being of polished hardwood. A shelf of this type might be usedin a recess, the object of the overhanging moulding being to hide a small3/8-in. Iron rod which would carry the curtain rings and heading of thecurtain which covers the recess. The shelf would be fixed about 3 ft. 9ins. To 4 ft. 3 ins. From the floor. 

Fig. 14 shows the wing pieces glued on the top bearer of carcase work. The application of this bearer in its position will be shown in thechapter on Dovetailing. 

Fig. 15 shows a butt joint planed at an angle of 45 degrees (commonlycalled a mitre), used for box feet, etc. 

Fig. 16 shows jointing up of an ogee-shaped panel. The dotted linesindicate the thickness of the timber previous to its being worked up tothe finished shape. Bow-fronted and semicircular panels are jointed in asimilar manner. 

[Illustration: Fig. 15. --Butting Mitred Angle Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 16. --Jointing Ogee-shaped Panel. ]

Fig. 17 shows timber jointed at right angles to the upright piece, and atan angle of 30 degrees. 

Fig. 18 indicates quarter-circle jointing, as used in round-corneredchests of drawers, wardrobes, cupboards, etc. 

Fig. 19 is similar to Fig. 18, but with hollow (or concave) corners. 

[Illustration: Fig. 17. --Jointed Timber at 30° and 90° angles. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 18 (above). --Convex Corner. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 19 (below). --Concave Corner. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 20. --Jointing a shaped Spandrel. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 21. --Building up Case of Piano Front. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 22. --Use of the Try-square for Testing Edge. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 23. --Example of Circular Laminated work. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 24. --Glueing Ploughslips to Drawer. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 25. --Method of holding Glued Joints with Iron Dogs. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 26. --Method of using Shooting Board. ]

Fig. 20 gives us the jointing up of a shaped spandrel to the requiredwidth. In a case of this description suitably grained and coloured woodshould be selected, otherwise the bad match will at once draw attentionto the joint. 

Fig. 21 shows the application of butt or glued jointing to the buildingup of the core of a piano fall previous to shaping up and veneering. 

Fig. 23. --Laminated work--the building up of circular rims for cabinetand joinery work. Plan and elevation show rim pattern of a pulley as usedin the pattern-making trade. 

[Illustration: Fig. 27. --Cramping Glued Joints: Handscrews and Battenshown at left; temporary Batten at right to keep the wood flat. ]

Fig. 24. --The glueing of a ploughslip to a drawer side is seen here, theploughslip being used to carry the drawer bottom. 

Fig. 26 shows the method of jointing with shooting board and tryingplane; the right hand operates the plane whilst the left hand holds thewood firm upon the shooting board. 

Owing to the importation of narrow and faulty timber the necessity ofjointing is greater to-day than ever it was, wide timber of coursemeaning higher cost for raw material. 

The method of using iron dogs is illustrated in Fig. 25, and it will beobserved that owing to the wedge-like formation of each fang (seeenlarged sketch) the dog exerts the necessary pressure to close thejoint. At the centre of this illustration is suggested the home-madehardwood blocks, baseboard and wedges referred to on page 4. 

Fig. 27 shows how the iron sash cramps are used to apply pressure to thejoint. As this method is in some cases apt to bend and distort thinboards it is wise practice to fix (as a temporary measure) a stout pieceof straight wood on to the board to be joined by using two handscrews asshown at the left hand of the illustration. At the right hand of thesketch a wooden cramping arrangement of the box type is given, and bywedging up the boards are closed together. It is obvious that if thistype of box cramp be used it will prevent the boards buckling and thehandscrew method at the left may be dispensed with. 

THE HALVED JOINT

The halved joint is frequently known as half-lapping, and sometimes aschecking and half-checking. In the majority of cases it is made byhalving the two pieces, _i. E. _, by cutting half the depth of the woodaway. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, as in the case of"three-piece halving" (or, as it is sometimes called, "third lapping")and in the halving of timber with rebated or moulded edges. Halving isone of the simplest methods of connecting two pieces of timber, especially where it is desired to make frames and bracket supports foreither inside or outside use. 

[Illustration: Fig. 28. --Frame, with various halved joints. These joints, numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. , are shown in detail in Figs. 29 to 38. ]

Fig. 28 shows the elevation of an imaginary frame which is indicated asmade up of a number of halving joints; it shows also the application ofthe various joints to this class of work. Each joint used in theconstruction of this frame may be dealt with separately. The numbersmarked on Fig. 28 refer to the individual joints, shown separately inFigs. 29 to 38. 

[Illustration: Fig. 29. --Halved Corner Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 30. --Halved T Joint. ]

Fig. 29 shows the "Halved Joint" at the corner of the frame where the twopieces form a right angle (see Fig. 28, 1). Each piece is halved andshouldered at opposite sides, thus forming a perfect fit one with theother and giving a strong joint with a minimum amount of labour. Forinside work the joint would be glued and screwed together, the screwheads being countersunk so as not to come in contact with the cuttingiron of the plane when levelling off the work. For outside work, inexposed positions where the work will have to withstand the weather, thealternative method of smearing the joint with paint or with a mixture ofvarnish and white lead would be advisable, the joint being nailed orscrewed. Fig. 29 shows the two pieces separated. 

Fig. 30 shows a similar joint to the above, but in this case the top railruns through and it is generally spoken of as a "Halved T Joint" (Fig. 28, 2). It may be used in nearly all cases where a top or bottom railruns through an upright. The method of securing the joint is as before. Fig. 30 shows a sketch of the joint separated. 

[Illustration: Fig. 31. --Oblique Halving with Shoulder. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 32. --Oblique Halving. ]

At Fig. 31 is shown an "Oblique Halving Joint, " where the oblique piece, or strut, does not run through (Fig. 28, 3). This type of joint is usedfor strengthening framings and shelf brackets; an example of the latteris shown at Fig. 48. A strut or rail of this type prevents movement ordistortion to a frame diagonally (generally spoken of in the trade as"racking"). Fig. 31 shows the joint apart. 

Fig. 32 is an example of Oblique Halving with the upper piece runningthrough (Fig. 28, 4). This joint is used in similar positions to Fig. 31, and has in some cases the disadvantage of showing end grain at thetop of the frame. The sketch shows the two pieces separated. 

Fig. 33 is "Dovetail Halving, " the dovetail running through the top piece(Fig. 28, 5). This is a strong joint, used where outside strain is likelyto occur in the top piece, the dovetail preventing the rail from beingdrawn away from the shoulder. The two pieces are shown separate. 

[Illustration: Fig. 33. --Dovetail Halving. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 34. --Mitre Halving. ]

At Fig. 34 is seen "Mitred Halving, " a somewhat weak joint, but necessaryin mirror frames, etc. , where good appearance is required on the faceside (Fig. 28, 6). Its use is obvious if the face of the frame be mouldedwith beads or other sections which require to intersect one with theother. This also applies if the frame be moulded on its face edges. 

Fig. 35 is a halved joint with one side of the piece dovetailed (Fig. 28, 8). This joint is used in similar positions to Fig. 33, and rather lesslabour is required in the making. The two pieces are shown separate forclearness. 

Fig. 36 indicates the "Halved Joint, " the pieces at one end showing adouble dovetail (Fig. 28, 7). This particular joint is seldom used exceptfor Manual Training purposes. The illustration shows a sketch of thejoint apart. 

Fig. 37 is "Oblique Dovetail Halving, " one side of the piece beingdovetailed. The joint is used to prevent "racking, " and as a cross braceto framing. It is occasionally made with both its sides dovetailed asshown at Fig. 33. (For reference, see Fig. 28, 9. )

[Illustration: Fig. 35. --Halved Joint with one side Dovetailed. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 36. --Halved Joint with Double Dovetail. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 37. --Oblique Dovetail Halving. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 38. --Stopped Dovetail Halving. ]

Fig. 38 shows "Stopped Dovetail Halving. " In this case the dovetail issimilar to Fig. 33, with the exception that it does not run through thebottom rail. This is an advantage if the bottom edge of the rail is inevidence, or if it is required to glue a moulding or hardwood facing slipon the lower edge. The glue adheres better _with_ the grain than it would_end way_ of the grain, and if slight shrinkage occurs across the widthof the bottom rail the moulding would not be forced away by the upright(see example at Fig. 28, 10). 

[Illustration: Fig. 39. --Cross Halving Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 40. --Cross Halving Joint Edgeways. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 41. --Tee Halving Joint. ]

The joint lettered B in Fig. 28 is a "Cross Halving Joint" where eachpiece runs through the other. Fig. 39 shows this joint separated, andFig. 40 shows a similar joint separated where the joint is made edgeways. 

Fig. 41 shows a "Tee Halving Joint" with a dovetail cut on the edge. Thisis seldom used except as a woodwork exercise. 

Fig. 42 is a "Dovetailed Halving Joint" used for lengthening timber, andis also a favourite Manual Training model. It might also come under theheading of scarf joint, although rarely used in actual practice as such. As a practical woodwork exercise it calls for accurate marking out andcareful fitting. 

[Illustration: Fig. 42. --Dovetailed Halving Joint used for LengtheningTimber. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 43. --Dovetailed and Halved Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 44. --Dovetailed Halved Joint with Shoulders. ]

Fig. 43 shows a combination of a halved joint dovetailed edgeways, whilstFig. 44 shows a dovetailed halved joint with the shoulders housed. Thislatter is seldom used in actual work. 

At Fig. 45 we have the application of halving joints when constructing abarrow wheel. The centre portion is an example of three pieceshalf-lapped or, as it is sometimes called, one-third lapped. A sketch ofthe three pieces separated is shown at L, B, C, Fig. 46. 

This joint is extensively used in the pattern making trade forlap-jointing the arms of pulley patterns, etc. It is probably the mostdifficult of the halving joints to mark out and construct with thedesired degree of accuracy. 

[Illustration: Fig. 45. --Halved Joints on Barrow Wheels. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 46. --Detail of Halved Joints in Fig. 45. ]

Fig. 47 shows a combination of a bevelled dovetail half-lapped joint. This is only used as a puzzle joint. When neatly constructed and gluedtogether it is apparently impossible to make it, showing as it does ahalf lap on one side and a dovetailed half lap on the reverse side. 

Fig. 48 is the end view of a kitchen table with drop leaf, showing the skirting board scribed to the solid side. A table ofthis type is fastened to the wall with two iron holdfasts whichengage the ends of the table. The hinged bracket frame shows theapplication of the halving joint to bracket supports for this andsimilar purposes, such as brackets to support shelving, etc. Inthis example the hinged brackets turn underneath the table top, and allow the leaf to drop out of the way when not required. Thedotted lines show the position of a shelf for boots and shoes. 

[Illustration: Fig. 47. --Bevelled Dovetailed Half Lap. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 48. --Bracket of Drop Table. ]

[Illustration: Figs. 49 and 50. --Separate pieces of Halved MouldedJoint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 51. --Oblique Cross Halving Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 52. --Manual Training Halved Exercise Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 53. --Exercise Dovetail Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 54. --Carpentry Tie Joint. ]

Figs. 49 and 50 indicate the halving of cross pieces which have theiredges moulded; the pieces are shown separately, the moulding beingomitted to give a clearer representation of the method of construction. 

[Illustration: Fig. 55. --Cross Halving Joint with Housed Corners. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 56. --The parts of Fig. 55 shown separate. ]

Fig. 51 is an "Oblique Cross Halving Joint" where the two pieces are notat right angles. A plan and elevation of the joint are shown at the left, whilst a sketch of one piece of the joint is given in the right-handillustration. 

Figs. 52 and 53 are principally used as Manual Training models, and callfor patience and manual dexterity. 

Fig. 54 is used in carpentry and joinery where a tie or cross piece tiesjoists or beams at an angle. 

Fig. 55 shows the elevation and end view of a "Cross Halving Joint" withhoused or notched shoulders. This joint is seldom used in actualpractice. The separate parts are given in Fig. 56. 

At Fig. 57 are shown two cross rails and an upright halved together. Thistype of joint is used where three pieces meet, as is the case inbuilding the framing of a poultry house. The joint is nailed together. 

[Illustration: Fig. 57. --Cross Rail and Upright Halved Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 58. --Workshop Trestle Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 59. --Cellarette Partition Joints. ]

Fig. 58 is the end view of an ordinary workshop trestle, showing theapplication of dovetailed halving where the legs have a tendency tostrain outwards. The inset sketch of joint shows the housing of the toprail to receive the legs. 

Fig. 59 shows a deep drawer, generally known as a cellarette, and used ina sideboard to accommodate wine bottles. Here we have a good example ofhalving the cross pieces so as to form compartments. The part shownseparately illustrates the method of construction. The ends of thesepieces engage the housings or grooves of the drawer sides. Pigeon holesor compartments in stationery cases, bookcases and writing bureaux areconstructed in a similar manner, although the method of housing, orcombined halving and housing, is to be preferred in some cases. 

[Illustration: Fig. 60. --Joint used for Table with Circular Top or Rim. ]

At Fig. 60 is the plan of a circular table having a small circular shelfwith the top removed. The rims or framing are built by the method knownas laminating (see Fig. 23 in chapter on the The Glued Joint), afterwhich they are veneered on the face sides. The application of thehalving joint to the shaped bottom rails, which in this case carry andsupport the small shelf, is shown in the part elevation. 

[Illustration: Fig. 61 (A). --Oxford Frame with Halved Joints. (Fouralternative corner treatments are given. )]

[Illustration: Fig. 61 (B). --Halved Joint of Oxford Frame with frontedges champered. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 61 (C). --Back view of Oxford Frame. ]

Fig. 61 (A) shows the well-known "Oxford frame, " illustrating halvedjoints when the edge is rebated. Figs. 61 (B) and 61 (C) make clear theconstruction of this type of joint. Alternative suggestions are shown forthe treatment of the corners, the simple inlay being black and white(ebony and holly or boxwood). Frames of this type are made in variouswidths and sizes and are used for pictures, mirrors, etc. 

[Illustration: Fig. 62. --The Two Pieces of a Halved Joint. ]

The tools used for making joints of the above class are: planes, thegauge, tenon or other saw, chisels, try square, and in some cases ajoiner's bevel to obtain and mark the necessary angles, pencil andmarking knife. 

Plane up the face side and face edge of the timber, gauge and plane toboth thickness and width; mark shoulders with pencil or marking knife;gauge to the thickness of the required halving; saw waste portions away;pare up with chisel to a good fit; glue or glue and screw, or use paintas previously mentioned, and then level off the surfaces. 

SETTING OUT THE HALVED JOINT. --Although at first sight the halved jointmay appear to be a very easy item of construction, it requires much careand attention in marking out and sawing. Fig. 62 shows the two pieceswhich form the joint separated, and it will be noticed that each piece ofwood has half its thickness cut away, so as to accommodate the otherpiece. This type of joint is used where two pieces of wood cross eachother at right angles, or at an angle as shown in Fig. 51. The halvingjoint is used also for joining two pieces of wood at their ends, as, forinstance, the corner of a frame, one half of this joint being shown atFig. 65 (B). 

[Illustration: Fig. 63. --How the Timber is Marked. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 64. --Marking the Joint with Try Square. ]

To make the joint, the timber should be carefully planed to its exactwidth and thickness. The two pieces may then be placed upon the bench (asshown at Fig. 63) or fixed in the vice. 

Find the centre of the timber, C, Fig. 63, and set out half the width ofthe wood on each side of the dotted centre line. Thus, suppose the wood(W) to be 2 ins. Wide, then set 1 in. On each side of the centre line. Take a square as at Fig. 64, and with a sharp penknife blade score or cuta line all round each piece of timber. 

[Illustration: Fig. 65. --Using the Marking Gauge. ]

Next take up a marking gauge, and set the marking point to half thethickness of the wood. The distance may be measured, and its exactnesstested, by pricking a small hole from each side of the wood with themarking gauge and carefully noting that the pricked holes coincide. Thegauge mark is clearly shown in the various illustrations. Now, take apencil and scribble or mark "waste" on the parts you intend to cut away. This will save trouble later on, especially if you are making severaljoints at once. Take your sharp penknife or marking knife blade, and cutfairly deeply into the marked line on the portion you are going to pareaway. 

[Illustration: Fig. 66. --Chiselling away Wood up to Gauge Line. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 67. --How work is held when Sawing Shoulder. ]

Fix the wood firmly in your vice, or against your cutting board or benchstop, as may be more convenient to you, and with a sharp chisel cut awaythe wood up to the marked line, as at Fig. 66. The channel in the sketchis exaggerated, so as to show the method clearly. The object of using apenknife or marking knife to mark your work, instead of using a pencil, will be obvious. Owing to the knife having scored about 1/16 in. Deepacross the fibres of the wood, the timber will come away cleanly when thechisel is used, as at Fig. 66. The small channel thus made will form aguide in which to start your tenon or dovetail saw; it prevents the sawcutting on the wrong side of the marked line and thus making the halvingtoo wide. 

[Illustration: Fig. 68. --Paring away Waste with Chisel. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 69. --Showing an Oblique Halved Joint. ]

SAWING. --Lay the work on the cutting board as at Fig. 67; or, if youprefer, put the work in the vice. Carefully saw down the work until you_just touch_ the gauge line. Do not press heavily with the saw; use itlightly; the weight of the back iron which is fixed on the saw willensure the saw feeding into the work quite fast enough. If the saw isnewly sharpened it will, in fact, be an advantage to slightly ease theweight of the saw from off the wood, owing to the keenness of its edge. If the halving is a very wide one, additional cuts may be sawn betweenthe outside marks, and these will greatly facilitate the removal of thewaste wood when paring it away. For sawing the joint reference may bemade to the chapter on Dovetailing. 

[Illustration: Fig. 70. --Sawing the Cheek of a Halving Joint. ]

PARING away the waste material with a chisel is the next step, and thisis shown at Fig. 68. The work may be chiselled either in a vertical or ahorizontal position. The horizontal position is the easiest for theamateur who has a vice or handscrew, because he may hold the worksecurely with a mechanical device and so avoid the unnecessary risk tohis fingers. 

Take the chisel and cut away A, Fig. 68; now turn the chisel and cutaway B; after which keep the chisel horizontal and cut off "the top ofthe hill, " as it were, C. Repeat the three operations until you graduallypare the wood away exactly to the gauge line. When chiselling, if youfind a tendency for the work to chip or crumble at the back edge owing tothe forward pressure of the chisel, turn your wood round and begin to cutfrom the other edge, allowing the chisel to finish paring at the centre. 

JOINTS OTHER THAN A RIGHT ANGLE. --If the halving joint is at an anglesimilar to the sketch shown at Fig. 69, great care will have to beexercised in the use of the chisel, owing to the change in the directionof the grain of the wood. The arrow marks in this sketch distinctlyindicate the direction in which the chiselling must be done so as to givea smooth result. This change of direction for cutting also applies to thebottom of the halving joint. 

CUTTING JOINT AT END OF TIMBER (Fig. 70). --Should the halving joint beused at the end of a piece of wood, as at Fig. 30, the waste material maybe roughly sawn away and the flat surface trimmed up with a chisel. 

To saw out this type of halving joint, proceed to work the shoulder lineas already described; then place the piece of wood obliquely in the viceas shown (Fig. 70) and proceed to saw down the vertical line, carefullywatching the gauge line to see that you saw on the _waste_ side of thelines. Then turn the piece of timber with its opposite edge towards you, and again use the saw as illustrated. You will this time only have towatch the gauge mark on the edge of the wood, because the saw willreadily follow in the saw kerf already made. Now place the woodvertically in the vice, and keeping the saw in a horizontal position, sawdown to the shoulder line. 

Halving joints properly made and fitted should knock together with theweight of the clenched fist; the use of a heavy mallet or hammer willdeface the work. 

[Illustration: Fig. 71. --Joints used in the erection of a Queen Post RoofTruss. ]

THE BRIDLE JOINT

A bridle joint is often defined as the reverse of a mortise and tenon, and is chiefly used in the carpentry and joinery trades. The nameprobably originated from the fact that it bears some resemblance to themanner in which a bit slips into the horse's mouth and is fastened to thebridle. There are fewer varieties of the bridle joint than of the halvedor the mortise and tenon; and this being the case we may take theopportunity of giving a few detailed directions, with explanatoryillustrations, on the setting out and the making. 

[Illustration: Fig. 72. --Simple Bridle Joint. ]

Fig. 72 shows a bridle joint in what is perhaps its simplest form, theseparate pieces being given at the left and the completed joint at theright. A joint of this type may be applied in nearly all cases where ahalved or a mortise and tenon joint could be used. Bridle joints have anadvantage as regards appearance over the mortise and tenoned variety incases such as Fig. 73, which shows an occasional table leg fitted to thecircular top framing. The bridle joint here allows the grain of the legto run through to the top, and gives a better and more workmanlikeappearance to the completed article. 

[Illustration: Fig. 73. --Table Leg Bridle-jointed to Rail. ]

Fig. 74 is a "Mitred bridle joint, " the part _a_ showing the uprightportion separated. This is a most useful joint for positions similar tothat shown in the small glass frame, Fig. 75. The wood framing in thiscase is only 1-3/8 in. In width, and if a mortise were used it would haveto be exceptionally small. The shaped rail at the bottom of this frameagain shows the application of the bridle joint. 

Fig. 76 shows an "Oblique bridle joint, " used in many instances as abrace, or strut, to prevent framing from racking. (See also Figs. 31 and32. )

Fig. 77 is a "Stopped bridle joint, " used in positions where the top orbottom edge of the work meets the eye, and where, if the rail wereallowed to run through, the end grain would appear unsightly. 

[Illustration: Fig. 74. --Mitre Bridle Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 75. --Mirror Frame with Bridle Joints. ]

Fig. 78 is a so-called bridle-joint at the corner of a frame. This isalso called an "Open slot mortise and tenon joint, " a good strong, serviceable joint which can be used instead of the closed mortise andtenon type, its advantage being that less labour is required in themaking. (See also Fig. 169. )

Fig. 79 is an "Oblique angle bridle joint, " used in similar positions tothe above, but when the two pieces meet at an acute angle at the end of aframe. 

Fig. 80 shows the application of the bridle joint to a roof truss. Twosketches are shown at the joining of the tie beam and the principalrafter. The joint _a_ is the type generally used. (See also Fig. 71 forthe joints in a queen post roof. )

[Illustration: Fig. 76. --Oblique Bridle Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 77. --Stopped Bridle Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 78. --Bridle Joint at Corner of Frame. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 79. --Oblique Angle Bridle Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 80. --Application of Bridle Joint to Roof Truss. ]

SETTING OUT AND MARKING. --It is a safe rule, when setting out a bridlejoint, to divide the thickness of the timber into three equal parts. Thiswill leave the timber on each side of the tongue equal to the thicknessof the tongue, thus giving uniform strength to the joint. The bridlejoint is chiefly used for connecting the internal parts of wooden frames. It is stronger than the halving joint, and, owing to its peculiarconstruction, requires little in the way of pegs, screws or nails tosecure it in position. Fig. 81 illustrates the joint, both open andclosed. 

To understand the method of setting out and marking, glance at thesketch, Fig. 81. It is not necessary that the bridle piece A be the samewidth as the cross piece B; but it must be remembered when setting outthe joint with the marking knife or pencil that the width marked W onpiece B must be equal to the width W on the piece A. The timber should befairly accurately sawn or planed to the same thickness, and all edgesshould be square and true. 

The wood is placed upon the bench, and the joint marked out by using amarking knife or penknife blade and the try square. A knife blade is muchbetter than a pencil, as the sharp edge severs the fibres of the wood andgives a finer line than the pencil. It is not always necessary to exactlysquare and trim the end of piece A; it may with advantage in many casesbe left at least 1/4 in. Longer than necessary and levelled off with thesaw, plane and chisel after the joint is put together. (See Method ofCutting in Fig. 92, page 47. )

When the piece A has to have a bridle joint fitted at each end, it iscustomary to cut the timber about 3/8 in. Longer than necessary, and markthe shoulder lines C to the exact length, after which the joints are cut. This leaves the ends standing over the horizontal rails, and, afterfixing the complete frame together, the small projecting ends arelevelled off flush with the cross rails. 

GAUGING. --After squaring all the shoulder lines round the timber with theknife and try square, the mortise gauge should be set so as to strike thetwo gauge lines marked G, Figs. 83 and 84, at one operation. If theworker does not possess a mortise gauge the lines may be marked at twodistinct operations with the aid of the marking gauge (Fig. 82). Thegauge should be adjusted so as to mark the wood into thirds, and thestock of the gauge (the portion of the gauge containing the thumb screwin Fig. 82) must be used from the face side of the timber when gauging upthe whole of the pieces forming a frame. The face mark on the work isindicated by a glorified comma, and the edge mark is shown by X, as inthe various illustrations. Fig. 82 shows the method of holding the gaugein the right hand whilst gauging the lines on the work. 

[Illustration: Fig. 81. --Bridle Joint, open and closed. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 82. --Gauging the Timber. ]

The joint, when marked out, will appear as at Figs. 83 and 84, and theportions which are to be cut away may be shaded with a pencil asindicated; this will prevent mistakes arising whilst cutting the work, especially by one who is not thoroughly familiar with the joint. 

The distance A B, in Fig. 84, must not be less than the distance A B inFig. 83. 

[Illustration: Fig. 83. , Fig. 84. The Two Parts of the JointMarked. ]

BORING AWAY WASTE. --Examine Fig. 84; the shaded portion in the centre hasto be cut away, and it will greatly facilitate the removal of this wastepiece by boring a hole with a twist bit at the position shown. The twistbit should be about 1/8 in. Less in diameter than the width between thegauge lines G. The easiest method of boring out this hole is shown atFig. 85, which gives the correct position of the worker. 

[Illustration: Fig. 85. --Vertical Boring previous to Chiselling. ]

SAWING. --The wood should be put in the vice as Fig. 86. Taking up a saw, with the index finger on the side of the handle, commence sawing, andproceed until you come to the position indicated by the dotted hand andsaw A; this will leave a saw kerf or cut running diagonally from theshoulder line to corner of the wood. Release the vice and refix the woodso that it leans in exactly the opposite direction to Fig. 86; thenreverse your own position and repeat the sawing, so as to cut anotherdiagonal saw cut from the shoulder line to the corner. Fix the woodupright, as shown at Fig. 87, and saw as shown, when you will find thatthe saw has no tendency to run out of the guide cuts already formed bythe method used at Fig. 86. Remember, when commencing to saw at Fig. 86, that it is necessary to saw inside the gauge line; otherwise the jointwill be too slack, owing to the amount of sawdust removed by thethickness of the saw blade. The index finger on the side of the saw, pointing in the direction of the saw cut, will greatly help the workerto saw in a straight line, as it is natural to point with this finger toany object that is to be aimed at. 

[Illustration: Fig. 86. --How the Saw is held for the first Cut. ]

Cut down the other line in a similar manner, and then with a chisel ofsuitable width carefully chop away the waste material. The wood may beplaced edge way upon the bench, or in the vice, and the chisel should beheld vertically. The hole which has been bored with the twist bit willallow the chips which are cut away to offer little or no resistance tothe chisel blade. The chiselling should not all be done from one side, ora chipped under-edge will be the result; it is better to chisel the workuntil half-way through and then turn the other edge of the wood uppermostand again begin to chisel from the top. This method will finish thecutting in the centre of the work and prevent burred and ragged orchipped edges at the shoulder. 

[Illustration: Fig. 87. --Third, or Horizontal Cut. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 88. --Chiselling Operation. ]

CUTTING THE SHOULDERS. --With regard to working the piece B, Fig. 81, place the wood against the bench stop or in the vice, and taking up a3/4-in. Chisel carefully cut away a small channel, as shown at Fig. 88;treat the other shoulder lines in a similar manner. If the marking knifeor penknife blade has been used with a fair amount of pressure so as toscore the fibres of the wood, this small channel, which is to form aguide for the saw, will quickly and easily be cut. Next place the wood inthe vice or on the cutting board as shown at Fig. 89, and begin by sawinglightly at the back edge as shown. When the saw has entered the wood 1/4in. Gradually bring the handle down from position A to position B (dottedlines) whilst the saw is in motion. Continue sawing until just on thegauge line; then treat the other shoulder lines in a similar manner. 

[Illustration: Fig. 89. --Sawing the Shoulders. ]

CHISELLING AWAY WASTE. --Fix your wood firmly in any suitable manner, viceor otherwise, and, holding your chisel tilted as at Fig. 90, pare awaythe blacked portion 1; then pare away the blacked portion 2; after whichhold the chisel flat and by gradual operations pare away the dotted lines3, until you come down to the gauge line; then repeat the method ofcutting on the opposite side of the wood. If any difficulty beexperienced by chipped or ragged edges whilst chiselling, it can easilybe overcome by chiselling alternately from the outside of the wood, sothat the finish of the chisel cut takes place in the centre of the work. Some prefer to chisel away the waste by placing the wood on its edge andusing the chisel vertically instead of horizontally. The same methods (1, 2 and 3) hold good in this case. 

[Illustration: Fig. 90. --Chiselling away Waste. ]

JOINTS OTHER THAN AT 90°. --The two pieces forming a bridle joint are notalways at right angles, as at Fig. 81; in many instances it is necessarythat the joint be at other than 90 degrees. The work, however, is treatedin a similar manner, with the exception that an adjustable joiner's bevelis used instead of a try square to mark out the shoulder lines, and thata change of direction in the grain of the wood will occur when chisellingout the work. Fig. 91 indicates the change in the grain of the wood, andthe adjustable joiner's bevel is also shown. 

[Illustration: Fig. 91. --Bridle Joint at Angle other than Right Angle. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 92. --Sawing off Waste from Bridle Joint. (Seereference on page 39. )]

THE TONGUED AND GROOVED JOINT

The tongued and grooved joint is used in one form or another throughoutthe whole of the woodworking trades, covering, as it does, a greatvariety of work from the laying of flooring boards to the construction ofdressers, bookcases and other cabinet work. 

FLOORING and match boarding generally have the tongues worked on thesolid board, and examples of a few of the various types are shown asfollows:--

[Illustration: Fig. 93. --Tongued and Grooved Flooring Board. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 94. , Fig. 95. Method of Nailing HardwoodFloors. ]

Fig. 93 shows the end view of the ordinary 7/8-in. "Tongued and GroovedFlooring board, " as used in the construction of floors for mills, workshops and cottage property. This type of flooring is nailed to thejoists in the ordinary manner, no attempt being made to conceal the nailsused. 

Fig. 94 is a section of flooring which is generally made of hardwood, such as maple, oak, or jarrah. It is used in positions such as ballroomand skating rink floors, etc. , the tongue and groove being worked in sucha manner that the joint covers the nails as shown. Each nail is driveninto its position at one edge of the board, the groove holding the nextboard and hiding the nail (Fig. 95). 

[Illustration: Fig. 96. --Tongued and Grooved Matchboarding, with Bead onOne Side. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 97. --Tongued and Grooved Matchboarding, with Bead atEach Side. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 98. --Matchboarding, Tongued, Grooved and Vee'd. ]

Fig. 96 shows an example of matchboarding known as "Tongued, Grooved andBeaded" on one side only, and Fig. 97 shows a similar type tongued, grooved and beaded on both sides. This variety of matchboarding is knownin the trade as "T. G. And B. " It is used for nailing on framing to formpartitions for rooms, offices, etc. , for panelling corridors, etc. , andfor making framed and ledged doors, building tool houses, cycle sheds andother outhouses. 

Fig. 98 is an example of matchboarding that is tongued, grooved and vee'don one side, and Fig. 99 shows tongued, grooved and vee'd both sides. These are used for similar purposes to Figs. 96 and 97, and many preferthe V matchboarding variety because it is more easily painted than thebeaded variety. 

The object of working a bead or beads on matchboarding is to break thejointing of the various pieces and to aim at ornamental effect; also toprevent unsightliness should the timber shrink slightly. When a moderateamount of shrinkage takes place, as is nearly always the case, the jointat the side of the bead appears to the casual observer to be the filletor channel worked at the side of the bead. If the tongues are not paintedbefore the work is put together, the shrinkage will cause the raw wood toshow and thus make the joint too much in evidence. 

[Illustration: Fig. 99. --Matchboarding Vee'd Both Sides. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 100. --Double-tongued Matchboarding. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 101. --Double-dovetailed, Tongued and Grooved. ]

Fig. 100 shows a "Double tongued and grooved" joint used in the wholesalecabinet factories. It is preferred for the jointing of cabinet stock, andthe amateur can make a similar joint by working two grooves and insertingloose tongues. 

Fig. 101 is the end view of a "Double-dovetailed, tongued and grooved"joint, and Fig. 102 is a sketch of a similar joint having only onedovetailed tongue. 

From a constructional point of view Fig. 101 is far and away the bestjoint that has yet been produced. Unfortunately, however, there is not atthe present time any hand tool that will economically produce it, owingprobably to the fact that the joint is the subject of a patent. Thedovetail tongue tapers slightly throughout its entire length, grippingthe joint on the principle of the wedge and squeezing the glue into thepores of the wood. 

[Illustration: Fig. 102. --Joint with Single Dovetail Tongue and Groove. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 103. --(A) Cross Tongue. (B) Feather Tongue. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 104. --Method of Secret-nailing Hardwood FlooringBoards. ]

CABINET-WORK JOINTS. --With regard to tongued and grooved joints whichapply more particularly to the jointing of cabinet work, Fig. 93 isproduced by planes which are specially made for the purpose. One planemakes the tongue and another the groove. The handiest sizes to buy arethose which joint 3/8 in. , 5/8 in. , and 3/4 in. Timber, it being usual todowel or loose-tongue thicker boards. The 3/8 in. Partitions (or, as theyare sometimes called, dustboards) between the drawers of a sideboard ordressing chest are in good work jointed in this manner. The 5/8 in. And3/4 in. Ends and tops of pine or American whitewood dressing tables, wardrobes, etc. , call for the larger sized plane. 

LOOSE TONGUES. --There are two methods of jointing with loose tongues, viz. , the use of the cross tongue, Fig. 103 A, and the use of the feathertongue, Fig. 103 B. Cross tongues are the stronger when glued in theirposition and can be used very much thinner than feather tongues. Feathertongues are cut diagonally across the grain as illustrated. 

[Illustration: Fig. 105. --Cradle for Planing. ]

Fig. 105 is a cradle for planing up loose tongues to the required width(generally 7/8 in. ). Two grooves are made in a piece of 1-1/4 in. Hardwood; one groove is used for planing the width way of the tongue andthe other for planing the edge way. These tongues can be cut to accuratesize on a circular saw bench if power and machinery are at hand. 

APPLICATIONS OF THE JOINT. --Fig. 106 is a sketch of a portion of asideboard top, showing the plough groove ready worked out to receive thetongue; the other half of the top is treated in a similar manner. It willbe noticed that the groove is not worked through the full length of theboard, but stopped about 1-1/4 in. From each end; this leaves a squarejoint at each end of the top on which the moulding is worked. If thegroove be run through the board it looks very unsightly when the mould isfinished. 

Fig. 107 is a shaped spandrel, such as is fixed in the recess of asideboard or cupboard or shop window fitment. It is of such a width that, were it cut from a wide board, the shaped portion would be apt to breakoff owing to the short grain at C. The shaping is therefore built up outof three separate pieces, the grain running as indicated. The loosetongue is represented by the dotted line and a section is shown of thejoint at the line A B. At the opposite corner the tongue is left blind, _i. E. _, not run through the edge. This is the method that should be usedwhen the shaping is above the level of the eye. 

[Illustration: Fig. 106. --Part of Sideboard Top; grooved with ends leftblind. (The boards are shown upright. )]

[Illustration: Fig. 107. --Shaped Spandrel for Recess. ]

Fig. 108 shows part of a carcase of a dressing table. The drawer runner Ais shown grooved across the end to receive a cross tongue; this crosstongue engages a similar groove in the front bearer. This method offastening the runner to the bearer is in everyday use. 

[Illustration: Fig. 108. --Part Carcase of Dressing Table. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 109. --Framed Writing Table Top. ]

Fig. 109 is a writing table top. The centre boards are first jointed andglued up, after which the ends and sides are grooved ready to receive thecross tongues. The hardwood margins are shown at one end and at thefront, and the grooves are arranged so that, on completion, the marginalframe stands above the top just the amount of the thickness of theleather which will cover the table. In some cases the margin at the endruns the same way of the grain as the top, thus allowing for slightshrinkage. Cross tongues would of course be used in this case. 

Fig. 110 is a sketch showing one-quarter of a barred or tracery cabinetdoor. An enlarged section of the astragal mould which is grooved to fiton the bar which forms the rebate is also shown. 

Fig. 111 is a "Combing or corner locking" joint, a method of making boxesby means of a continuous use of tongues and grooves instead of dovetails. This type of joint is generally machine made. The amateur, however, whois not proficient to undertake a dovetailed box frequently uses thismethod. 

[Illustration: Fig. 110. --Corner of Barred Door. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 111. --Combing or Locking Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 112. --Single Loose Tongue and Double-tongue Joint. ]

CORNER JOINTS. --Fig. 112 shows both a single loose tongue and a doublesolid tongue. Both are methods used to connect circular cornered work, such as a counter end, to the front framing. 

Fig. 113 indicates a tongued and grooved joint suitable for edge or endjointing, such as fitting matchboarding round a chimney breast, makingsmall jewel drawers, etc. 

Fig. 114 is a tongued and grooved joint with a bead worked on same tohide the joint, sometimes called a staff-bead. It would be used inpositions such as boarding around an upright iron pillar, etc. , the beadgiving a neat finish at each corner. 

Fig. 115 is a similar joint, but at an obtuse angle. An example of itsuse is in fixing boarding around an octagonal column of brickwork. 

[Illustration: Fig. 113. , Fig. 114. , Fig. 115. Examples ofTongued and Grooved Corner Joints. ]

Fig. 116 shows a tongued and grooved mitre as used for strengthening thecorners of cabinet work, such as tea caddies, small boxes, plinths, etc. Two pieces of wood are glued in position and allowed to set prior toglueing and cramping the joint proper. These pieces are afterwards planedaway, thus leaving a clear surface to the box sides. 

Fig. 117 shows the method of working the groove in the above joints. Thepieces are turned back to back, the mitres thus making a right angle. Theguide on the grooving plane thus works against each face of the joint, and this ensures correct jointing. 

Fig. 118 is somewhat similar to Fig. 113, but with a quarter circle mouldto hide the joint. 

Fig. 119 indicates the building up of a double skirting mould. Crepresents the brickwork, A the oak-framed panelling, and B the packingand fixing block. A wide skirting of this type is made in two portionsfor convenience in working the moulding and to prevent undue shrinkage. 

[Illustration: Fig. 116. --Cramping a Tongued and Grooved Mitre. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 117. --Working a Groove. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 118. --Corner Joint with Corner Mould. ]

Fig. 120 illustrates the use of a tongued and grooved joint for fixingtogether the sides of a corner bracket, and the same method holds goodwhen jointing a corner cupboard. A capping mould or top shelf willconceal the joint; it then has the appearance of a glued butt joint, butis of course considerably stronger. No screws or nails are required ifthis joint be used. 

PLOUGHING. --When grooves have to be worked in the edge or face of a boardto receive tongues, the process is generally called ploughing, and it isusually accomplished by a special tool called a plough (or, as it isoccasionally spelt, "plow"). When a plough plane is bought it is usual toprocure eight plough bits or blades of various sizes to fit the plane. InFig. 121 is given the sketch of a plough plane with the names of thevarious parts lettered thereon. 

[Illustration: Fig. 119. --Double Skirting Mould. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 120. --Joint for Corner Bracket or Cupboard. ]

The board or boards which it is desired to groove are first planedstraight and true, exactly as though it were desired to make a glued orbutt joint. One of the boards is now placed edge way up in the vice andwith the face side to the worker. 

Take the plough plane and select a suitably-sized blade; fix it in theplane in the usual way, allowing the cutting edge to project beyond thesteel skate about 1/32 in. , and securely drive up the wedge. Next loosenthe small boxwood wedges at the side of each stem, and adjust the planeby tapping the stems with a hammer until the cutting iron is in thedesired position; then knock up the small wedges nice and tight. Whensetting the fence to or from the blade it is a wise precaution to measurethe distance from the fence to the skate at each end of the plane; thiswill ensure the skate being parallel to the fence. The neglect of this isa source of annoyance to many amateurs. Now adjust the depth stop byturning the screw at the top of the plane, measuring the depth of therequired groove from the edge of the blade to the stop, and carefullylock the screw which adjusts this stop. 

[Illustration: Fig. 121. --The Plough Plane and its Parts. ]

The plane is now ready for use. Hold the fence close up to the side ofthe timber, the hands in position as shown at Fig. 122, the position ofthe body being that generally assumed in planing. Move the planebackwards and forwards in the usual manner, beginning the cut at the endof the board nearest to the vice jaws (the front), and proceed with theplaning until the depth stop is in contact with the wood. Then take astep backwards and repeat the process until the whole length of thegroove is ploughed. Care must be taken to force the fence up to the boardwith the left hand, whilst the right hand thrusts the plane backwards andforwards, and the plane must be kept vertical. 

[Illustration: Fig. 122. --Method of using the Plough Plane. ]

TONGUEING. --The grooves having been completed, the tongues have to bemade. Fig. 123 shows a sketch of a board and the method of marking outcross tongues (A) and feather tongues (B). The usual procedure for makingcross tongues is to plane the end of the board and use a cutting gauge togive a line the required distance from the end (see sketch). The board issawn with a tenon or panel saw, and the piece of timber for the tongue isthus procured. If a feather tongue is to be used it is cut diagonallyfrom the board (B) and the ends cut square as shown by the dotted line. 

[Illustration: Fig. 123. --Method of Marking Out for Cross Tongues andFeather Tongues. ]

Feather tongues can be obtained in fairly long lengths out of narrowboards, whilst on the other hand cross tongues are limited by the widthof the board. After cutting off the tongues, they require planing withnicety to fit the grooves, and the advantage of a grooved board (Fig. 105) will be appreciated. A glue spoon similar to a plumber's ladle isgenerally used to pour the glue into the grooves, and it is customary toglue the tongue into one board first; after allowing this to set, thejoint is completed in the usual manner. 

TONGUEING PLANES. --Fig. 124 shows the end view of a tongueing plane forworking matched joints out of the solid. The method of holding and usingthe plane is similar to the directions given for using the plough. Thepart lettered F (in front) represents the fence, which in this case isnot adjustable. 

[Illustration: Fig. 124. , Fig. 125. End Views of Tongueing andGrooving Planes. ]

In description Fig. 125 is similar to Fig. 124. The steel skate runs inthe groove and supports the cutting blade similar to that in the ploughplane, and provided a grooving plane of this type is of suitable width itmay be used for making grooves for loose tongues. There is on the marketa metal plane which is specially designed with handles at both ends. This plane carries a grooving iron on one side and a tongueing iron onthe other side; thus with one plane both the tongue and the groove can beworked. 

[Illustration: Fig. 126. --Tongueing Shoulders of Tenons. ]

Fig. 126 shows the method of tongueing the shoulders of tenons as used inthick timber which is to be veneered on the face. A temporary piece ofwood (A) is put between the tenon cheek and the saw, thus forming a guidefor the latter. After cutting one saw kerf a thicker piece is made and asecond saw kerf cut; the waste between the saw kerfs is now removed withan 1/8 in. Chisel and this completes the groove. A tongue of this typeacts as an extra tenon and prevents the joint from "lipping" (becominguneven) on the face side. 

THE MORTISE AND TENON JOINT

A mortise and tenon joint is the method of joining timber by working asolid rectangular projection in the one piece and cutting a correspondingcavity to receive it in the adjoining piece. The projection is called thetenon, and the cavity the mortise. Joints of this type are secured invarious ways. Small wedges, wooden dowels, metal dowel pins, glue andpaint are frequently used, and prior to the introduction of glue we haveexamples of Egyptian furniture in which the mortise and tenon joints wereunited by a composition of cheese. 

[Illustration: Fig. 127. --Barefaced Tenon Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 128. --Stub Tenon. ]

BAREFACED TENONS. --Fig. 127 illustrates the joint in its simplest formand shows a tenon having only one shoulder. This is called a barefacedtenon, and it will be noticed that the portion which carries the mortiseis thicker than the rail on which the tenon is cut. The joint istherefore level (or flush as it is called) on one side only, and itshould never be used at the corner of a frame. It is a useful interiorjoint for framing that has to be covered on the back side withmatchboarding, and allows the work to finish level at the back when theboarding has been applied (see plan, Fig. 127). 

STUB OR STUMP TENON (Fig. 128; also occasionally called a joggletenon). --The illustration shows a tenon as used in the interior of aframe. The tenon is not allowed to run through the stile, andunsightliness on the edge is thus avoided. This type of tenon is oftenused at the corner of a frame, and it then requires to be haunched. Agood workshop method of gauging the depth of the mortise for a stub tenonis shown in Fig. 129; a piece of gummed stamp paper is stuck on the sideof the mortise chisel, indicating the desired depth of the mortise. Thisgreatly facilitates the work, as it is not necessary to be constantlymeasuring. 

A HAUNCHED TENON as used at the end of a door frame is shown at Fig. 130. --In this case it will be seen that the width of the tenon isreduced, so that sufficient timber will be left at the end of the stileto resist the pressure of the tenon when the joint is driven together. The short portion (A) which is left on the tenon is called the haunch, and the cavity it engages is termed the haunching. The haunch andhaunching prevent the two pieces of timber lipping, or becoming uneven onthe face side, as would be the result if it were cut away entirely up tothe shoulder. 

Fig. 131 shows the type of tenon and haunch used when the stile orupright rail is grooved to receive a panel. In this and similar cases thehaunch is made the same width and the same depth as the groove; thegroove therefore acts as the haunching. An application of this joint isshown in the top rail of the door frame, Fig. 132. 

[Illustration: Fig. 129. --Method of Gauging for depth of Tenon. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 130. --Haunched Tenon used at end of Door Frame. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 131. --Haunched Tenon used when Stile is Grooved forPanel. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 132. --Application of Haunched Tenon Joint to DoorFrame. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 133. --Occasional Stump Tenon. ]

This type of joint is also used to connect the rail to the leg of anordinary kitchen table (see Fig. 167). 

Fig. 133 is a variation of the stump tenon, occasionally used where thework in hand demands a thin tenon and a stout stump to take heavystrains. 

[Illustration: Fig. 134. --Joint for Inside Framing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 135. --Haunched Barefaced Tenon. ]

A joint used for inside framing is seen at Fig. 134. The rails may beused as shown, but in the case of a door frame (as Fig. 132) they wouldhave the inside edges grooved to receive the panels; the tenons wouldtherefore be slightly narrower than shown, owing to the groove at eachedge. 

A HAUNCHED BAREFACED TENON, used in similar positions to Fig. 131, isshown at Fig. 135. The door or frame in this case would be made ofmatchboarding nailed on the back as shown in the plan at Fig. 127. 

WEDGES. --Fig. 136 shows the method of cutting wedges which are to be usedto wedge the tenons; this avoids waste of material. Some workers cut thewedges from the pieces left out of the haunching of the lock rail, orthe bottom rail. 

[Illustration: Fig. 136. --Cutting Wedges from Waste of Haunching. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 137. --Stile and Cross Rail with Horn. ]

A STILE AND CROSS RAIL, framed together, are shown at Fig. 137. Theportion above the rail is called the horn, and it is usual to leavesufficient length of stile to project above and below the cross rails, sothat there will be no tendency for the stile to burst out at the endwhilst the cramping and wedging of the frame is in progress. Oncompleting the framing the horn is cut away. 

In Fig. 138 we have a type of joint frequently used for garden gates. Theillustration shows the method of tenoning the three pieces to the toprail, barefaced tenons being employed. 

[Illustration: Fig. 138. --Joint used for Garden Gates. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 139. --Sprocket Wheel. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 140. --Boring Tool. ]

SPROCKET WHEEL. --At Fig. 139 are shown the guide bar and chain of achain-mortising machine, two enlarged links of the chain being indicatedat A. The chain is similar in construction to the driving chain of abicycle, with the exception that it is provided with teeth which cut awaythe timber as the chain revolves. When using a chain mortiser theportion of the machine carrying the chain is fed downwards into thetimber, thus cutting a clean and true mortise. If, however, a stumpmortise is required it is necessary to pare away a certain amount oftimber by hand, because the machine obviously leaves a semicircularbottom to the mortise. To overcome this difficulty the latest types ofmortising machines have a square hole-boring attachment fixed alongsidethe chain. This tool, the working portion of which is illustrated in Fig. 140, consists of a square hollow chisel (E), which is sharpened from theinside, and a revolving twist bit (D) fitted with spurs or nickers, butwithout a point (one spur can be seen at the bottom of the illustration). This bit revolves inside the shell like a chisel, and bores away thesuperfluous timber, whilst the pressure exerted on the chisel causes thecorners to be cut away dead square. A mortise 3/8 in. Square by 6 ins. Indepth may thus be cut. The portion marked A is the shank of the chisel(Fig. 140), where it is fixed into the body of the machine, and the holeat E allows the boring bit to free itself. 

[Illustration: Fig. 141. --Method of Fitting an Interior Table Leg. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 142. --Haunched Tenon for Skylight or Garden Frame. ]

[Illustration: Fig 143. --Long and Short Shouldered Tenon. ]

Fig. 141 indicates the method of fixing an interior leg to a table havinga circular or straight top rail. The inlaid leg in this case isstump-tenoned into the top rail, and the inlaid portion of the leg isallowed to run through the rail, thus giving continuity of design. 

Fig. 142 shows the application of the haunched tenon (Fig. 135) to themaking of a skylight or garden frame. In this and similar cases the siderails are rebated as shown in the section, and the bottom rail is thinnerthan the side rails to allow the glass to finish level upon it. 

LONG AND SHORT SHOULDERED JOINT. --Fig. 143 shows a haunched mortise andtenon joint having a long and short shoulder. This is a fairly commonjoint in framed partitions for offices, framing for greenhouses, toolsheds, etc. , and is a frequent source of annoyance to the amateur. It isnecessary to use this joint when both the stiles and uprights arerebated, and it calls for accurate marking out and great care in themaking. 

[Illustration: Fig. 144. --Joint for Fencing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 145. --Example of Faulty Tenon. ]

Fig. 144 shows the upright and rails of common garden or field fencing. The tenons are bevelled to fit and wedge each other in the mortise. Theillustration gives both cross rails as shouldered, but in many casesshoulders are omitted when the rails are not thick enough to carry them. 

Fig. 145 indicates faulty methods of working a tenon. At A the saw hasbeen allowed to run too far when cutting the shoulder, thus greatlyweakening the tenon. At B faulty sawing has again occurred, and to remedythis defect the worker has resorted to paring the shoulder with a chisel. Had the chisel been used vertically an undercut shoulder (as at B) wouldnot have occurred. The trouble now is that the slightest amount ofshrinkage in the width of the stile will show an open joint. The resultwill be the same if it is necessary to remove a shaving or two whenplaning or levelling up the face of the frame. 

[Illustration: Fig. 146. --Self-wedging Japanese Tenon Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 147. --Tenoned and Scribed Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 148. --Mitred and Moulded Tenon Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 149. --Twin Tenons. ]

A JAPANESE TENONED JOINT, little known and rarely used in this country, is shown at Fig. 146. For clearness the two parts are here shownseparate. The joint is self-wedging and will be of interest to HandicraftInstructors. 

A TENONED AND SCRIBED JOINT is seen at Fig. 147. The cross rail is cut atthe shoulder, so as to fit the moulding which is worked on the stile. This is a good joint in everyday use. 

MITRED AND MOULDED JOINT. --Fig. 148 shows a type of joint largely used inlight cabinet work. The method of mitreing the moulding and tenoning thestile to rail is indicated. 

TWIN TENONS (Fig. 149). --The method of tenoning the bearers which carrythe drawers, or the midfeather between two drawers, in a dressing tableor similar carcase is here shown. On completion, the tenons on themidfeather are wedged diagonally. 

[Illustration: Fig 150. --Method of Pinning. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 151. --Joining Top Rails to Upright Post. ]

PINNING. --Fig. 150 shows the tenoning of the inside end of a wardrobe tothe top of the carcase. This is also called pinning. The tenons should bewedged diagonally. The tenons and the distance between the tenons aremore satisfactory if made equidistant, because if slight shrinkage occursthis is partially equalised. The width between the tenons should in nocase exceed 3 ins. 

TOP RAILS. --At Fig. 151 is shown the method of joining the top rails tothe post of a tool shed or similar outhouse. The two rails, which are atright angles to each other, are half-lapped and mortised; the tenon onthe post runs entirely through them. 

A TUSK TENON JOINT, with wedge, as used to secure the binder to thegirder when making floors, is indicated at Fig. 153. The tenon here isnarrow and engages the mortise, which is situated in the compressionalfibres immediately adjoining the neutral layer. Fig. 152 shows a tusktenon furnished with a drawbore pin. 

[Illustration: Fig. 152. --Tusk Tenon. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 153. --Wedged Tusk Tenon. ]

Fig. 154 is a variation of Fig. 152. 

Fig. 155 shows tusk and wedged tenons as used when making a portable bookor medicine cabinet. The shelf is housed into the end, and the tenons runthrough the end and are secured by wedges. This allows the article to bequickly and easily taken to pieces for removal or re-polishing. Thedotted line in Fig. 155 indicates that the shelf may be shaped ifdesired. 

[Illustration: Fig. 154. --Another Type of Tusk Tenon. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 155. --Tusk Tenon and Wedge. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 156. --Wheelwright's Self-wedging Tenon Joint. ]

In Fig. 156 a self-wedging mortise and tenon joint used by wheelwrightsis shown. The dotted line (left-hand diagram) will indicate the amount oftaper given to the mortise. 

DOVETAILED AND WEDGED TENON (Fig. 157). --When two pieces such as thecross rail and leg of a carpenter's bench are required to be heldtogether by a mortise and tenon, and to be readily taken apart, the tenonis dovetailed on one side and the mortise is made of sufficient width topermit the widest part of the dovetailed tenon to pass into it. When thetenon is in its position a hardwood wedge is driven in above the tenon, as shown. 

[Illustration: Fig. 157. --Dovetailed and Wedged Tenon. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 158. --Method of Fox-wedging. ]

FOX WEDGED TENON (Fig. 158). --This is the method of securing a stub tenonby small wedges. The mortise is slightly dovetailed and two saw cuts aremade in the tenon about 3/16 in. From each side. Into each saw kerf awedge is inserted and the joint glued up. The cramping operation forcesthe wedges into the saw cuts, thus causing the end of the tenon to spreadand tightly grip the mortise. 

MORTISE AND TENON WITH MITRED FACE (Fig. 159). --This is a useful methodof jointing framing which has square edges as shown; and it is equallyuseful even if the face edges have moulds worked upon them. If the jointhas square edges a rebate may be formed to accommodate a panel by fixinga bolection moulding around the frame. A section of the bolection mouldplanted on the frame is shown in the lower figure. 

[Illustration: Fig. 159. --Tenon Joint with Mitred Face. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 160. --Rafter Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 161. --Roof Joints. ]

ROOF JOINTS. --Fig. 160 shows the method of tenoning the principal rafterto the king post, whilst Fig. 161 illustrates the tenoning of the strutsto the king post, and the king post to the tie beam. Both these examplesare used in roof work. (See also Fig. 71. )

[Illustration: Fig. 162. --Drawbore Pinning. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 163. , Fig. 164. Operation of Pegs inDrawbore Pinning. ]

DRAWBORE PINNING. --At Fig. 162 is seen the method of securing a tenon bydrawbore pinning, employed when it is not convenient to obtain thenecessary pressure by using a cramp. The joint is made in the usualmanner, and a 3/8-in. Twist bit is used to bore a hole through piece A. The tenon is driven home and the hole is marked on the side of the tenon(B); the tenon is then withdrawn and the hole bored about 1/8 in. Nearerto the shoulder than as marked on the separate diagram at C. When thetenon is finally inserted the holes will not register correctly, and if ahardwood pin be driven into the joint it will draw the shoulders of thetenon to a close joint and effectually secure the parts. 

SASH BARS. --Fig. 165 shows how to tenon a moulded sash bar to the rebatedcross rail. In this illustration both shoulders of the moulded bar areshown square, but in the best class work these shoulders may be slightlyhoused into the cross rail to prevent side play. This type of joint isused for horticultural buildings, etc. If the lower rail be moulded withthe same members as the sash bar, the end of the sash bar will have to bescribed on to it to make a fit. 

[Illustration: Fig. 165. --Tenoning Moulded Sash Bar. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 166. --Tenon with Tongued and Grooved Shoulder. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 167. --Detail of Table Framing. ]

TENON WITH TONGUED AND GROOVED SHOULDERS (Fig. 166). --The object of thetongues and grooves here is to prevent the face of the work casting, orbecoming warped, and thus spoiling the appearance of the surface of thework. If framing is to be veneered on the face side this is anexceptionally good method. 

TABLE FRAMING. --Fig. 167 indicates the framing of a rail to adining-table leg. In cases similar to this the tenons run into the legand almost touch each other. They are therefore mitred on the end asshown in the inset. Chair frames often call for similar treatment. 

TWIN TENONS with haunch, as used when the timber is of great thickness, are shown in Fig. 168. 

AN OPEN SLOT MORTISE at the end of a right-angled frame is seen in Fig. 169. Fig. 170 shows an open slot mortise and tenon joint at the end of aframe of 60°. Both these joints are occasionally called end bridlejoints. 

[Illustration: Fig. 168. --Twin Tenons for Thick Timber. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 169. --The Open-slot Mortise Joint. ]

HAMMER HEAD TENONS. --At Fig. 171 is shown the method of jointing framinghaving semicircular or segmental heads. The left-hand diagram indicatesthe method of wedging the joint so as to draw up the shoulders; theright-hand view shows the tongueing of the shoulders, which is necessaryif thick timber has to be wrought. The sketch depicts the stile whentaken apart from the shaped head of the frame. 

CLAMPING. --Fig. 172 shows the method of tenoning drawing boards, desktops and secretaire falls. This is commonly called clamping. The methodis used to prevent wide surfaces from winding. A variation of the jointis shown at the left-hand side, the corners in this example not beingmitred. Fig. 173 shows the tenoning of a wide to a narrow rail when thejoint is at an angle. 

INSERTED TENONS (Fig. 174). --Where two pieces of timber run together atan acute angle it becomes necessary to use inserted tenons. Both piecesof the timber are mortised and the inserted tenons are secured into thewidest piece. On the left is shown the inserted tenon, secured by themethod known as fox-wedging; on the right the inserted tenon has been letinto the wide rail from the edge. The narrow rail is secured by wedgingthe tenons from the outside edge in the ordinary manner. 

[Illustration: Fig. 170. --Open-Slot Mortise at 60 degrees. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 171. --Hammer-Head Tenon Joint. ]

DREADNOUGHT FILE. --At Fig. 175 is a sketch of a portion of a dreadnoughtfile. This has superseded the old-fashioned home-made float used to cleanout the sides of a mortise. 

[Illustration: Fig. 172. --Clamping. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 173. --Tenoning Narrow Rail. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 174. --Inserted Tenons. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 175. --Dreadnought File. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 176. --External and Internal Joints. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 177. --Setting out Stiles and Rails for Tenoning. ]

GENERAL RULE. --In practically all cases where a single tenon is used thethickness of the tenon should be one-third the thickness of the timber. This leaves the timber at each side of the mortise the same strength asthe tenon. 

Mortise and tenon joints for inside work may be united with glue. If, however, the work has to stand the weather a better method is to unitethe joint with white lead, which is run down to the required consistencywith good outside varnish. 

SETTING OUT THE JOINT. --The principal use of the mortise and tenon jointis in the construction of various types of framing, such as door andwindow frames. In one or other of its many and varied forms it may beclassed as the most important joint in the general woodworking trade. Thejoint may be used as an internal one, as shown at the lower rail, Fig. 176, or as an external joint, as the upper rail of the same illustration. 

Whatever type of framing has to be made, it is necessary that the faceside of the wood be planed up straight and out of winding, and the facemark (as shown in Fig. 176) pencilled upon it. The best edge of thetimber should next be planed up true in length, and square to the faceside, and the edge mark (X) clearly placed upon it. 

The marking gauge is now set to the desired width, and gauge lines aremarked on the wood, after which the waste wood is planed off until thetimber is the required width. The thickness is gauged and treated in asimilar manner, except in such cases where the finished work is to be ofa rough and ready character. 

THE TWO STILES (or uprights) have their faces turned to touch each other, as shown at Fig. 177, and their length may be anything from 1 in. To 3ins. Longer than the required finished size. This waste wood at each endof the stiles (see arrow HO) is of importance to the work, as it preventsto a great extent the bursting of the mortise whilst cutting the hole orwhen knocking together the work. The small projection is called the"horn, " and it is cut off after the frame has been put together. 

[Illustration: Fig. 178. --Setting Out the Stiles with Marking Knife. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 179. --How to Saw the Tenons--First Operation. ]

THE TWO CROSS RAILS (Fig. 177), have their faces placed together as shownin the sketch. These rails may with advantage be left 1/2 in. Longer thanthe finished size, and the portion of the tenon (which will protrudethrough the stile 1/4 in. At each end) may be cut off after the work isput together. (See Fig. 92. )

Set out the stiles with a marking knife or penknife and a try square, asshown at Fig. 178. In this sketch only one stile is shown for clearnessof representation, but two or more stiles (as at Fig. 177) may be markedout at the same time, provided a 12-in. Try square be used; in fact, marking out the stiles in pairs is to be recommended, as all cross lineswill be exact owing to their being marked at the same operation. The cutmade by the marking knife should be lightly carried all round the work asthe mortising is cut from each edge of the stile, the cutting of themortising being finished in the centre. The lettering on Fig. 177 is asfollows:--HO, horn; M, position of mortise; H, position of haunching; A, inside line, or sight size, as it is occasionally called. 

Set out the cross rails as at Fig. 177, lower sketch. The lettering inthis figure is as follows:--T, tenons; the small piece of the tenonlettered J is called the haunch, and the shaded portion H is cut away toallow the haunch J to fit the haunching of the stile. 

THE TENONS (as already stated) are generally one-third the thickness ofthe timber, thus leaving the same amount of substance at each side of thetenon as the tenon itself is composed of. The mortise gauge is set to therequired distance and used as in the case of the marking gauge (Fig. 82). 

[Illustration: Fig. 180. --Second Operation in Sawing Tenons. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 181. --Cutting Channel at Shoulder of Tenon beforeSawing. ]

To saw the tenons, place the rail in the vice as at Fig. 179 and, with apanel, tenon, or hand saw, according to the size of the work, cut downthe outside of the tenon line as shown. Reverse your position and cut asshown at Fig. 180, then place the rail in a vertical position, and youwill find little or no difficulty in sawing down square with the shoulderline. Repeat the above methods of sawing until all the tenons are sawn. 

Next saw out the pieces at the side of the tenon by the followingprocedure. Place the rail against the bench stop, or in the vice, and cuta small channel in which to run your tenon saw as shown at Fig. 181. Ifyou have scored the line deeply with your knife when you were marking outthe work, you will have little difficulty in removing a small portionwith the chisel. The amount removed in the illustration is, of course, exaggerated. In the small channel thus made place the tenon saw and, guiding the saw blade with the finger so as to keep it upright or square(Fig. 182), saw away the waste material. Remove the waste material at thesides of the tenons in a similar way, and then saw out the portion markedH, Fig. 177, lower sketch. 

THE MORTISING of the stiles may next be taken in hand by putting thestiles edgeways in the vice and boring away the bulk of the waste woodfrom the mortise with a suitable-sized twist bit and brace. This methodwill save a great amount of noise, as to a great extent it does away withthe use of the mallet. Take the mallet and chisel and chop down about 3/8in. As shown at Fig. 183; then turn the chisel to the position shown atFig. 184 and remove the small piece as shown. Continue these twooperations until you are about half-way through the wood and then startin a similar manner at the line _a_, Fig. 183, after which turn the otheredge of the timber uppermost and repeat the methods shown. 

[Illustration: Fig. 182. --Sawing away Waste Material. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 183. --Using the Chisel and Mallet for Mortising. ]

Fig. 185 shows the sketch of a mortise which has its side removed so asto show the method of successive cuts with a chisel when removing thecore from a mortise; this, in conjunction with the other sketches, clearly shows the methods of working. In many woodwork examinations theexaminers insist that the mortise shall be removed by successive cutswith the chisel, but we certainly advise the removal of much of the wastewood with a boring bit, provided the worker can keep straight and wellwithin the limitations of his gauge lines. 

[Illustration: Fig. 184. --Removing Waste of Mortise with Chisel. ]

REMOVING HAUNCHING. --After removing the mortise hole, the small portionwhich is called the haunching will require to be removed with a chisel. This calls for no special remark, as it is clearly shown in Figs. 187 and188. Fig. 186 shows an everyday type of mortise and tenon jointseparated; it is used in cases where a straight joint is required on theupper or lower edge of the work, whereas the upper rail of Fig. 176 showsthe full haunch on the top edge. In cases such as Figs 187 and 188, wherethe edges of the frames are grooved to receive panels, etc. , the width ofthe tenon is reduced by the width of the groove. 

[Illustration: Fig. 185. --Mortise with Side Removed. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 186. --The Joint Separated. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 187. --Removal of Haunching. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 188. --Haunching with Groove above. ]

This must be remembered by the worker when marking out his stiles withthe marking knife. Fig. 187 (right-hand sketch) shows the haunch, tenon, and groove G at the bottom. Fig. 188 (left-hand illustration) shows G(groove) at top, and HH (the haunch) at the bottom. Tenons may be gluedtogether and wedged as shown at Fig. 176 if for inside work; but if foroutside work they are generally smeared with thick paint and wedged up. For light-class cabinet work it is usual to cut the mortise aboutseven-eighths of the distance through the stile and make the tenon tomatch it; the edge of the finished work does not then show any indicationof the joint, and it leaves a nice clean surface at the edge of the workfor polishing or varnishing. 

[Illustration: Fig. 189. --Interlocking Joint for Seat Rails of Chair toLeg. ]

INTERLOCKING CHAIR JOINT. --A joint designed with a view to strengtheningthe construction of chairs at the point where they are weakest is shownin Fig. 189. The joint is an interlocking one so arranged that, once thechair is glued up, no motion of the side rail can be possible. The groovein the side rail tenon is cut in such a manner that, on the insertion ofthe back rail tenon, the joint actually draws up and, having done so, islocked in position. The exact location of this groove is obtained in asimilar manner to that used in marking out tenons for drawbore pinning, _i. E. _, the tenon is inserted in its mortise and the position of the backrail mortise transferred to it, after which the lines are set back by1/64 in. (approximately) to cause the joint to draw. 

From the illustration the construction of the joint should be clear. Themethod is particularly adapted to a section of rectangular form where oneside is longer than the other, such as the back leg of a chair, as thisshape allows for the accommodation of the extra length of tenonrequired. 

THE DOWELLING JOINT

Dowelling is the term generally given to the method of jointing timberand other materials by wooden or metal pegs, which are called dowels. Forcabinet-making and similar work straight-grained beechwood dowels aremostly used; these may be bought by the gross, in lengths of about 36ins. , and of any desired diameter. 

[Illustration: Fig. 190. --Steel Dowel Plate. ]

MAKING DOWELS. --Many, however, prefer to make what they require for thework in hand, and the following is the method that is generally employed. Pieces of straight-grained wood are wrought to a square section, afterwhich the corners are planed away to form an octagonal section. The sharpcorners are now planed away, and the roughly formed dowel is driventhrough a steel dowel plate, Fig. 190, by the aid of a heavy hammer, thusgiving the necessary roundness and finish to the dowels. When hammeringdowels through a plate the hammer should on no account be allowed to comein contact with the face of the dowel plate, or the cutting edge of thehole will be spoilt. Simply drive the dowel to within 1/8 in. Of theplate and knock it out with the next dowel. 

[Illustration: Fig. 191. --Cradle for Planing Dowels. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 192. --Dowel with Groove. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 193. --Sawing Groove in Dowel. ]

To plane off the corners a "cradle" (Fig. 191) is made and kept for thepurpose. The advantage of this cradle is obvious, preventing as it doesany tendency of the partly-formed dowel to slip or wobble. A jig, orcradle, is easily made by bevelling the edges of two separate pieces ofwood and then glueing and screwing them together as at Fig. 191. A smallblock of wood is inserted to act as a stop whilst the planing operationis in progress. It is usual to bevel both edges of the timber from whichthe cradle is formed, thus accommodating all sizes of dowels from 1/4 in. To 5/8 in. In diameter. 

[Illustration: Fig. 194. --Pricking the Centres ready for Boring. Alsoshowing how Brace is used in conjunction with Try Square. ]

Fig. 192 shows a completed dowel with a small groove running along itsentire length. The object of this groove is to allow the air andsuperfluous glue to escape and thus avoid splitting the work on hand; thegroove also secretes a certain amount of glue, which increases its holdon the timber. 

Fig. 198 illustrates the method of marking out and gauging two boards fordowelling. The edges of the boards are first shot to a true joint; thenthe face sides are placed together and the lines for the dowels aremarked across the edges with a fine pencil and the aid of a try square. The boards are then gauged from the face side, thus giving the pointsindicated in the sketch. 

[Illustration: Fig. 195. --Countersink. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 196. --Dowel Rounder. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 197. --Twist Bit. ]

To start the twist bit (Fig. 197) it is a good plan to prick the board atthe point of intersection of the marked lines with a sharp, circular-pointed marking awl. This obviates any tendency of the boringbit to run out of truth and thus cause unevenness on the face side of thejointed board. (See Fig. 194. )

A safe rule for the spacing of dowels when jointing sideboard tops, dressing table and wardrobe ends, etc. , is to place the dowels 9 ins. To10 ins. Apart, and place two dowels at each end as shown at Fig. 198. Thelength of the dowels should be about 7/8 in. To 1-1/4 in. Long. 

Fig. 199 shows the two boards prepared ready for glueing. The back oneis bored to receive the dowels, and the front one shows the dowels gluedin position. It is customary to warm the edges of the boards beforespreading the glue, and cramps are required to squeeze the joint tight. These should be left on the jointed board from one to four hoursaccording to the state of the weather. In cases where thick timber (say2-in. Or 2-1/2-in. Boards) is to be jointed, two rows of dowels may beused, the position of the dowels being as Fig. 200. 

[Illustration: Fig. 198. --Marking and Gauging Boards for Dowelling. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 199. --Dowelled Joint ready for Glueing. ]

Fig. 201 shows the plan of a 3-in. Cornice pole made to fit a bay window;the straight portions of the pole are generally turned in the lathe, thecorner portions being afterwards jointed and worked up to the requiredshape. To avoid any difficulty in the setting out of the dowels, a discof cardboard or sheet metal is made to the same diameter as that of thecornice pole; this disc is called a template. The positions of the dowelsare set out geometrically, and the centres are pricked through with afine-pointed marking awl (see sketch of template, _a_, Fig. 201). Thetemplate is put on the ends of the straight pole, and the dowel centresare pricked into the wood. The process is repeated on the ends of thecorner block (_b_, Fig. 201), and if the holes be now bored at thecentres indicated a true fit will be obtained. 

[Illustration: Fig. 200. --Method of Dowelling Thick Timber. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 201. --Method of Dowelling Cornice Pole by Means ofTemplate. ]

Fig. 201 _c_ shows two portions of the circular pole jointed up to acorner block, and the dotted lines P indicate the direct line of pressureand shows the position for the cramp. When the glue is thoroughly set thecorner block is sawn and spokeshaved to the desired shape as shown by thedotted line. This method is illustrated to show that, by the use of asuitable template, dowels may be exactly set out even when there is nostraight or square face from which to use a marking gauge, and the methodmay, of course, be applied to many other examples of dowelling at thediscretion of the workman. 

[Illustration: Fig. 202. --Dowelling a Mitred Frame. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 203. --Method of Frame Dowelling. (Long and ShortShoulders. )]

[Illustration: Fig. 204. --Table Leaf with Dowels. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 205. --Block for Twist Bit. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 206. --Dowelling for Moulded Frame. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 207. --Cap. ]

Fig. 202 shows one corner of a mitred and dowelled frame. It needslittle or no explanation beyond the fact that the dowels should be atright angles to the line of joint, and consequently the dowel at theoutside edge of the frame will have to be much shorter than the others. This gives a strong and serviceable joint, suitable for many purposes. 

FRAME DOWELLING. --Fig. 203 shows one corner of a frame with long andshort shoulders, such as occurs when the upright is rebated through itsentire length. The holes in both pieces are bored for the dowels beforethey are rebated. This avoids any difficulty in endeavouring to bore withonly one side of the twist bit in the wood. A similar type of joint isused on nearly all kinds of glass and door frames in cabinet work. 

Fig. 204 is a leaf for the screw type of table. Circular dowels are shownat one end, and rectangular wooden pegs at the other; both methods areequally good, and, of course, the dowels are only glued into one leaf. The object of these dowels is to guide the table leaf into its properposition when the leaf engages the table proper, and to make the flatsurface of the table top and leaf register correctly and thus ensure alevel surface. 

Fig. 205 is a wooden block made in two portions and held together byscrews; it is used to fasten around a twist bit, the object being toensure that all the dowel holes are of uniform depth. It may be adjustedas desired and firmly screwed round the twist bit; if the hole is made1/4 in. In diameter it will clip round a 1/4-in. Or 3/8-in. Bit and willanswer a dual purpose. It is a preventative for bad dowelling. 

Fig. 206 is an example of dowelling framing when the moulding on the edgehas to be mitred. It is necessary to cut the shoulders away so as toallow the members of the moulding to intersect. The section of the mouldis not shown in the sketch for clearness of representation. The portionmarked H is called the "horn, " and it is not cut off until after theframe is glued up; its object is to prevent the rail splitting orbursting when knocking up the frame or during the cramping process. 

Fig. 207 shows the method of dowelling a moulded cap to the top of awooden bedstead post or similar pillar where it is desired to avoid anyunsightliness. 

Fig. 208 is a dining-table leg and portion of the framing, showing themethod of dowelling the frame to the leg. Chairs, couch frames, etc. , aremade in a similar manner. 

Fig. 209 shows the top portion of a table leg and a home-made dowelgauge. The gauge is made of any hardwood, and steel wire pins are driventhrough at the required positions and sharpened similar to the spur of amarking gauge. The legs are sawn and planed up true and square, and theadvantage of the gauge is that all legs are marked exactly alike and aretherefore interchangeable until glued up. A gauge of this type is easilyand quickly made and may be kept for its specific purpose or altered forother work. 

Fig. 210 indicates the Queen Anne type of leg, a sketch of same brokenbelow the knee also being given. Here we have another type of irregularsetting out, which is accomplished in the following manner. Saw and planethe broken portion of the leg true as shown; take the timber which is tobe jointed and treat it in a similar manner; now place four ordinary pinson the lower portion. Carefully place the top portion to the requiredposition and smartly give it one tap with the hammer; this will cause thepin-heads to leave indentations, and if these be taken as centres forboring, accurate work will result. The new portion of the leg isafterwards sawn and wrought to the desired shape. 

This is an example of work where it is next to impossible to use agauge, and as only one joint is required it is not worth the time takento make a template. 

[Illustration: Fig. 208. --Dowelling a Dining-Table Leg. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 209. --Dowel Gauge for Legs. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 210. --Dowelling a Cabriole Leg. ]

The tools used in dowelling are: Brace, countersink, dowel-rounder, twistbit, try-square, marking-awl, and the usual bench tools. The first fourare illustrated at Figs. 194, 195, 196 and 197 respectively. 

The method of working is: Plane up, mark out, bore holes, countersink, glue dowels and complete joints. 

THE SCARF JOINT

The method known as "scarfing" is used for the joining of timber in thedirection of its length, enabling the workman to produce a joint with asmooth or flush appearance on all its faces. One of the simplest forms ofscarfed joint is known as the half lap, in which a portion is cut out atthe end of each beam or joist, equal in depth to half the full depth ofthe beam, and of equal length to the required scarf. 

The two pieces before they are placed together form a joint as shown atFig. 211, the projecting part (A) fitting into the recessed portionmarked B and the two pieces being secured in their respective positionsby screws. 

Fig. 212 shows a dovetailed scarf joint. This is a variation of Fig. 211, the length of the dovetail lap being from 6 ins. To 8 ins. In length. 

Fig. 213 is an illustration of a joint designed to resist a cross strain. The face side is left flush, whilst the underside is assisted by an ironplate. The joint is secured with nuts, bolts, and washers. This type ofjoint is frequently used for joining purlins in roof work; the iron plateon the underside is in this case omitted. 

Fig. 214 is designed to resist both tension and compression and is anexcellent joint for all purposes. The joint is brought together by usingfolding wedges as shown in the centre. 

[Illustration: Fig. 211. --Half-Lap Scarf Joint for Light Timber. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 212. --Dovetailed Scarf Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 213. --Plated Scarf Joint Used in Roof Work. ]

Fig. 215 is a variation of Fig. 214, and it will be noticed that tenonsare provided on the face and underside to resist cross strain. Probablythis is one of the best varieties of the scarfed joint. Unfortunately, however, its production is somewhat costly, and this may be the reasonthat it is not more universally used. Folding wedges are used to securethe two pieces in position. 

[Illustration: Fig. 214. --Tenoned Scarf Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 215. --Double Tenoned Scarf Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 216. --Scarf Joint with Vee'd ends. ]

Fig. 216 is a scarfed joint with undercut vee'd ends which prevent thejoint from lipping up or down or sideways. It is a useful joint, callingfor careful setting out and accurate craftsmanship. Folding wedges areused in this case to draw up and secure the joint. 

Fig. 217 is a "fished joint, " and the following difference between ascarfed and fished joint should be noted. A fished joint need notnecessarily reduce the total length of the beams to be joined, and fishplates of wood or iron (or a combination of both) are fastened at eachside of the joint. In a scarf joint all surfaces are flush. In Fig. 217the beams are butt-jointed and secured by wooden plates and iron bolts. The upper plate is let into each beam, and the lower plate is providedwith two wooden keys to prevent the beams sliding (or "creeping") uponthe lower plate. Iron nuts, bolts, and washers are used to complete thejoint. 

[Illustration: Fig. 217. --Fished Joint. ]

In the case of the scarfed joint at Fig. 218 (used for purlins) thelength of the scarf is usually made about four times that of the depth oftie beam. It has two hardwood keys which force the pieces together andthus tighten the joint. 

[Illustration: Fig. 218. --Detail of Scarfed Joint in Purlins. ]

The methods of scarfing and fish-jointing are many and varied, and, inselecting a joint, the nature of the pieces to be joined and thedirection and the amount of the load should be carefully taken intoconsideration. 

The above joints come under the heading of carpentry, and the ordinarytools such as the saw, plane, boring-bit and chisels are all that arerequisite and necessary to produce a sound and serviceable joint. Scarfedjoints are generally of large size, and they are usually made by placingthe work upon sawing trestles owing to the bench being too small toaccommodate the large timbers. 

[Illustration: Fig. 219. --Example of Tabled Joint with Straps. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 220. --Lapped Scarf Joint with Bolts for HeavyTimber. ]

Fig. 219 is a tabled scarf joint which admirably resists tension andcompression. It is very easy to make and fit, and is not materiallyaffected by shrinkage. The rectangular wrought iron straps are knocked upover the joint after the two pieces engage. The length of the jointshould be approximately five times its thickness. 

Fig. 220 is an example of a lapped scarf joint which is secured with nutsand bolts. It effectively resists compressional stress in vertical postsand it may, if required, be strengthened by the addition of wrought ironfish plates. It is quite a serviceable joint for all general purposes, such as shed or garage building where fairly heavy timbers are used. 

THE HINGED JOINT

One of the most common forms of hinged joint in use to-day is that formedby using the "butt" hinge, and many troubles experienced by the amateur, such as "hinge-bound, " "stop-bound, " and "screw-bound" doors, etc. , aredue to a lack of knowledge of the principles of hingeing. Hinges call forcareful gauging and accurate fitting, otherwise trouble is certain tooccur. 

A "BOUND" door or box lid is said to be hinge-bound when the recess whichcontains the hinge is cut too deep. The frame and the body portion engagetoo tightly when closed, the result being that the door has always atendency to open a little. This fault may be in many cases remedied bypacking behind the hinge with one or two thicknesses of good stiff brownpaper. For packing purposes such as this paper will be found to be ofmuch more value than thin strips of wood or knife-cut veneer, the latteralways having a great tendency to split when a screw or bradawl isinserted. 

A stop-bound door is the name applied when the door is not finished toexactly the same thickness as originally intended. This causes the doorto bind on the stops at the back, as shown at Fig. 221. The difficultymay be remedied by thinning the door a little at the back, or slightlyrounding away the portion which binds. 

Screw-bound is a common fault often overlooked by the amateur. It iscaused by using screws of which the heads are too large for thecountersunk holes in the hinge, and may be avoided by slightly sinkingthe holes in the brasswork with a countersink or rose-bit. 

[Illustration: Fig. 221. --Stop-bound Door. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 222. --Butt Hinge. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 223. --Gauging. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 224. --Marking for Recess. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 225. --Sawing for the Recess. ]

ALIGNMENT. --Another fault that is fairly common is having the axes of thehinges out of alignment. Especially is this the case when three hingesare used to hang a wardrobe or other large door. It is absolutelynecessary in all cases that the exact centres of the pivot-pins of thehinges should be in a straight line. 

Particular attention to alignment is necessary when the body and the doorframe are shaped on the face side. A familiar example that every readermay inspect for himself is the curved side of a railway carriage body andrailway carriage door, where he will notice that a specially wide hingehas to be used at the bottom of the door to give the necessary alignment. Hinges fixed on work with their centres out of truth are often overlookedby the inexperienced worker, and this is a frequent cause of creaking. 

GAUGING. --Fig. 222 is a sketch of a brass butt hinge, open. Fig. 223illustrates a similar hinge closed, and shows the gauge set so that thepoint of the marker is exactly to the centre of the pivot-pin. Thisdistance we will call C. Now turn to Fig. 224. The distance C has beengauged from the face side of the frame. The gauge is then set to thethickness of the hinge at its thickest portion, and to prevent"hinge-bind" see that the gauge is set on the _fine_ side. Remember thatthe tapered point of the steel spur or marking awl will part the fibresof the timber a little more than the fine point, and give you a widergauge line than was anticipated when you set the gauge. The inexperiencedworker nearly always overlooks this. The result is a hinge-bound door, the cause of which is not discovered by the worker because he is so surethat he has set the gauge correctly. The distance B, Fig. 226, shows theline gauged for the thickness of the hinge. 

POSITION OF HINGES. --Another difficulty to the beginner is the positionfor his hinges, and it may here be stated that the general rule is tocarry a line across the face of the work from the inside of the crossrail and place the hinge at E, as Fig. 224. 

[Illustration: Fig. 226. --Tool Operation when Paring Out the Hinge Recessin the Door. ]

SAWING FOR THE RECESS. --After marking out for the hinge, as shown at Fig. 224, take a fine-toothed saw (a dovetail saw is considered the best) andsaw down as shown at Fig. 225, care being taken not to cut beyond thegauge lines. In this sketch three intermediate saw kerfs are shown, butif the hinge is of great length, say 5 or 6 ins. , the removal of thewaste wood will be greatly facilitated by the addition of moreintermediate saw kerfs. These cuts sever the cross fibres and allow thetimber to be easily pared away in short lengths. 

In Fig. 226 we see the tool operation when paring out the hinge recess. At the left of the drawing the recess is shown marked. Take a 3/4 in. Chisel and, using it as a knife (see A), deepen the gauge lines. Thenstab the chisel downwards, as at B, to deepen the end lines. Next, takethe chisel and pare away the back of the recess as at C. The work maythen be completed by paring neatly till the bottom of the recess is flat. 

[Illustration: Fig. 227. , Fig. 228. The Hingeing of a Box Lid. ]

STOPPED HINGED JOINTS FOR BOX WORK. --Fig. 227 is a section through asmall box similar to a lady's work-box (the back of the box in theillustration is enlarged in thickness to clearly show the position of thehinge). In this case the knuckle of the hinge is let into the woodworkuntil it is flush with the back of the box, and the gauge would have tobe set to the total width of the hinge. The back edges of the lid and theback edge of the lower portion of the box are planed away at an angle of45 degrees as indicated by the dotted lines. 

Fig. 228 shows the same box with the lid open, and it will be observedthat the chamfered edges come together and form a stop which prevents thelid falling backwards and breaking the box. This method of letting-in theknuckle flush is a useful one for box work because the ordinary stockbrass butt hinge can be used. Attention may, however, be called to the"stopped butt-hinge, " which is specially made to answer the abovepurpose; in its action a similar mechanical principle as the one appliedto the box is used. 

[Illustration: Fig. 229. --Strap Hinge. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 230. --Reversible or Double-folding Screen Hinge. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 231. --Pivot Hinge for Screens. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 232. --Non-reversible Screen Hinge. ]

TYPES OF HINGES. --Fig. 229 is an elongated variety of the butt hinge, known in the trade as "strap hinge, " "desk hinge, " or "bagatelle hinge. "As its name indicates, it is used on folding bagatelle tables, smallwriting desks, and other types of work that have but a narrow margin onwhich to fix the hinges. The long, narrow plates are sunk flush into thewood, the knuckle or rounded portion projecting. 

[Illustration: Fig. 233. --Back Flap Hinge. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 234. --Card Table Hinge. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 235. --Pivot Hinge. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 236. --Rising Butt Hinge. ]

Fig. 230 is an illustration of the reversible or double-folding screenhinge. Half the thickness of this hinge is let into each wing of thedraught screen, allowing the screen to be folded either way. The hinge iscostly, but effective in use. 

Fig. 231 is a type of pivot hinge which is used to fix at the top andbottom of a screen. 

Fig. 232 is the non-reversible screen hinge and, as its name implies, will only fold in one direction. 

Fig. 233 is a back flap hinge with a specially wide wing, used for thefall-down leaf of small tables and similar articles. 

Fig. 234 is a card table hinge. This is let into the edges of the table, so that all is flush or level both above and below the surface. 

CENTRE OR PIVOT HINGES. --Fig. 235 is a centre or pivot hinge, used on thetop and bottom of wardrobe doors, more particularly the interior door ofa three-winged wardrobe where the method of fixing is confined to thecornice and plinth. The flange carrying the pins or pivot is let into thetop and bottom of the door, the remaining flange being let into thecornice and plinth respectively. 

RISING BUTT HINGES. --Fig. 236 is the rising butt hinge, used on diningand drawing-room doors, so that when the door is opened the door risessufficiently to clear the thickness of the carpet. This hinge has also anadvantage over the ordinary butt hinge in that it is self-closing, _i. E. _, the weight of the door _plus_ the bevel on the hinge joint causesthe door to close. Band and hook hinges and other ordinary varieties aretoo well known to require illustrating. 

ACUTE ANGLE HINGEING. --Fig. 237 is a sectional plan of a corner cupboardshowing a good method of hingeing the door. The inset _a_ shows anenlarged view of the corner carrying the hinge, also the adaptor piece_c_, which is fitted to the inside edge of the cupboard so that thehinged edges are at 90 degrees to the face. This is a far better andstronger method than that shown at _b_, which is often attempted withdisastrous results. The incorrect method _b_ allows insufficient wood forfixing purposes, and in nearly all cases the thin edge of the door breaksaway during the making and fitting, or soon after completion. The adaptorpiece may have a face mould worked upon it to give a pilaster-likeappearance if fancy so dictates. 

[Illustration: Fig. 237. --Hingeing Door of Corner Cupboard. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 238. --Inside Hingeing: Method of Letting Butt Hingeinto Door Frame and Carcase. ]

INSIDE HINGEING. --When a door is being hung _inside_ the carcase (thatis, not hinged _over_ the ends) it is permissible, in the case of lightwork, to let the whole thickness of the hinge into the door; and whenscrewing the door to the carcase it is usual to fix the knuckle of thehinge flush with the face of the carcase, thus allowing the door frame tostand back, making a break of about 1/8 in. With the face. The markinggauge should be set to the full width of the hinge; the mark, gauged onthe inside of the carcase end, thus forms a line to guide the workerwhilst fixing the door. To successfully fix a door it generally requirestwo persons, one to hold the door in position, whilst the other bores theholes and fixes the screws. 

[Illustration: Fig. 239. --Showing Top and Bottom of Carcase Cut Back toallow Door to Close. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 240. --Outside Hingeing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 241. --Section. ]

Fig. 238 shows the correct method of fitting butt hinges on high-classwork. One wing of the hinge is let into the door, and the other wing islet into the carcase or door jamb, thus distributing a proportion of theweight to the carcase end instead of allowing the whole of the weight tobe carried by the screws as would be the case in _a_, Fig. 237. Themethod of sinking each portion of the hinge into the door and carcaserespectively is costly; hence it is not the general practice in cheapwork. In Fig. 239 the top and bottom of carcase (T and B) are shown setback to allow the door to close. 

OUTSIDE HINGEING. --Fig. 240 illustrates the portion of a door frame andcarcase end when the door is hung on the face of the carcase. The correctmethod of letting in the hinge is shown in the enlarged section (Fig. 241), but, as previously mentioned, the hinge may have its entirethickness let into the door frame where it is of a light character. Thedoor frame projects slightly over the carcase end, and occasionally abead mould is worked on the edge of the door so as to give a finish andpartly hide the joint. The bead would, of course, be the same size as thediameter of the knuckle of the hinge; and the knuckle, therefore, willform a continuation of the bead and give a workmanshiplike finish. 

FALL FRONTS. --Fig. 242 is a sectional view of a fall front writing bureaufitted with centre or pivot hinges and arranged so that the edges form astop when the desk front is turned to a horizontal position. The positionfor the fitting of the brass plates carrying the pivot-pin is somewhatawkward; but, by first sinking the plates into the carcase ends, and thenslotting the edges of the fall, it will be found that the fall front maybe put in from its horizontal position, and that sufficient room is leftto enable the screwdriver to be manipulated without inconvenience. 

[Illustration: Fig. 242. --Fall Front of Writing Bureau. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 243. --Revolving Fly Rail for Table. See Pivoted Flyor Front Rail. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 244. --Draught Screen Tape Hinge. ]

FLY RAIL. --Fig. 243 is a sketch of a small table with the top removed. Arevolving fly rail is shown pivoted upon a piece of 1/4-in. Wire. Theobject of this fly rail is to form a support to the small hingeddrop-leaf of the table. This method is suitable for small occasionaltables and similar articles. 

DRAUGHT SCREENS. --Fig. 244 illustrates the end elevation and plan of adraught screen which is constructed of a light framework and covered withbaize or American cloth. The reversible double-folding hinge (Fig. 230)would answer admirably for such a screen. Cases occur, however, where itis desired to hinge a screen to be used for an invalid's bedside, and itis then important that all draught should be excluded through the jointededges. The double reversible hinge will not fulfil these conditions, andthe following method is therefore adopted. 

In the plan, Fig. 244, A and B, two laths of hardwood (beech, birch ormahogany answer splendidly) are shown. They are made the same length andthe same width as the edges of the screen, the corners being slightlyrounded away. 

A double-folding, draught-proof hinge is then made as follows: Procuregood fine webbing, about 1-1/4 in. Wide, and the necessary large-headedtacks. Lay the laths side by side as shown in Fig. 244, and proceed toweb them as shown. Commence with the web under the lath A; bring itbetween the laths and over B; now take it round the left-hand edge of B, and round the back and between the laths and over A, continuing thismethod of wrapping the laths until the lower end is reached, and thenfastening the webbing as indicated by the dotted lines which representthe tacks. This self-contained hinge is then fixed to the edges of thescreen by boring suitable holes through the laths and using countersunkscrews. This is a cheap and efficient method of overcoming thedifficulty. A similar method is used for the household clothes horse. 

[Illustration: Fig. 245. --Finger Joint Hinge. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 246. --The Knuckle Joint Hinge. ]

FINGER JOINT HINGE. --Fig. 245 is a finger joint--a movable interlockingjoint used to support the leaf of a Pembroke table. The small portion isscrewed to the table rail and the shaped bracket swings out to supportthe drop leaf. The shaded portion of the bracket shows the timberchamfered away so that the fingers may be easily put behind the bracketto manipulate it. Note that the corners are slightly rounded off, asindicated by the black portion of the sketch, and that the mortises arecut about 1/4 in. Deeper than the thickness of the timber used. Thisjoint has now been almost superseded by a cheap stamped galvanised ironbracket of exactly the same pattern. The joint, however, is still usedfor repair work and in cases where a stamped metal bracket has notsufficient overhang. 

[Illustration: Fig. 247. --Open Joint Hingeing. ]

KNUCKLE JOINT HINGE. --Fig. 246 is a similar type of joint to the above, and is called the knuckle joint. This arrangement of hingeing allows thetable leg to swing in an angle of 180 degrees and is much neater in itsappearance. It is often used to connect a movable table leg to theframing, where it is necessary for the table leg and rail to swingoutwards and support a drop leaf. The pivot is formed by a piece of1/8-in. Or 1/4-in. Round iron rod running through the centre of thejoint. 

[Illustration: Fig. 248. --Clearing the Architrave Mould. ]

OPEN JOINT HINGEING. --The next three illustrations apply moreparticularly to the hanging of the ordinary household door. 

Fig. 247 is termed "open joint hanging, " from the fact that when the dooris open a certain amount of open space exists between the edge of thedoor and the doorpost. This open space varies according to the positionin which the butt hinge is fixed. A section is shown at which the pin ofthe hinge is let in level with the face of the door. This will allow thedoor to open as shown by the dotted line, and it will not clear thearchitrave moulding. 

[Illustration: Fig. 249. --Close Joint Hingeing. ]

Fig. 248 indicates the position of the hinge fixed so as to allow thedoor to open and lay flat back to the architrave moulding. In thisinstance the butts are made with wider wings, and they are generallyprovided to take three screws (see Fig. 233, right-hand wing of hinge). 

To determine the position of the centre pin of the hinge the followingrule is observed. The centre of the pivot pin of the hinge must be _halfthe distance_ between the face of the door, when closed, and the outsideof the architrave moulding. 

CLOSE JOINT HANGING. --The method known as "close joint hanging" ensuresthe joint at the hanging stile being in close proximity to the hangingrail; this is shown at Fig. 249. The first member of the architravemoulding is generally a bead of the same diameter as the knuckle of thehinge. The butt hinge is let in as shown in the illustration, and thedoor when opened forms a close-fitting joint. 

[Illustration: Fig. 250. --Rule Joint Hinge, with Leaf Open. ]

THE RULE JOINT HINGE is used to connect the top and the drop leaf of atable in cases where continuity of design is desired, so that the edge ofthe top and the leaf will show an ovolo moulding when the table is eitheropen or closed. To the inexperienced worker it presents severaldifficulties and, if it is a first effort, it is advisable to try out asample joint on a couple of odd pieces of timber. 

Fig. 250 illustrates the joint when the leaf is opened or in a horizontalposition. At Fig. 252 we have the joint when the leaf is let down to avertical position. It should be observed in the latter figure that theedge A of the drop leaf is in alignment with the axis of the hinge. Steelor brass back-flap hinges (Fig. 233) are generally used and they are sunkinto the table as suggested. 

Set out the work full size as at Fig. 251, and mark point 1, which is tobe the position of the joint. Draw 1, 2, at right angles to the tabletop. Mark point 3 on the vertical line for the centre of the hinge, andmark point 4 approximately as shown. 

[Illustration: Fig. 251. --Setting Out for Rule Joint Hinge. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 252. --The Rule Joint with Leaf Down. ]

With compass point on 3 and radius 3 to 4, describe an arc 4 to 5. Thisgives us the true joint line (1, 4, 5). The distance 0 to 3 is usuallydetermined by the hinge. The knuckle of the back flap hinge is always letinto the under side of the wood and the further it is inserted into thewood the more the joint will overlap at A (Fig. 252) which shows thejoint when the flap or leaf is down. 

SHUTTING JOINTS

This chapter deals with the joint made by the upright rail of a doorframe which carries the lock, or handle, generally called the "slammingstile. " Many and varied are the methods used to make a draught andair-tight joint at the meeting of the slamming stile and the carcase end, and our sketches illustrate some of the simplest and also some of thebest and most expensive methods. 

[Illustration: Fig. 253. --Shutting Stile of Cupboard Door. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 254. --Showing Cupboard End Thicknessed (see B). ]

[Illustration: Fig. 255. --Dust-proof Cupboard Door. ]

Fig. 253 is a part plan of the end of a simple cupboard of which thecarcase end is all of one thickness (_i. E. _, not lined up in thickness). A small strip of wood (A) is glued and screwed on the end to form a stopto the door and to prevent the access of dust to the interior of thecupboard. 

Fig. 254 illustrates a similar method; the stop (C) is seen, as in theprevious illustration, but it will be noticed also that the carcase endin this case is lined up (see B) to give a pilaster-like appearance tothe end, and the moulding is selected on account of its suitability tohide the joint of the lining piece. 

Fig. 255 is of a more intricate type, and is often used on jewellers'showcases. The end at the right hand is slightly rebated to receive theframe, and both the rail and the end are grooved with a plough plane. Aseparate bead is made and glued into the groove of the door frame (D), engaging the groove in the carcase end when the door is closed. Theshutting stile and the end are worked with a hook joint (E), and ifcarefully made they are practically dust-tight. 

[Illustration: Fig. 256. --Meeting Stiles with rebated Astragal. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 257. --Door Rebated for Astragal. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 258. --Door with Brass Astragal. ]

Fig. 256 shows the meeting of two doors which open outwards, a separatepiece of timber being made to form a rebated astragal mould (F) and gluedto the right-hand door. This method gives a neat and effective finish. 

Fig. 257 is similar to the above, with the exception that the rail of thedoor is rebated (G) to receive the astragal moulding. This method ispreferred on the best class of work, because it shows no unsightly jointat the inside of the door frame. 

Fig. 258 illustrates the type of joint made by using a brass astragalmould (H) as employed on high-class work, frequently seen on Frenchfurniture of the Louis periods. In Fig. 259 is shown a piece of brassastragal moulding, which may be procured from any cabinetmaker'sironmonger in suitable lengths. It is fixed in position by slightlyrebating the edge of the door and fastening with ordinary countersunkbrass screws. 

[Illustration: Fig. 259. --Brass Astragal. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 260. --Curved Cupboard Doors with Rebated MeetingJoint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 261. --Rebated Meeting Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 262. --Meeting Joint with applied Astragal. ]

Fig. 260 is a rebated joint, broken at the front by a bead moulding. Theillustration shows its application to a circular-fronted cupboard, and itwill be noticed that the hinged rails are received in a rebate which isworked on the carcase ends. The rebated joint at the centre of the twodoors is worked slightly on the bevel, so as to allow for clearance whenopening the door. 

Two of the commonest meeting joints of doors are seen in Figs. 261 and262. In the former case the stiles are rebated (as already shown in Fig. 260), whilst at Fig. 262 an astragal bead is glued to the right-handstile. In Fig. 261 a bead is worked on the right-hand stile to mask thejoint. 

Fig. 263 is the hook joint used on good-class joinery and cabinet work. Apair of special wood planes are required to make the joint in a cheap andefficient manner. The cost of a pair of 5/8-in. Hook joint planes is from6_s. _ to 8_s. _ They are of similar size and general appearance to theordinary ovolo moulding plane. 

[Illustration: Fig. 263. --The Hook Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 264. --Hook Joint with loose Tongues. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 265. --Rebated Joint with Tongue Slip. ]

Fig. 264 is a special type of hook joint as used on larger work. Thejoint may be made by using the plough plane, the rebate plane and asuitably-sized bead plane, the loose tongues being inserted as shown andfastened by screws and glue. 

Fig. 265 is a rebated joint with loose tongue-slip and astragal mould, suitable for frames over 1-1/4 in. In thickness. The loose tongue-slipis glued into the right-hand door frame. 

Fig. 266 shows a shutting joint used to prevent permeation of dust to theinterior of a drawer. The drawer front is grooved and engages asuitably-formed slip which is screwed to the bearer as indicated in theillustration. Occasionally some difficulty is experienced when fittingthe slip to a narrow drawer, but this can always be overcome by puttingin the screws from the top of the bearer instead of from underneath. 

[Illustration: Fig. 266. --Dust-proof Drawer, showing the Front grooved toengage a Slip which is screwed to the Bearer Rail. ]

Shutting joints which are required to be "light-tight, " such as thoseused in photographic work, are generally formed by slightly grooving theframe and inserting a strip of black velvet. The friction of the highpile of the velvet prevents the filtration of light through the joint. 

When making air-tight showcases, one of the best and simplest tests is toplace a lighted candle in the case and close all the doors; if the candlegoes out within three minutes you have accomplished your object. 

THE DOVETAIL JOINT

Nothing definite is known as to the origin of dovetailing, but a quaintand pleasing little story which is well worth repeating runs as follows:A farmer had called in the local "joyner" to do sundry repairs at thehomestead. One day, whilst enjoying a humble meal, he sat watching somedoves as they hopped about the yard. Struck by the movement of theirwedge-shaped tails, it occurred to him to joint his timber by theinterlocking method; hence we have _dovetails_. 

[Illustration: Fig. 267. --A Single Through Dovetail. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 268. --Through Dovetails on Carcase Work (P, Pins; T, Tails). ]

THROUGH DOVETAILING. --One of the simplest forms of the dovetail joint isshown in Fig. 267, where two pieces of timber are joined by the methodknown as "through" dovetailing. This method is used in everyday practicefor joining the corners of frames, bracket trusses, and a hundred and oneother articles. 

Figs. 268 and 269 show the method of through dovetailing as applied tothe making of boxes, plinths, and general carcase work; it is used inpositions where no objection can be taken to the end grain showing oneach side of the finished work. In the case of plinths and furniturecornices the foundation frame is made of yellow pine or other cheap wood, and the more expensive and rare timbers are glued and mitred around invarious thicknesses and shapes, thus saving the more costly material andstrengthening the construction by the method known as laminating. In manycases all that is necessary is to veneer the face sides, thus coveringand hiding any unsightliness. 

[Illustration: Fig. 269. --Dovetails for Boxes, etc. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 270. --Lap-dovetailing for Drawers. ]

LAP-DOVETAILING. --Fig. 270 is an example of lap-dovetailing, such as isused where a drawer side joins with the drawer front. It is notpermissible to allow the end grain of the timber to show at the front ofa drawer, and this is why resort is had to the lap-dovetail. As the mostgeneral use of the dovetail is for this and similar purposes, we shalltherefore deal fully with the methods of marking out and the making ofthis class of joint. 

ANGLES. --A most important point in the construction of a dovetail is toavoid having the angles of the pins and tails too acute. An inclinationof one in eight is considered correct; no hard and fast rule need beobeyed, but the variation should on no account be less than one in six. 

[Illustration: Fig. 271. --How to obtain Correct Angles for DovetailTemplate. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 272. --Squaring and use of Template. ]

Fig. 271 shows a simple method to obtain the correct angle. Take a pieceof timber and plane up the face edge (A, B) true and straight; mark out aline (C, D) at right angles to the face edge and space off 8 ins. Asshown; now measure a distance of 1 in. (D, E), and join E to point eight. This will give the correct angle for the dovetails, and it may then betransferred to the joiners' bevel. Many workers who are constantly ondovetail work make a zinc template to the exact angle and keep itspecially for the purpose (Fig. 272). 

SQUARING. --Another important point to remember is that the drawer sidesmust be true and squared to an exact length and planed up to thickness;otherwise the finished drawer will be in winding and out of truth. 

To true and square the ends of drawer sides, drawer backs and drawerfront, a most useful little machine is the mitre trimmer; failing this, excellent results can be obtained by using the shooting board. 

[Illustration: Fig. 273. --Method of Marking with Cutting Gauge. ]

GAUGING. --After squaring up the timber accurate gauging of the ends isanother important point. The gauge used should be a cutting gauge, sothat the line is incised about 1/32 in. In depth, thus effectuallycutting the cross fibres of the timber. 

Fig. 273 shows the method of using the cutting gauge. The stock of thegauge must be held well up to the end of the timber. The gauge is a mostdifficult tool for the novice to use, and his trouble is generally causedby holding it too flat. Tilt the gauge a little so that the thumbscrewshown in the illustration goes nearer to the floor; the blade will thennot bite so keenly, and better results will be obtained. The dotted linesindicate the positions which the dovetails will occupy when marked out. 

The gauge is set a trifle less than the thickness of the drawer sides toallow for the thickness of the steel cutter, and a gauge line is markedon the inside of the front and all round the drawer back. The gauge isnow readjusted so as to leave a 1/4-in. Lap on the front, and a linemarked on the ends of the front and all round the ends of the sides whichwill engage the drawer front. A glance at Figs. 270 and 273 will makethis clear. 

[Illustration: Fig. 274. --Removing the Waste Wood. ]

The dovetail pins on drawer part and back are spaced out and marked onthe end with the aid of the joiners' bevel, the lines being then squareddown to the gauge line by the method shown at Fig. 272--that is, byusing the try-square and marking awl. 

The drawer front is now put into the bench vice, and the pins are cut asindicated in Fig. 274. The drawer back is treated in a similar manner, but of course in this case it is not "lap" but "through" dovetailing, andthe saw kerf goes through the timber and down to the gauge line. 

[Illustration: Fig. 275. --Cutting away the Half Dovetails. ]

We now come to the point where it is necessary to remove the superfluousmaterial. Fig. 274 shows a method commonly adopted and known as sawingout the waste; the saw is held at an angle and part of the inside portionof the dovetail is cut away as shown. This is a good plan for theamateur, because it shows him at the commencement of his chopping outwhich will be the pin and which the tail. 

[Illustration: Fig. 276. --Showing the Vertical and Horizontal ChiselOperations in Lap-dovetailing. A: The Preliminary Roughing-out. B:Vertical Chiselling; note that the first stab should be just outside theGauge Line. C: Marking the Horizontal Cut. ]

Fig. 276 (A) shows another method that answers well for soft woods suchas pine, American whitewood and satin walnut. The drawer front is laidflat on the bench after it has been sawn, and with a mallet and sharpchisel the corner of the dovetail is knocked off as shown. This takes thebulk of the material away and the dovetail is then pared out square inthe usual way. The illustration (Fig. 276) also shows how the chisel isheld for vertical paring (B) and for horizontal paring (C). 

[Illustration: Fig. 277. --Roughing-out by Boring. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 278. --Marking Pins on Drawer Side. ]

A third method is shown at Fig. 277. With hard, curly timbers, such astobacco mahogany and satinwood, it is a laborious process to carefullychop away the timber in small pieces, and to overcome this difficulty weoccasionally see the workman take a twist-bit and bore a series of holesas shown. A great portion of the timber may then be split away byinserting the chisel end-way into the grain, after which it is pared to afinish. 

As dovetailing is chiefly used for drawer making, it will be of interestto give several illustrations of variations of the joint and its uses. 

Fig. 278 indicates the method of marking the position of the holes inthe drawer side. When the paring out of the dovetails is completed thedrawer front is turned over on to the side as shown, and the position ofthe recesses which will engage the pin portions are marked with themarking awl as illustrated. 

[Illustration: Fig. 279. --Marking by means of Saw Blade. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 280. --Gauge Lines, Scores and Saw Cuts. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 281. --Sawing the Drawer Side. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 282. --Position of Chisel for Cutting Channel. ]

The completed drawer back is marked on the sides in an exactly similarmanner. 

Another method of marking through dovetails is shown at Fig 279. The sideis held in position on the end, and the dovetail saw is inserted anddrawn out of the saw kerf, thus leaving the exact mark on thedrawer-back. 

Other workers prefer a pounce-bag instead of a saw. A pounce-bag consistsof a piece of fairly open woven muslin filled with a mixture of Frenchchalk and finely-powdered whiting; the muslin is tied up with a piece ofthin twine like the mouth of a flour sack. All that is necessary is toplace the timber in position and bang the bag on the top of the saw-cuts, when sufficient powder will pass through the bag and down the saw kerf tomark the exact positions of the lines. 

SAWING THE DOVETAILS. --After marking out the pins on the drawer sides, weproceed with the next operation, that is, sawing the dovetails ready forchopping out the waste material. The drawer side is taken and firmlysecured in the bench screw and sawn as at Fig. 281; it is most importantthat the saw kerf is kept _inside_ the line which has been scratched bythe marking awl. See Fig. 280, where the dotted line represents the gaugeline and the outside lines indicate the scores of the marking awl. Failure to observe this condition will result in faulty dovetailing, andit will also prove the necessity for using a finely-toothed andthin-bladed dovetail saw. 

To cut out the waste wood (or core), the usual procedure is to saw awaythe half-dovetails as at Fig. 275. With care, this can be accomplishedwith the dovetail saw, thus avoiding unnecessary labour and the use ofthe paring chisel. 

After sawing, the drawer side is placed flat upon the bench, one end incontact with the bench to prevent the drawer side from slipping away; achisel (preferably bevelled edged) of suitable width is now taken and asmall channel is cut as at A, Fig. 282. The method of cutting thischannel is shown in the same illustration. The chisel-cut is startedabout 1/8 in. From the gauge line; the cut is made right up to the gaugeline, which (when gauging) was made 1/32 in. Deep so as to cut the crossfibres of the timber. A small piece of waste wood will therefore comeaway as at A. 

The object of cutting this small channel is so that, when the chisel isheld vertically on the gauge line and struck with the mallet, the chiselwill have no tendency to force its way backward and overshoot the gaugeline. The waste or core is now removed by holding the chiselapproximately vertical and applying sufficient power to drive it half-waythrough the timber. The drawer side is now turned over, the operationrepeated, and the core pushed out. Care must be exercised whilst cuttingaway the core to ensure the chisel being held nearly perpendicular; iftoo much lead (or bevel) be given, a faulty and undercut dovetail will bethe result. Undercut dovetails prevent a proper grip of the glue; theygive a weak joint, and often cause the face of the drawer side to besplintered whilst driving up the joint. If it be necessary to ease one ortwo shavings from off the drawer side whilst fitting the completed drawerin the carcase, the joint will show a greater gap as each succeedingshaving is removed. 

In common work, especially in soft timbers, many workers allow the pinsof a drawer back to run through the sides about 1/16 in. And hammer downthe pins of the dovetail. This is called "bishoping the dovetails, " andis unnecessary if the work be properly made and fitted. 

An alternative method of dovetailing is that of cutting the dovetailsfirst, as shown at Fig. 283. Four or six drawer sides are placed in thevice and the dovetails are sawn at one operation. A little lead (orbevel) from front to back is given whilst sawing, and if this method beused care must be taken to see that the parts of the drawer sides whichwill be on the inside of the completed drawer are towards the worker, orthe lead will be given to the dovetails in the wrong direction. 

[Illustration: Fig. 283. --Cutting several Dovetails at once. ]

After sawing the dovetails in this manner the sides are placed in theirrespective positions on the drawer fronts or backs, and marked with apounce-bag or by using the saw-blade method. The pins are then cut in theusual way, care being taken that the saw kerf be on the outside of themarks, otherwise the pins will finish too slack to engage with the tails. 

FRAME DOVETAILS. --Fig. 284 is a sketch of a constructional frame such asis used for building up a cornice or plinth. At the joint marked A anedge barefaced dovetail is shown. From the separated sketches of thejoint (B) it will be seen that the dovetail can be put together eitherfrom the top or the bottom of the framing as all its edges are parallel;glue is relied upon to hold it in position. The centre stretcher rail atFig. 284 is similar, except that in this case it is a complete dovetailin place of a barefaced one. 

[Illustration: Fig. 284. --Constructional Frame (as for Plinth or Cornice)showing application of the Dovetail Joint. ]

Some workers, when making either of the above joints, prefer to give aslight bevel to the dovetail, so that it drives tightly into the housingwhen put together. 

A variation of this type of dovetail is frequently used to joint internaluprights to the horizontal shelves of writing desks, cabinets, andbookcases, etc. The dovetailed portion is parallel for aboutthree-fourths of its width; the remaining part is tapered towards thefront edge and notched away at the face so as to conceal the method ofconstruction. An illustration of the top portion of a division 14 ins. Wide is shown at Fig. 284, C. The other portion is of course dovetailedto fit it. 

BLIND LAP-DOVETAILING. --At Fig. 285 is shown a type of blindlap-dovetailing. This makes a good, sound joint, but it has thedisadvantage of showing a small portion of the timber of the front railend-way of the grain. Joints of this kind are used for cornices, boxes, etc. , and also for painted furniture. 

[Illustration: Fig. 285. --Blind Lap-Dovetailing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 286. --Housed and Mitred Dovetail. ]

HOUSED AND MITRED DOVETAIL. --Fig. 286 is another form ofdovetail--commonly called a housed and mitred or rebated and mitreddovetail. In this instance we see that a small portion is mitred at topand bottom edges, and when used in plinth or cornice work, or for makingtea-caddies, etc. , the edges are (when completing the work) coveredeither with the moulding, which is planted on the cornice or plinth, orwith the top and bottom of the box or tea-caddy. 

The method of making a housed and mitred dovetail joint is seen in Fig. 286. The ends to be joined are planed up true and square and thenrebated as shown. The dotted lines indicate the portion which has beenworked away. The dovetails are now sawn and pared out in the usual wayand the part denoted by the arrow is afterwards cut away with a chiseland finally finished to a smooth surface with a rebate plane; the methodof working is shown at Fig. 287, where the dovetail pins are seen withthe waste portions cut away. 

[Illustration: Fig. 287. --Working a Housed and Mitred Dovetail Joint. ]

Fig. 287 also shows the method of cutting away the mitred part. Atemporary piece of wood is planed to a true mitre and placed underneaththe dovetailed piece to form a template. Both pieces of the timber arenow secured to the bench with a handscrew or cramp; the template A willform a guide for the chisel and rebate plane and allow a sharp edge orarris to be worked on the mitre. 

A SECRET MITRED DOVETAIL joint is illustrated at Fig. 288; it is used inall the better class of cabinet and box work. Fig. 288 shows the piecesseparated; note the mitre at the top and bottom edge. 

[Illustration: Fig. 288. --Secret Mitre Dovetailing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 289. --Dovetailed Keys for Wide Surfaces. ]

DOVETAIL KEYING. --Fig. 289 is a method used to prevent wide boards suchas signboards, wide and shaped pediments, etc. , from casting or warping. It is called dovetail keying. Beyond calling attention to the fact thatthe angles at the edges of the keys, where they are bevelled, should beat or about 75 degrees, nothing further need be said, as the drawing isself-explanatory. Angle dovetail keying is shown at Figs. 290 and 291. 

[Illustration: Fig. 290. --Dovetail Key. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 291. --Dovetail Keying on the Angle. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 292. --Bow-fronted Door Dovetailed Edgeways. ]

OTHER VARIETIES. --At Fig. 292 we have an everyday method of jointingcircular-fronted cabinet door frames. Great care must be taken in settingout and making, or a twisted frame will result. 

Then at Fig. 293 are shown two familiar examples of dovetailing thebearer to the carcase end of a dressing table or washstand. 

Fig. 294. --Lap-dovetailing the top of a wardrobe to the carcase end. Other examples, such as the top of a bookcase to the sides, will suggestthemselves. 

Fig. 295. --Side view of a jewel drawer with a moulded drawer front asused on dressing tables, etc. This shows the necessity of bevelleddovetailing in order that the drawer front may be kept as thin and lightas possible. 

[Illustration: Fig. 293. --Carcase Work, showing Bearer Rails Dovetailed. ]

Fig. 296. --Bevelled dovetailing when pins are at right angles to the endcut. 

Fig. 297. --Bevelled dovetailing when the centre line of the pins isparallel to the edges of the work, used for making "hoppers, " foodtroughs, knife boxes, etc. One corner of the box shows the jointseparated. 

[Illustration: Fig. 294. --Lap-Dovetailing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 295. --Jewel Drawer Side. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 296. --Bevelled Dovetailing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 297. --Bevelled and Dovetailed Box, showing theJointing of One Corner Separated. ]

Fig. 298. --An example of oblique dovetailing, as used on "hoppers" whenone piece is vertical and the other piece is inclined. 

Fig. 299. --Method of dovetailing small boxes. The box is dovetailed inone width and the top and bottom glued on; the sides and ends are thencut along the dotted line, thus forming the lid. It will be noticed thata specially wide dovetail pin must be left so as to form part of the lidand part of the lower portion. 

[Illustration: Fig. 298. --Oblique Dovetailing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 299. --Dovetailing for Small Box. ]

SETTING OUT THE JOINT. --For constructing a dovetail joint at the cornerof a frame, as Fig. 300, it is necessary at the outset to trim up theends of the timber square and true. This may be accomplished by neatlysawing to the line and paring the end of the wood with a sharp chisel, or by bringing the wood to a finish with a finely-set plane, such as aniron-faced smoothing plane. The ends of the wood must be perfectly squarewhen tested from either the face side or from the marked edge. 

[Illustration: Fig. 300. --Corner Dovetail. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 301. --Squaring. ]

Take a cutting gauge and set it to equal the thickness of the timber, and, holding it as already shown at Fig. 273, strike the gauge lines onthe wood as illustrated at Fig. 302, G. Proceed to mark out the dovetailpins, as at Fig. 303; in this illustration G again shows the gauge line. The inclination of the lines across the end of the wood should not be toogreat, or the joint will be a weak one, and the edges of the dovetailswill be liable to crumble away when the work is knocked together. 

DOVETAILING TEMPLATE. --Many workers who are constantly engaged upondovetail joints make a small wooden template, as shown at Fig. 304. Thistemplate is generally of hardwood, such as beech or walnut. The method ofobtaining the correct angles of such a template has already been given onp. 134. Notice that the lines _bb_ (Fig. 303) of the dovetail pins do_not_ bevel; they are parallel to the sides of the wood and at rightangles to the end of the wood as shown. 

[Illustration: Fig. 302. --Gauging. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 303. --Marking the Pins. ]

CHISEL WORK. --After marking out, as shown at Fig. 303, place the wood onthe bench and proceed to chop away the centre portion in the followingmanner. Hold the chisel on the bevel and cut out a small piece to form achannel at the gauge line. Now hold the chisel in a vertical position, and with a mallet strike it so as to make a cut about 1/8 in. Deep. Thenhold the chisel on the bevel again and cut away more waste wood; proceedalternately, first forcing the chisel down vertically, and then paringthe wood away with the chisel held obliquely, until you have cuthalf-way through the thickness of the wood. 

[Illustration: Fig. 304. --Hand-made Template for Marking Dovetails. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 305. --Testing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 306. --The Marked Piece. ]

Turn the wood over and repeat the various operations until the core, orwaste piece, is removed. Pare away any little irregularities which may beleft in the corners with an 1/8-in. Chisel, thus leaving all smooth andneat. Lay the piece of wood which is to have the dovetail marked on itflat upon the bench, and take the piece with the dovetail pins cut uponit and place in the position shown at Fig. 305. 

SAW WORK. --Take a marking awl, or a knitting needle which has had its endsharpened, and mark the lines of the dovetail in a similar manner to thatshown at Fig. 307. Remove the piece A, Fig. 305, and the lower pieceshown at Fig. 305 will clearly show the marks _aa_ as they appear in Fig. 306. Place the piece (Fig. 306) in the vice, and saw _outside_ the linesAA, as shown in Fig. 308. 

[Illustration: Fig. 307. --Marking Dovetails with Marking Awl. ]

After sawing down the lines AA, Fig. 308, place the wood in the vice and, guiding the saw blade with the index finger of the left hand, cut awaythe small piece at the side (see Fig. 275). Repeat the operation as maybe necessary, and the completed joint will be similar to that shown atFig. 300. If the sawing is not neatly done it may be found necessary topare the shoulder with a sharp chisel. 

DRAWERS. --When dovetailing drawers or boxes it is necessary to square upthe ends of all the stock and gauge them, as shown at Fig. 273. Thisillustration shows how to gauge the lines on a drawer side; thedovetailed joint in this case, however, does not run through the drawerfront and leave the work unsightly, as the joint at Fig. 300 would do. The method used is shown at Fig. 309, and it is commonly known aslap-dovetailing. Most workers cut the dovetail pins on the drawer frontsand the drawer backs first, after which they mark the drawer sides withthe marking awl. The dovetailing of the drawer back is shown at Fig. 310. This is the type known as "through dovetailing, " the method being similarin regard to tool operations as the single joint shown at Fig. 300. 

[Illustration: Fig. 308. --Sawing the Dovetails. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 309. --Lap-dovetailing Drawer Front to Drawer Side. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 310. --Through Dovetailing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 311. --Chipping Waste of Lap Dovetail. ]

When the pins on the drawer front have been sawn, the waste material iscut away, as at Fig. 311. First stab down with the vertical chisel, which must make the cut about 1/32 in. In front of the gauge line (seeillustration). This commencing of the cut slightly in front of the gaugeline is a very important feature. The chisel may be likened to a wedge, and if the chisel edge be placed exactly upon the gauge line and forcebe applied to the handle, it will force the timber away equally on eachside of the gauge line, and the finished depth of the hole will thereforebe too deep for the thickness of the drawer side; in other words, it willpress itself over the gauge line on both sides. 

By taking the first vertical cut on the waste side of the gauge line, andthen removing a small piece with the chisel held obliquely, as at Fig. 311, the wood is removed and less resistance is offered to the chiselwhen the next vertical cut is made. This overshooting the gauge line is acommon fault with the beginner, who is puzzled at the result because heis certain he had his chisel exactly on the gauge line when he commencedhis vertical cut. It is especially noticeable in soft-grained woods. 

To cut away the waste of a lap-dovetail (Fig. 311), the vertical andoblique cuts are repeated until the final trimming up is required, andnow is the time to finish both the vertical and the horizontal cutsexactly on the gauge lines. 

Some workers prefer to cut the drawer sides first, and if this method ispreferred (and it has its advantages for cheap work) several drawer sidesare cut at once by placing four or six behind one another in the vice andsawing them all at one operation. 

The drawer front is placed in the vice, and the drawer side held upon it, whilst the saw blade is placed in the saw kerf and drawn smartly forward. This will give the required marks at the exact position desired. It mustbe remembered, however, to saw just inside these dovetail-pin lines, otherwise the finished joint will be too slack, owing to the removal ofthe sawdust, which is practically equal to the thickness of the sawblade. 

MACHINE-MADE DOVETAILS. --As a general rule machine-made drawer and boxdovetails show both the pins and the tails of exactly the same size. Thereason is obvious after an inspection of Fig. 314, which shows theposition in which the pieces are held during the machining operations. Inspite of a certain amount of prejudice they are satisfactory andthoroughly reliable and have their place in modern shop and officefittings. 

[Illustration: Fig. 312. --Machine-made Drawer Front and Side, Apart. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 313. --The Parts Together. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 314. --Position when Machined. ]

DOVETAIL GROOVING

The dovetail housing joint should first be carefully marked out with amarking knife, so as to cut across the fibres of the wood. For obtainingthe bevel on the edge of the wood a joiner's bevel may be used, and theangle should not be too acute. (See previous chapter. ) Take a chisel andpare away a small channel as at A, Fig. 315, to form a small shoulder toguide the saw. 

[Illustration: Fig. 315. --Paring away Channel for Dovetail Grooving. ]

With a fine tenon or dovetail saw, cut the saw kerf as at Fig. 316. Ifany difficulty is experienced in cutting the kerf true and square, youmay resort to the method shown at C, Fig. 315; a small temporary piece oftimber has been screwed on the top of the work to form a guide for thesaw. 

[Illustration: Fig. 316. --Cutting the Saw Kerf. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 317. --Old Woman's Tooth Plane. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 318. --Guide Block for Bevelling. ]

Fig. 315, B, shows the small channel formed by the chisel prior to thesawing operation. The sawing of the bevelled side is worked in a similarmanner; but occasionally we find amateurs who adopt the method shown atFig. 318. A block of wood (H) is first made by boring a 1-1/4-in. Holethrough its entire length, and afterwards making a saw cut at the desiredbevel. The object of this block, which is kept specially for the purpose, is to form a guide for those who have not full control of the dovetailsaw; the back of the saw clears the hole, and the required bevel isobtained. When a saw cut has been made at each side of the groove, thesurplus timber is pared away in the following manner: Cut away portion E, Fig. 319; then cut away portion F, and lastly cut away the apex portionmarked G. Continue by this method of paring until the approximate depthis reached. To ensure a correct depth throughout the entire groove, therouter plane (or, as it is often called, "the old woman's tooth plane, "Fig. 317) is used. 

[Illustration: Fig. 319. --Showing Method of Paring. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 320. --Channelling the Alternate Piece. ]

With regard to cutting the alternate piece, it is necessary to firstplane the end of the shelf true and square. With a cutting gauge strikethe line K, Fig. 320; the required bevel on the edge (J) is then set out, and with the chisel a small channel is again formed. With the tenon ordovetail saw cut down the line K to the required depth, and carefullypare away the wood with a sharp chisel to the correct shape. 

THE MITRED JOINT

Although mitreing is used in everyday woodwork, it comes last in our listof regular joints simply because it has been partly dealt with in almostevery previous chapter. For example, we have mitre halving in Fig. 34, amitre bridle joint in Fig. 74, a tongued and grooved mitre in Fig. 116, mitred mortise and tenon joints in Figs. 148 and 159, a dowelled mitreframe in Fig. 202, and a mitred dovetail in Fig. 286. 

[Illustration: Fig. 321. --Mitred Skirting. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 322. --Curved Mitre. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 323. --Halving the Angle. ]

MITREING. --The term mitreing is generally used to denote the type ofjoint used at the corner of a picture frame; or where two pieces of woodare bevelled away so as to fit each other, as the skirting or plinthmould at Fig. 321. In these cases the timber is cut so that the joint isat 45 degrees to the face, and the two pieces, when placed together, form an angle of 90 degrees (a right angle). 

The term mitreing, however, is not confined to the fitting of timberaround a right angle; it may be justly applied to the fitting of amoulding around an angle irrespective of the number of its degrees. 

One often hears such terms as "a half mitre, " used to denote the fittingof a moulding around an octagonal column or pedestal, and probably itwould be more correct to describe the joint as a mitre cut at 22-1/2degrees. Mitreing consists of halving the angle and making each piece tofit the line of bisection. Should the angle be bounded by straight lines, as at Fig. 321, then the mitred joint will be a straight line, but shouldthe angle be bounded by a curved and a straight line, as at Fig. 322, A, or by two curved lines, then the mitred joint will have to be a curvedline if the mouldings are to be of the same section. 

[Illustration: Fig. 324. --Sawing Block for Mitreing. ]

FINDING THE ANGLE. --For straight mitres, the mitre joint line is found bybisecting the angle, as shown in the various examples, and the followinginstructions are given to enable the reader to follow the diagram (Fig. 323). Take a pair of compasses, or dividers, and with any convenientopening strike out the arc A, B. Put the point of the compasses on A, andmark another arc C; then, without altering the distance between thepoints of the compass, put the point on B, and mark the arc D. Draw theline E from the corner, so that it cuts through the intersection made bythe arcs C and D. The angle A B is now halved by the line E, and thismethod may be applied to any angle. 

SAWING BLOCK. --For sawing mouldings, etc. , to their approximate shape, ahome-made sawing block is generally used, as shown at Fig. 324. Twopieces of wood are glued one on the top of the other, the required angleis transferred thereto, and the saw kerf made. In the sketch the sawkerfs are shown at 45 degrees, right and left, and other angles and kerfsmay be made where desired. 

PLANING. --After sawing the piece to approximately the correct angle, itis necessary on high-class work to plane the cut end so as to give aperfect finish and enable a glued joint to be made. This may beaccomplished by using the plane on the shooting board, as shown at Fig. 325, and, if the worker is constantly using mitres of various angles, itis an easy matter to make new angle blocks and fix them on to the board. Other workers prefer the screw mitre trap shown at Fig. 326. Thisapparatus takes wide plinth or cornice moulds, and the angle may bealtered by fitting temporary packing pieces under the work so as to tiltthe moulding to the desired angle. The method of using the plane isindicated in the illustration. 

Another method in everyday use by those workers who are constantlymitreing wide pieces of stock at 45 degrees is the "donkey's ear"shooting board illustrated at Fig. 327. The plane is laid on its side onthe surface of the board marked A, and used in a similar manner to thatshown at Fig. 325. 

[Illustration: Fig. 325. --Use of Plane and Shooting Board for Mitreing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 326. --The Screw Mitre Trap. ]

A simple method and one that should always be remembered because it ishandy when working without a shooting board is shown at Fig. 328. Set themarking or cutting gauge to the thickness of the wood to be mitred at 45degrees; then gauge this distance on the wood, as shown at B; draw fromthe line to the edge, as shown, and saw and plane to a finish. Thediagonals of a square give 45 degrees, and this is the method used tomark out the work. The end of the wood must, of course, be square withits edges before marking out in this manner. 

[Illustration: Fig. 327. --"Donkey's Ear" Shooting Board. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 328. --Gauging for Mitres. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 329. --Narrow Inner Moulding. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 330. --Wide Mitred Moulding. ]

Fig. 329 shows a bevelled framing into which has been mitred a narrowmoulding M so as to show a correct margin around the panel. 

[Illustration: Fig. 331. --Door with Curved Mitres. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 332. --Method of Setting out for a Curved Mitre. ]

Fig. 330 shows a similar framing, but with a wide moulding M mitredaround it. To obtain a correct intersection of this moulding, the anglesA and B are bisected. The bisection of the angles meets before the widthof the moulding is cleared, therefore the angle C will again have to bebisected, and the finished joint will appear as shown. One of thesimplest of mouldings with a large flat face has been chosen toillustrate this. The moulding could be all in one width, as shown, or itcould be built into the framing in separate pieces, the wide flat and thepiece carrying the mould. 

CURVED MITRES. --We now come to what are probably the most difficult ofall mitres, viz. , curved mitres, and the writer well remembers in hisapprenticeship days his first experience of attempting to fit themouldings around the door shown at Fig. 331 by using straight mitres atA. This, of course, is impossible if the mouldings are of the samesection and it is desired to make all the members correctly intersect. Ifstraight mitres are used the section of the curved moulding will have tobe of a different shape from the section of the straight moulding, and inthese days of machine-made mouldings this method is seldom resorted to. It is better, cheaper, and easier to make curved mitres when thenecessary machinery is at hand. 

TO SET OUT A CURVED MITRE (see Fig. 332). --Draw a section of the mouldingfull size, A, as shown at the left hand of the illustration, and projectlines round the framing, as shown V, W, X, Y and Z. Where the lines V, W, X, Y and Z intersect at the corner D, it clearly shows that a straightmitre will not cut all the points of intersection. A curved line will cutall the intersections, and a template made of cardboard, sheet zinc, orveneer, should be made to this shape. At the left-hand side thegeometrical setting out is shown for obtaining the curve without havingto resort to drawing it freehand. 

Take half the width of the moulding, as shown by dotted line A, and whereit cuts the approximation of the curved mitre place the point of thecompasses and strike out a circle as shown; with the same radius placethe compass point on B--that is, the inside point of the mitre, and cutthe circle on the right and left with the small arcs shown at _aa_. Withthe same radius put the compass point at the junction of the circle andmitre line, C V, and cut the circle at right and left, viz. , _ee_. 

[Illustration: Fig. 333. --Template for Mitreing. ]

Now rule a line through _aa_, and another line through _ee_, and wherethese lines cut each other it will give the correct radius of the curvedmitre. The advantage of knowing the correct radius of a curved mitre isof great benefit to the skilled machinist, as it enables him to set uphis machine so as to give a definite result. 

MITREING A MOULDED DOOR FRAME. --Fig. 333 illustrates the method ofmitreing the moulded portion of a door frame where the joint is dowelled, not tenoned. A small wooden template is made out of beech or otherhardwood, having its ends cut at 45 degrees. This template is placed onthe rail, as shown, and held in position by placing both the rail and thetemplate in the vice. The face of the template forms a guide for a widechisel, and enables the worker to gradually pare away the moulding to thecorrect angle. 

[Illustration: Fig. 334. --Using Panel Saw in Mitre Box. ]

For sawing the mitres on large mouldings such as are used on the lid of agramophone or wireless cabinet, a mitre sawing box and a panel saw may beused as indicated at Fig. 334. 

JOINTS FOR CURVED WORK

Fig. 335 shows a circular frame made up in two thicknesses, the segmentsbeing screwed to each other and the joints crossed in two layers. This isa very strong method, and it is used for making circular frames and curbsup to 15 ft. In diameter. The segments can be either long or short, theonly important condition being that they must be marked out and sawn tothe correct radius. Fig. 337 shows a board marked out in segments forthis class of work. The longer the boards the better will they cut up, asit gives more opportunities of cutting one piece out of the other as at AA. 

[Illustration: Fig. 335. --Circular Frame in Two Thicknesses. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 336. --Circular Rim in Halved Segments. ]

Fig. 338 shows how to begin to put the work together. To continue this, fit other segments in position and screw them to D and E respectively. The completed work is illustrated at Fig. 335. 

[Illustration: Fig. 337. --Board Marked for Circular Jointing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 338. --Putting Circular Work Together. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 339. , Fig. 340. Method of Building upSemicircular Head of Door Frame. ]

Fig. 336 shows a circular rim, or curb, made of segments which are halvedtogether. This method is suitable for heavy work, where the timbers areof considerable size. The halvings are cut on the ends of the segmentsto any convenient shape or bevel, each one being marked so as to fit itsfellow. 

[Illustration: Fig. 341. --Part of Laminated Table Frame. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 342. --Half of Laminated Core Box. ]

When extra length is required, semicircular or circular work is built upout of four or five thicknesses of wood, and the method is calledlaminating. The method of building up the semicircular head of a doorframe by this method is shown at Figs. 339 and 340. 

The shaped framing for kidney-shaped writing tables and similar classesof work is built up by laminating pieces of 3/4-in. Or 1-in. Wood, afterwhich the face side is veneered so as to hide the glued joints. Fig. 341shows a sketch of one quarter of an elliptical table frame levelled upand ready for applying the veneer. 

LAMINATION. --If we apply to the dictionary for the word "lamination, " wefind that lamellar structure is the arrangements in thin plates or layersone over the other, usually having the end joints alternating, and it isa condition which allows of cleavage in one direction only. This methodis used for nearly all descriptions of free or irregular curves, such assweeps, bends, ogee shapes, and segments of circles. The timber is markedout in suitable lengths, rough-sawn and then planed true on the face, glued together, and when set the sides are cleaned up to the requiredshape. It is one of the strongest methods of construction, andnecessarily costly. Pulleys, pulley rims, and a hundred and one otherjobs are built by this method. 

Fig. 342 shows one half of a core box built by this method, ready to beworked to the required shape. 

MISCELLANEOUS JOINTS

Weather boards. --For outdoor buildings, such as garages, garden sheds, toolhouses, etc. , "weatherboarding" is often preferred to ordinarymatchboarding, chiefly because of the facility with which it throws offthe rain. The boarding can be bought ready prepared. Three methods ofjointing are shown in the sections at Fig. 343. The method indicated at Ashows one of the most satisfactory types, its boards being planed andmoulded as shown. The other two examples are more common. The boarding atB is rebated, whilst at C each board overhangs its lower neighbour. Theboards for C and D are always cut tapered as indicated. 

[Illustration: Fig. 343. --Weather Boards. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 344. --Ladder Rungs. ]

The end grain is usually protected by nailing on a strip of timber, chamfered on both edges. 

LADDERS. --Fig. 344 illustrates the method of fastening the rung (orstave) of a ladder to the side. At A the common method is shown, thestave being simply driven into the hole and wedged. At B a much betterbut more expensive method of construction is given. The stave here issocketed and the pin turned to a smaller diameter. In both cases therung, or stave, is painted before being driven into the side and wedged. 

[Illustration: Fig. 345. --Cornice Pole Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 346. --Veneer Keying. ]

Ladder sides are made in two distinct ways. One method is known as "aplank side, " the side being cut from a plank as shown at the section D;the other method is called "a pole side, " and is constructed by cutting astraight larch pole in half and using half of the pole for each side ofthe ladder, as at section C. 

HINGED CORNICE POLES. --Fig. 345 shows a hinged joint for cornice polesand should be of interest to those who are frequently removing from houseto house. The joint will adapt itself to fit any bay window (even asquare bay) and it is formed by turning and cutting the two pieces shown. To fix a cornice pole to a bay window one of these joints is required foreach angle of the bay, the pole being cut into suitable lengths and fixedto the hinged joints by the use of the dowel screw and a little hotglue. It is perhaps needless to remark that the diameter of the jointshould be of the same diameter as the cornice pole, to enable the ringsto easily slide over the surface. 

For fastening a turned ornament (or "finial") to the end of a cornicepole a double pointed screw (known in the trade as a "dowel screw") isused, one half of which is screwed into each part of the pieces to bejoined. 

VENEER KEYING. --Fig. 346 illustrates the method of strengthening thecorners of boxes which are made of 1/4-in. Or 3/8-in. Timber, by securingthe corners with veneer keys. The box is mitred and glued in the usualmanner, and after allowing sufficient time for the glue to set, saw kerfsare made as shown at _a a_. A piece of thin saw-cut veneer is afterwardsglued into the saw kerfs, and when dry the face is levelled off flush. This method is often used previous to veneering the face side of the boxwith rare veneers, and it is also useful for repair work. Note that thesaw cuts are made at an angle. Small picture frames are sometimes keyedinstead of nailed. 

MUNTIN AND SKIRTING JOINT. --In the case of panelled rooms it is usuallynecessary to scribe the muntins (or uprights) to the skirting. The methodis shown in Fig. 347. The bead moulding of the skirting is only partlyremoved, as indicated, leaving a solid portion to which the muntin isskew-nailed. 

COT JOINT. --At Fig. 348 is shown an interesting joint used largely in themaking of Indian cots. The illustrations indicate how the cross bar andend bar are mortised into the leg. A turned hardwood peg fits into asuitably provided hole and locks the tenons, which are dry jointed (notglued) in position. The head of this peg forms an ornament (A) at thetop of the leg and should fit tightly in position. At B are seen the endand cross bars in their relative positions when apart from the leg. Cshows the end bar and cross bar when the cot is fixed, but in thisillustration the leg is purposely left out of the drawing for a clearrepresentation. D shows the joints of the leg portion when the part ofthe leg above the line at A is sawn off. The hardwood peg is shown at E. 

[Illustration: Fig. 347. --Fixing Muntin to Skirting. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 348. --Joint for Home-made Cot. ]

SIDEBOARD PILLARS, ETC. (Fig. 349). --For economy, sideboard pillars aresometimes built up as indicated, the "shaft, " the "base, " and the "swell"being made up of three distinct pieces. Turned pins are left on the shaftand the base, and these are secured at the joint by the use of adouble-pointed screw called a dowel screw. This does away with thenecessity of reducing the squares at the top of the wood and thus gettingthe turning out of a large piece of wood. 

NOTCHED JOINTS. --Fig. 350 is a "notched joint, " where two joists, orscantlings, cross each other, the object of the joint being to preventthe joists moving from their position without materially weakening them. For an end notch, see Fig. 352. 

[Illustration: Fig. 349. --Method of Building up Turnings. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 350. --Notched Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 351. --The Saddle Joint. ]

The "saddle joint" (Fig. 351) is used for connecting upright posts toheads or sills of framing, and undoubtedly takes its name from itssimilarity to the way in which the saddle fits the horse. It does notweaken the framing as does a mortise and tenon joint, and shrinkage haslittle effect upon the joint. The "cogged joint, " used for connectingpurlins to rafter and joists to girders, is illustrated in Fig. 353. 

[Illustration: Fig. 352. --End Notch. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 353. --Cogged Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 354. --Birdsmouth Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 355. --Another type of Birdsmouth Joint. ]

BIRDSMOUTH JOINTS. --Fig. 354 is a "birdsmouth joint, " a simple jointwhich can be readily made by the handsaw, used when a spar fits on thewall plate. A nail is shown securing it in position. 

Fig. 355 shows the birdsmouth joint where the spar runs over the_outside_ of the wall plate, thus allowing a fixing for an ornamentalfinish. 

[Illustration: Fig. 356. --Rafter and Tie Beam Joint. ]

RAFTER JOINT. --Fig. 356 shows an everyday joint, as used at the junctureof the principal rafter and the tie-beam in roof truss work. A sketch ofpiece A is shown separated, and it should be noted that the depth of thecut portion B should not be more than one-fourth of the total width ofthe tie-beam. 

[Illustration: Fig. 357. --Method of Pelleting the Corner of a MitredPicture Frame. ]

PELLETING. --Fig. 357 indicates the method of pelleting and screwing thecorner of a picture frame. The mitre joint is first screwed and a pelletof the same timber is made to fill the hole which has been bored toreceive the screw head. The pellet is glued in position and levelled off. 

[Illustration: Fig. 358. --Patera Covers to Hide Screws. ]

PATERA COVERS. --In cases where the style of ornament permits of it, patera covers are used instead of pelleting. Fig. 358 shows the jointingof shaped spandrails, etc. , to carcase ends of light portable cabinetwork, etc. A hole is bored about 3/8 in. Deep into the end, and a screwis used to hold the shaping in position. After fixing the rail a smallturned button, called a turned patera, is inserted in the hole, thusgiving an ornamental finish, as shown in the front view. The turnedpatera is driven fairly tightly into the hole, but not glued. When it isrequired to take the article apart a chisel is carefully inserted underthe edge of the patera to remove it, and the screw can then be taken out. This method is often used for the construction of light hanging bookcasesand similar objects. For a bookcase having an end 8 ins. Wide three ofthese turned buttons and three screws would be used to secure the shelfto the end. Pateras in different styles may be purchased from any dealerin woodworking sundries. 

BUTTONING. --The tops of tables, sideboards, etc. , should not be fixedwith screws in the ordinary way. At the front, screws can be drivenupwards through the top rail, but at the sides and back, buttons shouldbe employed, as in Fig. 359, so that the top is free to shrink. It isotherwise liable to split if immovably fixed. The tops of kitchen tablesare usually fixed in this way, to allow for shrinkage. 

[Illustration: Fig. 359. --Method of Buttoning a Table Top. ]

FRAMES FOR OIL PAINTINGS. --The method of making joints for frames onwhich the canvas is stretched for oil paintings is shown at Fig. 360. They are generally mitred at the corners and fitted with loose wedges. The four parts of the frame can be held temporarily by a piece of thinboard while the canvas is being tacked to the edges of the frame. In theaccompanying illustrations Fig. 360 shows the action of the wedges whentightening up the frame, the result being to open the mitre joint. Fig. 361 shows the position of the saw cuts for receiving the hardwood wedges. Note that the parallel groove is carried the full length of the materialfor greater convenience in cutting. The other groove is taken from theouter angle of the mitre joint inwards. The cut finishes with due regardto the necessary taper; see the dotted lines showing taper in Fig. 360. The grooves will be wide enough after being cut with an ordinary hand-ripsaw, but for large work they are usually grooved on the circular sawbench. 

[Illustration: Fig. 360. , Fig. 361. Joint and Method of Wedgingthe Frames of Oil Paintings. ]

CORRUGATED STEEL FASTENERS. --It is now many years ago since the steelsaw-edge fastener first appeared on the market, but probably 80 per cent. Of amateur woodworkers have never yet sampled its advantages. 

In appearance it resembles a miniature corrugated galvanised sheet suchas is used for roofing purposes, with the exception, however, that thecorrugations are divergent instead of being parallel and that one end isground down to a cutting edge (see Fig. 363, A). They are made in varioussizes from 1/4 in. To 1 in. In length, whilst in regard to width they areclassed by the number of corrugations and not by their measurement. 

[Illustration: Fig. 362. --Jointing Boards. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 363. --Jointing a Frame. ]

[Illustration: The Use of Saw-edge Corrugated Steel Fasteners. ]

To use the fastener no special tools are required; it is simply driven inwith a hammer exactly as though it were a nail; once in position, however, to get it out is worse than drawing teeth. The corrugations addto the strength of the device, the wood fibres closing around them, ageand rust but emphasising their grip. 

WALL PLUGS. --At Fig. 364 four types of wall plugs are shown: _a_, theordinary rectangular tapered wall plug to drive between the joints of thebrickwork; _b_, the circular tapered wall plug as used to plug a wallafter a star-shaped brick drill has been used; _d_, a twisted wall plugused for similar purposes to the wedge _a_, but considered to besuperior in holding power owing to its twisted formation; _c_ is anothertype of wall plug considered to have great tenacity by reason of itscorrugations. Wall plugs are required in nearly all cases where it isnecessary to joint woodwork to brickwork, as, for instance, heavily-framed silvered mirrors to the walls of shops. 

[Illustration: Fig. 364. --Wall Plugs, Four Varieties. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 365. --Slot Screwing. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 366. --Slot Screwing a Bracket. ]

SLOT SCREWING, OR KEYHOLE SCREWING, is a most useful way of joining lightwoodwork in such a manner that the fixing method is not exposed to theeye. A stout screw is inserted to within 3/8 in. Of the head, as at Fig. 365. In the adjoining piece a hole is bored with a centre bit and a slotis cut with an 1/8-in. Chisel. The two pieces of timber are placedtogether, and by sliding the upper piece forward the screw runs up intothe slot or keyhole and secures the joint. Fig. 366 shows the applicationof the joint fixing a shaped bracket to the shaped shelf; the bracket andshelf are inverted in the illustration to clearly show the method ofjointing. For heavy work special brass plates are obtainable for thispurpose; one plate is let flush into the upper piece and the other plateinto the lower piece. 

Battening (Fig. 367). --A good method of joining cross battens to drawingboards and other wide surfaces is shown here. After boring for thescrews, slots are cut so as to allow the screws to move along the slotswhen shrinkage takes place. In Fig. 368 a similar method is applied tosecure the drawer bottom to the drawer back. If shrinkage takes place inthe drawer bottom and it leaves the groove in the drawer front, thescrews are slackened, the drawer bottom is knocked up into the groove, and the screws again inserted. For drawing boards, etc. , specially madeelliptical-shaped slotted brass socket cups are made to receive the screwheads. 

[Illustration: Fig. 367. --Battening. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 368. --Drawer Bottom Joint. ]

PUZZLE JOINTS

Puzzle Joints are not only interesting in themselves, but are oftenexcellent studies in craftsmanship. The majority of them, if to besatisfactory as puzzles, call for very careful setting out and cutting, entailing the same degree of skill that is demanded for high-classcabinet work. For this reason several examples may well find a place in avolume dealing with woodwork joints. As a rule, these puzzles should bemade in hardwood, such as dark walnut or beech, as in whitewood thejoints are soon liable to wear. 

[Illustration: Fig. 369. --Sketch of the Completed Chinese Puzzle. ]

CHINESE PUZZLE. --The ingenious puzzle of the Chinese type shown in Fig. 369 is probably older than many of us could guess, but as it is one thatcan be made by any woodworker we give full directions as to how it may beconstructed. The complete article may be called, in form, a six-pointedpyramid. It is made up of twenty-one different pieces, each cut from wood1/2 in. Wide and 1/2 in. Thick; 3/8 in. Wood may be used if preferred. For the purpose either sycamore or white maple is the most useful. 

[Illustration: Fig. 370. , Fig. 371. , Fig. 372. The Three CrossPieces. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 373. --Key Piece. ]

The pieces required are as follows:--

Fig. 370. --Six pieces, 3-1/2 ins. Long, with a half slot cut in thecentre as shown. This slot must be exactly the width of the wood'sthickness, and cut exactly half way through, so that, if two pieces areplaced across by means of the halved joint, their surfaces will be flush. The slot must also be exactly in the centre. 

Fig. 371. --Six pieces, size 2-1/2 ins. Long, with a half-cut centre slotsimilar to that of Fig. 370. 

Fig. 372. --Six required, these being 1-1/2 ins. In length, and with slotsin the middle as before. 

Fig. 373. --One of these last six requires special treatment, as it formsthe key block of the puzzle. After its slot has been cut, one half of thenarrow part must be sawn away, as shown in Fig. 373. The inner edge mustalso be gently rounded. The special use of this vital piece, which wewill call the "key, " will be fully explained presently. 

Fig. 374. --Then, in addition to these, there are three central bars tomake. Like the other parts they are 1/2 in. By 1/2 in. , but are each4-1/2 ins. Long, and are cut as shown in Fig. 374. The end projections_a_ are 1/2 in. Long, and the cut-away part is exactly half the depth ofthe wood. Two of the three pieces (X and Y in Fig. 374) are similar, butthe slot _b_ of the third one (Z) is only 1/4 in. Wide instead of 1/2 in. As will be noticed, this 1/4-in. Slot is _not_ in the centre, butcorresponds with the right-hand half of the larger slots of X and Y. 

[Illustration: Fig. 374. --The Central Bars. ]

In making these twenty-one pieces, what should be borne in mind is thatthe different parts fit closely into each other. Consequently the slots, in width, must be cut so as to grip the thickness of the wood; in depththey must be exactly half this thickness. 

FITTING THE PUZZLE. --The three central bars must first be joined, asthose form the skeleton framework of the structure. Fig. 375 shows themin position, but as it is a puzzle in itself as to how they can be gotthus some explanation is necessary. 

[Illustration: Fig. 375. --The Three Central Bars in Position. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 376. --How to Adjust the Bars. (Note position ofprojecting ends, _a_. )]

FIRST STAGE. --First take the bars X and Y (see Fig. 374) and arrange themas shown in Fig. 376. It is most important that the projections _a_ of Xface upwards, and that the projections _a_ of Y face towards the centre. Then take the bar Z and bring it flat into the slot of X. The little slotof Z, however, must remain _above_ the slot of X. Then slide the bar Yalong to the centre, so that the part lettered _c_ slips into the littleslot of bar Z. 

This may seem confusing to read, but it is easy to follow when the piecesare in one's hand. The result of this rather clever arrangement is thatthe six arms of Fig. 375 are all exactly the same length, width, andthickness. They are also arranged so that in each arm may be clasped onepiece each of Figs. 370, 371, and 372. The three central arms may, ofcourse, be set up in a different order, and here we have merely chosenthe way that is the most simple to describe and illustrate. 

[Illustration: Fig. 377. --Beginning to place on the Cross Pieces. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 378. --Placing the Key Piece to overlap end projectionof Central Bar. ]

SECOND STAGE. --In the remaining part of the work the chief difficulty isto keep the puzzle from falling to pieces before the key finally locksit. Take the longer cross parts, Fig. 370, and clasp one to each arm. Thesix need not all be put on meanwhile, but only those which are mosteasily handled. The next size (Fig. 371) may then be put on. 

In the ordinary course each arm could be completed with its three crosspieces till the sixth was attempted, and here the reader would find that, at the last moment, his attempt was frustrated. He could not get thelast small piece in, as other bars lock the puzzle. Here it is that the"key" comes in. 

THE KEY PIECE. --When the writer fits up the puzzle he finds that three ofthe arms may straight away be fitted complete with their three crossparts. These are the ones where the longer cross piece (Fig. 370) _liesflush with the back of the central bar_ (see Fig. 377). This is easilyfound out when at work on the puzzle. In the case of the other three armsthere is, of course, a gap caused by the long slots of the central bars. Adjust the parts on the first-named three arms, and then deal with thefourth arm, putting in all three cross parts. For the little one here, use the "key. "

By placing the "key" so that it _overlaps the end projection_ of the arm(see Fig. 378) a space is left at the centre, and means is thus affordedfor getting in the three cross parts on the remaining two arms. 

This practically ends the puzzle. While the "key" is in its overlappingposition the parts may be separated, but if it is _turned round on itsnarrow neck_, so that it is in exactly the same position as the otherfive small cross parts, it locks the whole thing so tightly that nothingbut sheer force could loosen the twenty-one pieces. 

So far as the order of putting together is concerned, there are manyequally satisfactory ways, these being determined by the ease ordifficulty that one experiences in holding the half-finished puzzle. Itall comes to the same in the end, and the "key" must be placed on one barbefore the last three arms can be completed. The "key, " moreover, must beon one of the bars where a gap is left at the centre, and not on onewhere Fig. 370 lies flush against the central arm as in Fig. 377. 

UNDOING THE PUZZLE. --To take the puzzle to pieces all that is required isto turn the "key" half round and push the other two cross bars on thatarm towards the outer point. The cross bars below may then be removed, and the whole structure falls to pieces. 

THE DOUBLE DOVETAIL PUZZLE (Fig. 379) consists of two pieces of wood(usually one dark and the other light) which, upon examination, appear tobe dovetailed together from each face. This interlocking arrangement isobviously impossible, and the solution of the puzzle is only apparent onexamining Fig. 380, where it will be seen that the joint fits togetherdiagonally. 

At Fig. 381 are given the diagrams for setting out. Draw the outline ofthe elevation, plan and end view. The end view in the first instance isindicated by 3, 4, 5 and 6, and it measures 1-7/8 ins. Square. A1-7/8-ins. Square is simply used because 2-ins. Wood generally finishesthis size after it is planed up. Set out a square (A, B, C, D) whichstands corner-ways in the larger square (3, 4, 5, 6). Project the lines DA and C B upwards as at 1, and on to this drawing (1), set out thedovetail according to your own idea of length, width and bevel. Projectthe four points of your dovetail downwards into the end view, and wherethese lines cut A, B, and D, C draw them downwards and rebate them intoyour original plan. This will give the true shape of the two dovetailsand it is to this shape that you will cut your joint. 

The joint is in due course glued up, and next day you will plane andwaste off the four corners of your model. The end view shows one cornershaded D, 3, A; this and the other three corners are wasted away. Theresult is that the dovetails are thrown into a plane different from thatin which they were made, showing as Fig. 379. 

[Illustration: Fig. 379. --Double Dovetail Puzzle. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 380. --The Two Parts Separated. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 381. --Elevation, Plan and End View, showing how thePuzzle Joint may be correctly Set Out. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 382. --Dovetail Puzzle. The Finished Joint. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 383. --Sketch of Dovetail Piece. ]

(Note that dovetail is cut on slant, the thickness at front being lessthan at back. See dotted line on plan below. )

[Illustration: Fig. 384. --Plan, looking upwards. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 385A. --Front Elevation. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 385B. --Back Elevation. ]

The model calls for very accurate workmanship and the joints must not be_undercut_ during the sawing and chiselling operations. The completedmodel measures 6 to 7 ins. 

THE DOVETAIL PUZZLE joint illustrated at Fig. 382 has perhaps caused moreargument and controversy amongst woodworkers than any wooden joint. Itmay be neatly made in maple, walnut, or mahogany, and afterwards gluedup. The question everyone asks is: How was it put together?

[Illustration: Fig. 386. --Variation of the Dovetail Puzzle. ]

Take two pieces of wood such as mahogany, walnut or birch, about 6 ins. Long by 1-7/8 ins. Wide and 1-1/4 ins. Thick. Truly plane them up andthen set out and make the tenon and dovetailed piece (Fig. 383). Nextmark out and cut the cross bar to fit its corresponding piece. The jointwill go together in a somewhat diagonal direction as it is pushed intoposition from the back; when closed it will appear as at Fig. 382. Forguidance, a plan, part elevation and back elevation are added. 

An improvement after you have gained experience in the making of thisjoint is to make a similar joint, leaving the face (B, Fig. 386) blind;it then does not show the bevelling of the dovetail at the end C. Inother words, keep the line C, say, 1/4 in. Back from the face of B. Thejoint should be glued up and it will then appear to the average workerthat it is an impossible proposition. (See Fig. 401, page 208. )

[Illustration: Fig. 387. --A Simple Variation of the Dovetail Puzzle. ]

Carefully note that the edges A, A are parallel to each other in spite ofthe fact that they slope in one direction. 

A further variation of the puzzle is seen in Fig. 387. Here the joint ismuch simpler, and can easily be followed from the illustration. 

[Illustration: Fig. 388. --Six-piece Joint Puzzle. ]

CROSS PUZZLE. --Fig. 388 illustrates a six-piece puzzle joint, similar insome respects to Fig. 369, but very much simpler. Both a back and frontview of the piece D is shown for clearness of illustration. The method ofassembling the pieces is as follows: Hold piece B upright, and fit pieceD across; at the same time note that the small _x_ marks are oppositeeach other. Take piece E and, holding it as shown, slide it up the pieceB (see arrow) until E engages D and the small _o_ marks are opposite eachother. Piece C is now fitted behind D, and then piece F will slide inposition and push downwards. The key-piece A is now put in position, andthe puzzle is completed. 

[Illustration: Fig. 389. --Mortising Puzzle, showing how the Parts Fit. ]

MORTISING PUZZLE. --The ordinary mortising exercise is, after the firsttwo or three attempts, generally voted as uninteresting, but, althoughthe simple puzzle shown in Fig. 389 is practically an exercise inmortising, yet, forming as it does a puzzle, it becomes a fascinatingpiece of work. 

The puzzle is composed of three pieces of wood, each 4 ins. Long, 1-1/2ins. Wide, and 1/2 in. Thick. In each piece a mortise 1-1/2 ins. By 1/2in. Should be cut as shown at 1, Fig. 390. In one piece, marked 2, agroove is cut on one side, 3/8 in. Wide, and in another piece (3) asimilar slot, but 1/2 in. Wide, is cut, and this is continued on theother side of the groove to a depth of 1/8 in. The three pieces should beset out on a 13-ins. By 1-1/2-ins. By 1/2-in. Length of wood, as shown atFig. 391, and when ready sawn apart. 

[Illustration: Fig. 390. --The Three Parts, with Sizes marked. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 391. --How to Cut the Parts. ]

The puzzle is put together as shown at Fig. 389. In the first place, holdNo. 1 piece upright as shown at A, then take No. 2 piece with slotuppermost and push it through the opening in No. 1 piece until thenearest side of the slot projects 1/8 in. As indicated at B. Next placeNo. 3 piece on with the slot at the back as shown at C, and push it downuntil it touches the bottom of the opening in No. 2 piece as illustratedat D. The only thing to do now is to push No. 2 piece as far as it willgo to make the figure as shown at E. 

In this puzzle the parts should fit together fairly tight, but should notbe too stiff. 

[Illustration: Fig. 392. --Chinese Cross Puzzle. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 393. --Method of Putting Together. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 394. --The Six Pieces, each 4 ins. By 1 in. Square. ]

CHINESE CROSS. --Fig. 392 shows a variation of the Chinese cross, which isperhaps the most fascinating of all woodwork puzzles. Take six pieces ofhardwood (Fig. 394) and accurately plane and saw them so that each piecewill measure 4 ins. By 1 in. By 1 in. Bearing in mind that all the cutsare multiples of 1/2 in. , set out, saw and chisel five of the pieces toagree with the sketches 1, 1A, 2, 2A and 3. Leave the key piece intact. The puzzle is of course to fit all the six pieces together so as to formthe Chinese cross or block given at Fig. 392. As a clue to the method ofassembly we give another sketch (Fig. 393) showing four of the piecesfixed together. The reader can, if he so desires, make the puzzle to asmaller scale by using six pieces of wood each measuring 2 ins. Long by1/2 in. By 1/2 in. 

[Illustration: Fig. 395--Diagonal Chinese Cross Puzzle. (Two Piecesrequired of A, Three of B and One of C. )]

DIAGONAL CHINESE CROSS. --At Fig. 395 is given a sketch of a completedChinese block or cross puzzle in which the various pieces of wood gotogether diagonally. Plane up a piece of hardwood (which may be about 14ins. Or 15 ins. Long) so that it measures on its end 1/2 in. Square. Cutthe wood into six pieces which measure about 2-1/4 ins. Long, and thenproceed to mark out, saw and pare up with the chisel two pieces likesketch A, three pieces like B, and one key piece as C. Now fit thesetogether to make the completed cross. The solution is left to the reader. 

Fig. 396 shows a combination of six pieces which, when fitted together, will make the Chinese cross similar to Fig. 392. Plane up the strip ofhardwood (birch preferred) so that it measures 1/2 in. Square at the endand proceed to mark out and make two pieces like D, two like E, one likeF, and one piece like G. Put the pieces together to form the Chinesecross. Again the reader is left to solve the problem of fitting. 

[Illustration: Fig. 396. --Another Chinese Cross. (Two Pieces required ofD, Two of E, and One each of F and G. )]

SQUARE PUZZLES are of endless variety. Four of these are shown, allsimple to make, but not equally simple to solve. The only materialrequired for each is a 5-ins. Square piece of 1/8-in. Fretwood orplywood; or, if preferred, pieces of different colour may be used. Thediagrams are given exactly half size, and the lines may be set out directon the wood. It will be noticed that all four puzzles are strictlygeometrical in character. 

[Illustration: Fig. 397. --Six-piece Square Puzzle. (For Guidance inSetting Out, the Centre of Top Line is marked at A. )]

[Illustration: Fig. 398. --Five-piece Square Puzzle. (In Setting Out, notethat the Angles B B are Right Angles. )]

[Illustration: Fig. 399. --Ten-piece Square Puzzle. (For Guidance inSetting Out, the Centre of the Four Outlines are lettered at C, C, C, C. )]

[Illustration: Fig. 400. --Six-piece Square Puzzle. (The Centres of theFour Outlines are lettered at D, D, D, D. )]

Fig. 397 is made up of six pieces and is the simplest of the group tosolve. Although containing only five pieces, Fig. 398 will be found togive more trouble. 

Fig. 399, with ten pieces, is undoubtedly the most trying puzzle, andwill be found as baffling as many jig-saw pictures. Fig. 400, again, presents only moderate difficulties. 

If the reader prefers, he may cut the squares to the size illustratedinstead of enlarging them. 

[Illustration: Fig. 401. --Blind Dovetail Puzzle Joint (see page 199). ]

 INDEX

 Angle, mitre, 163, 164

 Angles for dovetails, 134

 Astragals, 128, 129

 Back flap hinges, 115, 116

 Barefaced (_see under_ Tenon). 

 Barred door joint, 55

 Barrow-wheel joints, 20

 Battening, 188

 Bevelled dovetailing, 149

 Bevelling, guide block for, 161

 Birdsmouth joints, 181

 Blind lap-dovetailing, 145

 Boards, weather, 176

 Bolts for scarf joint, 107, 108

 Boring away waste, 41, 42

 Box, laminated core, 175

 Box lid, hingeing, 113

 Boxes, dovetails for, 133

 Brace and bit, use of, 41, 42

 Brass astragal, 129

 Bridle joint, mitred, 36, 37

 Bridle joint, oblique, 37, 38

 Bridle joints, 35

 Bridle joints, setting out, 39

 Butt hinge, 110, 111

 Butt hinge, rising, 115, 116

 Butting mitred joint, 8

 Buttoning, 184

 Carcase work, dovetailing, 149

 Card table hinges, 115, 116

 Chair joint, interlocking, 91

 Chinese cross puzzle, 203

 Chinese cross puzzle, diagonal, 204

 Chinese puzzle, 189, 190

 Chisel used in dovetailing, 137, 138, 153

 Chiselling (bridle joints), 45

 Chiselling (halved joints), 30, etc. 

 Chiselling (mortise and tenon joints), 89, etc. 

 Circular frames, 172

 Clamping, 80, 82

 Close joint hingeing, 125

 Cogged joints, 181

 Column joints, 179

 Combing joint, 55

 Core box, laminated, 175

 Corner dovetail, 152

 Corner joints, halved, 14

 Corner tongued joints, 55, 56

 Cornice frame dovetailed, 143, 144

 Cornice pole, dowelling, 97, 98

 Cornice pole joints, 177

 Corrugated steel fasteners, 185

 Cot joints, 178

 Countersink bit, 96

 Cradle for planing, 52

 Cradle for planing dowels, 94

 Cramping glued joints, 11, 12

 Cramping tongued and grooved mitre joint, 56, 57

 Cross halving joints, 18, 23

 Cross puzzle, 200

 Cross puzzle, Chinese, 203

 Cross puzzle, diagonal, 204

 Cross tongues, 51, 52

 Curved work, joints for, 172

 Diagonal cross puzzle, 204

 Dogs, iron, 10, 11

 Donkey's ear shooting board, 327

 Door frames, semicircular head, 173, 175

 Door joints, barred, 55

 Doors, "bound, " 109

 Doors, hingeing, 116-119

 Doors, shutting joints of, 127, 129

 Dovetail angle template, 134, 154

 Dovetail, corner, 152

 Dovetail grooving, 160

 Dovetail halved joints, 17, 19, 20

 Dovetail, housed and mitred, 145

 Dovetail joint, the 132

 Dovetail puzzles, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199

 Dovetail, secret mitred, 146

 Dovetail-wedged tenon joint, 75

 Dovetailed keys, 147, 148

 Dovetailed scarf joint, 103, 104

 Dovetailing, bevelled, 149

 Dovetailing, blind lap, 145

 Dovetailing, lap, 133

 Dovetailing, oblique, 151

 Dovetailing, through, 132

 Dovetails, frame, 143

 Dovetails, machine made, 159

 Dovetails, sawing, 141, 155

 Dovetails, setting out, 151

 Dowel cradle for planing, 94

 Dowel plate, steel, 93

 Dowel rounder, 96

 Dowel with groove, 94, 95

 Dowelling frames, 100

 Dowelling joints, 93

 Dowelling table legs, 101

 Dowels, making, 93

 Drawbore pinning, 78

 Drawer bottom joint, 188

 Drawer joints, dust-proof, 131

 Drawer ploughslips, 10, 11

 Drawers, dovetailing, 133, etc. , 156

 Dreadnought file, 81, 82

 Drop table joint, 20

 Dust-proof drawer joints, 131

 Fall fronts, hingeing, 119

 Fasteners, corrugated steel, 185

 Feather tongues, 51, 52

 Fencing, joint for, 71

 File, dreadnought, 81, 82

 Finger joint hinge, 122, 123

 Fished joint, 105, 106

 Flap (back) hinges, 115, 116

 Floor boards, 48

 Fly rails, 120, 121

 Fox-wedging, 76

 Frame dovetails, 143

 Frame joints, Oxford, 26, 27

 Frame, mirror, with bridle joints, 37

 Frames, circular, 172

 Frames, dowelling, 100

 Frames for oil paintings, 184

 Gate joint, 68, 69

 Gauge, marking, 28, 29, 40

 Gauge, marking dovetails with cutting, 135

 Gauging boards for dowelling, 97, 98

 Gauging for hinges, 110, 111

 Glued joint, the, 1

 Glueing dowelled joints, 97

 Glueing rubbed joints, 2

 Grooved joints (_see_ Tongued and Grooved), 48

 Grooves, ploughing, 58

 Grooving, dovetail, 160

 Halved and dovetailed joints, 17, 19, 20

 Halved and mitred joints, 16

 Halved joint, the, 13

 Halved joints, setting out, 28

 Halved scarf joint, 103, 104

 Halving joints, cross, 18, 23

 Hammer head tenons, 80

 Handscrews, 11, 12

 Haunched tenons, 65

 Hinge, butt, 110, 111

 Hinge, finger joint, 122, 123

 Hinge, knuckle joint, 122, 123

 Hinge recesses, 112

 Hinge, rule joint, 125

 Hinged cornice pole, 177

 Hinged joints, 109

 Hingeing box lid, 113

 Hingeing, close joint, 125

 Hingeing doors, 116-119

 Hingeing draught screens, 121

 Hingeing fall fronts, 119

 Hingeing, open joint, 124

 Hinges, gauging for, 110, 111

 Hinges, various, 110, 114, 115, 116

 Hook joints, 130

 Housed and mitred dovetail, 145

 Interlocking chair joint, 91

 Iron dogs, 10, 11

 Japanese self-wedging tenon joint, 72

 Joint, drawer bottom, 188

 Joint, fished, 105, 106

 Joint, interlocking chair, 91

 Joint, tabled scarf, 107

 Joint, tie beam scarf, 106

 Joints, barefaced tenon, 64 barred door, 55 barrow wheel, 20 battened, 188 birdsmouth, 181 bridle, 35 butting mitred, 8 cogged, 181 column and pillar, 179 combing or locking, 55 cornice pole, 177 cot, 178 cross halving, 18, 23 dovetail, 132 dovetailed and wedged tenon, 75 dowelling, 93 dust-proof drawer, 131 fencing, 71 for curved work, 172 garden gate, 68, 69 glued, 1 halved, 13 halved and dovetailed, 17, 19, 20 haunched tenon, 65 hinged, 109 hook, 130 ladder, 177 laminated, 10, 11, 172, 175 lap, 13 light-tight, 131 meeting, 129 miscellaneous, 176 mitre-faced tenon, 77 mitre bridle, 36, 37 mitre halved, 16 mitred, 163 mitred and tenoned, 72, 73 mitred and tongued, 56, 57 mortise and tenon, 64 notched, 180 oblique bridle, 37, 38 oblique halved, 15, 23 ogee-shaped, 8 open slot mortise, 80 partition, 24, 25 ploughing for tongued and grooved, 58 puzzle, 189 rafter and tie beam, 182 rafter (tenon), 77 rebated door, 129 roof, 34, 37, 38 roof (tenon), 77 rubbed, 1 saddle, 180 sash bar, 79 scarf, 103 screen, 114, 121 scribed and tenoned, 72 setting out bridle, 39 setting out halved, 28 setting out tenon, 83 shouldered tenon, 70, 71, 79 shutting, 127 skirting and muntin, 178 T, 14, 18 tie, 22, 23 tongued and grooved, 48 tongued corner, 55, 56 trestle, 24 tusk tenon, 74, 75 weather board, 176 wheelwright's self-wedging tenon, 75

 Keyhole screwing, 187

 Keying, dovetail, 147

 Keying, veneer, 178

 Keys, dovetailed, 147

 Knuckle joint hinge, 122, 123

 Ladder joints, 177

 Laminated joints, 10, 11

 Lamination, 175

 Lap dovetailing, 133

 Lap dovetailing, blind, 145

 Lap joints, 13

 Laths, winding, 3

 Lid, hingeing box, 113

 Light-tight joints, 131

 Locking (inter) chair joint, 91

 Locking joint, 55

 Marking gauge, 28, 29, 40

 Matchboarding, 49

 Meeting joints, 129

 Mirror frame with bridle joints, 37

 Mitre box, saw used in, 171

 Mitre bridle joint, 36, 37

 Mitre, curved, 163, 164, 168, 169

 Mitre faced tenon joint, 77

 Mitre halved joints, 16

 Mitre sawing block, 165

 Mitre, setting out a curved, 168, 169

 Mitre template, 170

 Mitre trap, screw, 165, 166

 Mitred and housed dovetail, 145

 Mitred and tenoned joint, 72, 73

 Mitred butting joint, 8

 Mitred dovetail, secret, 146

 Mitred frames, dowelling, 99, 100

 Mitred joint, the, 163

 Mitred tongued joints, 56, 57

 Mitres, curved, 169

 Mortise and tenon joints, 64

 Mortise, open slot, 80

 Mortising, 87

 Mortising puzzle, 201

 Mouldings, mitreing, 165, 171

 Muntin joint, 178

 Notched joints, 180

 Oblique bridle joint, 37, 38

 Oblique dovetailing, 151

 Oblique joints, halved, 15, 23

 Ogee-shaped joint, 8

 Open-joint hingeing, 124

 Open slot mortise, 80

 Oxford frame, halved joints for, 26, 27

 Partition joints, 24, 25

 Patera covers, 183

 Pelleting, 182

 Piano front joint, 9, 11

 Pinning, 73

 Pinning, drawbore, 78

 Pins, dovetail, 136

 Pivot hinges, 114, 115, 116

 Plane, old woman's tooth, 161, 162

 Plane, the plough, 58, 59, 60

 Planes, tongueing and grooving, 61

 Planing, cradle for, 52

 Planing mitred work, 165

 Plinth frame dovetailed, 143, 144

 Plough plane, the, 58, 59, 60

 Ploughing for tongued and grooved joints, 58

 Ploughslips, glueing, 10, 11

 Plugging, 186

 Pole joints, cornice, 177

 Puzzle, Chinese cross, 203

 Puzzle, cross, 200

 Puzzle, diagonal Chinese cross, 204

 Puzzle joints, 189

 Puzzle, mortising, 201

 Puzzles, dovetail, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 208

 Puzzles, square, 205

 Rafter and tie beam joints, 182

 Rafter joint (tenon), 77

 Rebated door joints, 129

 Reversible screen hinge, 114, 115

 Rising butt hinge, 115, 116

 Roof joints, 34, 37, 38

 Roof joints (tenon), 77

 Roof work, scarfed joints used in, 103, 104, 106

 Rubbed joint, 1

 Rule joint hinge, 125

 Saddle joints, 180

 Sash bar joints, 79

 Sawing block for mitreing, 165

 Sawing (bridle joints), 41, etc. 

 Sawing dovetails, 141, 155

 Sawing for hinge recesses, 112

 Sawing (halved joints), 30, 31, etc. 

 Sawing (tenons), 84, etc. 

 Scarf joint, fished, 105, 106

 Scarf joint for heavy timber, lapped and bolted, 107, 108

 Scarf joint, tabled, with straps, 107

 Scarf joints, 103

 Scarf joints, tie beam, 106

 Screen hinges, 114, 115, 116

 Screens, hingeing draught, 121

 Screwing, slot or keyhole, 187

 Screws, hiding with pateras, 183

 Scribed tenon joint, 72

 Secret mitred dovetail, 146

 Setting out dovetails, 151

 Shooting board, 7, 10, 11

 Shooting board for mitreing, 165, 166, 167

 Shoulders, 14, etc. , 19, 23

 Shoulders of tenons, tongueing, 63

 Shoulders, sawing, 45

 Shoulders (tenon), 70, 71, 79

 Shoulders, tenon with tongued and grooved, 79

 Shutting joints, 127

 Sideboard pillar joints, 179

 Skirting and muntin joint, 178

 Skirting, mitred, 163

 Skirting mould, double, 56, 58

 Slot screwing, 187

 Spandrel, jointing shaped, 9, 11

 Spandrel with tongued joint, 52, 53

 Sprocket wheel, 68

 Square puzzles, 205

 Steel fasteners, corrugated, 185

 Stiles, shutting and meeting, 128

 Stopped bridle joint, 37, 38

 Stopped dovetail halving, 17

 Strap hinge, 114, 115

 Straps for scarf joints, 107, 108

 Stump tenons, 65

 T joints, halved, 14, 18

 Table (card) hinges, 115, 116

 Table frame, laminated, 174, 175

 Table framing, 79

 Table joint, drop, 20

 Table leg with bridle joint, 36

 Table legs, dowelled, 101

 Table tops buttoned, 184

 Table with circular rim, joint for, 25

 Tabled scarf joint, 107

 Template, dovetail angle, 134, 154

 Template for mitreing, 170

 Tenon (and mortise) joints, 64

 Tenon joint, dovetailed and wedged, 75

 Tenon joint, mitred and moulded, 72, 73

 Tenon joint, scribed, 72

 Tenon joint, self-wedging, 72

 Tenon joint with mitred face, 77

 Tenon joint with tongued and grooved shoulders, 79

 Tenon joints, barefaced, 64

 Tenon joints, drawbore pinning for, 78

 Tenon joints, setting out, 83

 Tenon joints, shouldered, 70, 71, 79

 Tenon joints, tusk, 74, 75

 Tenoned scarf joint, 103, 105

 Tenons, hammer head, 80

 Tenons, haunched, 65

 Tenons, inserted, 81, 82

 Tenons, stump or stub, 65

 Tenons, tongueing shoulders of, 63

 Tenons, twin, 72, 73, 80

 Through dovetailing, 132

 Tie beam and rafter joints, 182

 Tie beam scarf joint, 106

 Tie joint, 22, 23

 Tongue slips, 130

 Tongued and grooved joints, applications of, 52

 Tongued and grooved joints, 48

 Tongued and grooved joints, ploughing for, 58

 Tongued joints, corner, 55, 56

 Tongueing and grooving planes, 61

 Tongues, cross and feather, 51, 52

 Tongues, loose, 55

 Toothing plane, 161, 162

 Trestle joint, 24

 Try square, 9, 28

 Tusk tenon joints, 74, 75

 Twin tenons, 72, 73, 80

 Twist bit, 96

 Vee'd matchboarding, 49, 50

 Vee'd scarf joint, 105

 Veneer keying, 178

 Wall plugs, 186

 Weatherboards, 176

 Wedges for tenon joints, 67

 Wedging, fox, 76

 Wedging frames, 184

 Wheel joints, barrow, 20

 Wheel, sprocket, 68

 Wheelwright's self-wedging tenon joint, 75

 Winding laths, 3

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